05. 長文演習C - New Page

【１】2004 東京外国語大学・前期日程
次の文章を読んで，下記の設問に答えなさい。解答は，解答欄に書きなさい。
We humans have evolved into quite strange beings. Whatever happens in the
future is unlikely to be more odd than what has already happened in the past.
We differ from other animals in that we cook our food and wear clothes. Other
unusual traits are unnecessary aggressiveness, and a mild preference for making
love face to face. But perhaps the most important distinguishing feature is
human language. This extraordinary system allows us to communicate about
anything whatsoever, whether it is present, absent, or even non-existent.
Humans are the exception. We are a zoological curiosity, as bizarre in our own
way as 1the hoatzin, a South American bird with a bright blue face, big red eyes
and orange crest, which inhabits the Amazon rain forest. Alone among birds, the
hoatzin has developed a digestive system similar to that of a cow. We humans are
equally strange, because language with its fast and precise sounds has more in
common with birdsong than with the vocal signals of our ape relatives.
All primates, the animal “order” to which humans belong, have some overlap in
their sound-producing and hearing abilities. But the vocal production of our
primate relatives is less informative than was once hoped. A straight comparison
between chimp and human vocalizations is limited in what it can reveal. More
informative, perhaps, is a comparison with the animal communication system
which has most in common with human language: birdsong.
Birds talk, but they do not have “language” as humans understand it. Yet, like
humans, they have an ability to make distinctive sounds that is rare in the
animal world, even though the method they use to produce them is rather
different from that used by humans. But this is not the only similarity between
birds and humans. There are several others.
Many birds emit two types of sounds: calls, such as a danger call or a
summons call, which are mostly innate, and songs, which often involve learning.
Humans also have built-in “calls,” the cries uttered by babies, at least two of
which are distinguishable worldwide: a pain cry and a hunger cry. But language
itself requires learning, and it exists alongside this old “call” system. Birds and
humans therefore share a dual system, with one part in place at birth, and the
other acquired later.
In birdsong, each individual note is meaningless, whereas the sequence of
notes is all-important. Similarly, in humans, a single segment of sound such as b
or l does not normally have a meaning. The output makes sense only when
sounds are strung together. This double-layering provides a further parallel. And
in both birds and humans, sound segments are fitted into an overall rhythm and
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intonation pattern.
As with human languages, the song of a single species of bird may have
different but related “dialects.” 2The white-crowned sparrow, a California resident,
has dialects so different, even within the San Francisco area, that someone with
a cultivated ear would be able to tell where he or she was in California,
blindfolded, simply by listening to their songs. And both birdsong and human
language are normally controlled by the left side of the brain, even though the
mechanisms by which this control is exercised are quite different.
Young birds have a period of sub-song, a type of twittering which emerges
before the development of full song. This is like the “babbling” of human infants
who experimentally produce repetitive bababa, mamama type sequences when
they are a few months old. Many birds have to acquire their song during a short
“critical period,” when they are young; otherwise they never learn to sing
normally. Similarly, humans acquire language best during a “sensitive period” in
the first few years of life.
But
3some
very real differences also exist. Mostly, only male birds sing.
Females remain songless, unless they are injected with the male hormone. And
considerable variation is found between the songs of different species of birds,
more than between different languages. In addition, bird communication is a
fairly long-distance affair, compared with the intimacy of human language.
Sometimes, the effect can travel over several kilometers, as with the New Zealand
kakapo, a flightless parrot which makes spectacular booming sounds, somewhat
like the note produced by blowing across the top of a bottle, in its efforts to
obtain a mate. These kakapo booming sounds can go on all night, and leave the
kakapo in a state of sexual excitement.
A link between language origin and mating has sometimes been proposed.
“Language was born in the courting days of mankind. The first utterances of
speech, I fancy to myself, were something like the nightly love-lyrics of a cat upon
a roof or the melodious love-songs of the nightingale,” suggested a Danish
linguist. However, this theory has been attacked. “If our human ancestors used
song in sexual advertisement and courtship, more recent selective forces have
made such a habit rarer,” was one response to his ideas. Or as still another
noted, “As for courtship, if we are to judge from the habits of the bulk of mankind,
it has usually been a silent activity.” At the most, perhaps, language was an
additional aid. Courtship was not its primary role.
In short, humans use language for many more purposes than birds use song.
Birds do not, for example, sing of the beauties of nature or discuss a problem in
order to solve it. They do not make puns or jokes, either. Human language can
cope with any topic, including imaginary ones. It is unique.
Puzzles abound concerning human language. The similarities between birdsong
2
and human language have led to an important discovery: parallel systems can
emerge independently in quite different species. Certain features have apparently
proved useful for sophisticated sound systems. Yet [as; as; it; many; observation;
problem; raise; solve; this]. The origin of our extraordinary communication
system is still a mystery.
[設問]
１．下線部 1 のツメバケイ(hoatzin)とヒトは，どのような点で，それぞれの種の「変り種」
と考えられるか。70 字以内で述べなさい。
２．筆者は，ヒトの言語活動のどの側面が，いかなる理由で，トリの地鳴き(calls)とさえ
ずり(songs)に相当すると言っているか。60 字以内で説明しなさい。
３．下線部 2 を日本語に訳しなさい。(white-crowned sparrow：ミヤマシトド)
４．下線部 3 の内容を，70 字以内で簡潔に書きなさい。
５．“A link between”で始まる第 10 段落の内容を，80 字以内で要約しなさい。
６．最終段落の[
]内の語を，必要に応じて語尾を変化させ，文脈に合うように並べ
換えなさい。
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【２】2002 東京外国語大学・前期日程
次の文章を読んで，後の１～５の設問に答えなさい。解答は，解答欄に日本語で書きな
さい。
Nobody designs truly great cities. They just spring up. As if by magic, they
develop distinct districts that endure from century to century. Think of the silk
quarter in Florence, or Savile Row in London. A city seems to pulsate with its
own rhythm, as if it is a living, breathing organism.
Steven Johnson would argue that, in some senses, it is. He would say that the
superorganism of the city mirrors the superorganism of the ant colony, in which
a collection of individually stupid insects somehow becomes a mesmerizing,
organized whole. Both are examples of emergence, a phenomenon where the
whole is much greater than the sum of its parts. Another commonly touted
example of emergence is consciousness, which appears to arise spontaneously
from the fact that billions of nerve cells (neurons) in the brain are firing off
signals to each other.
In a new book, called Emergence, Johnson, an American author best known for
arguing that computer graphics are as culturally important as books or films,
aims to coax the topic out of science laboratories and into the mainstream. Just
as chaos was a scientific buzzword of the past century, Johnson hopes that
emergence will enter the lexicon of this century.
So many things in life look different
(a)when
viewed through the lens of
emergence, Johnson, 32, muses. Cities can be thought of as complex,
self-organizing phenomena. Take New York City, where I live. There is a tendency
to think of social systems as top-down, as driven by leaders. But what has
happened here in the wake of the awful attack is the opposite. The city has come
back to life thanks largely to mass interactions by ordinary people, not because
they were told to by the mayor.
(b)Ant
colonies are remarkably similar to cities. When watching thousands of
ants marching to and from a nest, laden with food, it is easy to believe that there
must be a choreographer, a leader ant who can see the bigger picture and direct
the colony to act in a particular way. But scientists know better: contrary to
popular belief, the queen ant does not command the colony.
They attribute ant behavior to something nebulous called swarm logic. Put
10,000 dumb ants together, and they become smart. They will calculate the
shortest routes to food supplies. In fact, scientists studying the traveling
salesman conundrum of how to visit a large number of cities using the shortest
routes, have studied how ants do it. Get rid of one food source, and the colony
will soon turn its attention to another. Ant colonies give the illusion of being
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intelligent, even though individual ants lack advanced brains. How do they do it?
Worker ants don’t communicate with each other much. They have a vocabulary
of up to 20 signs, most mediated by pheromones. But ants do follow a few simple
rules. They are good at sniffing out pheromone signals from other ants, which
contain clues about how far away food is. By adapting their behavior to these
clues, ants learn the shortest route to food. From the isolated, small-scale
activities of individual ants,
(c)a
global behavior jumps out.
Similarly, a few simple rules can turn an urban settlement into a thriving
neighborhood. For example, cities grow because of low-level interactions of people
on the street. There’s a flow of information between strangers, he says. You go
down a street, see a store that you never knew was there. You go in, do business,
and perhaps tell your friends about it. They go there, more stores open and
suddenly there’s this new area that’s full of funky clothes stores. That kind of
vibrancy is more likely to be found in maze-like cities with lots of streets and lots
of routes from A to B. If a city is dominated by a few large avenues, the back
streets tend to be deserted.
Johnson explains: Near Times Square, every block has a bar, a restaurant and
a boutique. The streets are filled at all times of the day, and they’re never too
crowded. Go down a broad avenue and take a turn, and the streets feel totally
different. They are deserted.
(d) This
local information flow is the lifeblood of cities. Which is why urban
planners who raze neighborhoods and replace them with tower blocks often
unwittingly turn districts into no-go areas.
Johnson can see that there is something unsatisfactory about saying that
stupid ants can build apparently intelligent colonies. Where’s the crucial step?
What’s the missing piece of the puzzle that turns low-level actions into high-level
order? But he insists that there’s no hole in the explanation. Just as its name
suggests, emergent phenomena simply emerge.
Our collection of brain cells give rise to something quite magnificent and so far
inexplicable self-awareness. Is it possible that the digital networks we are
creating, such as the Web, may cease to be our microprocessing servants and
acquire
(e)some
kind of macro-intelligence? Johnson dismisses this, saying that
while the Web shows connectedness, it is utterly disorganized. If the Web were a
city and each document a building, he says, it would be more anarchic than any
real-world city on the planet, and therefore no higher level of complexity can
emerge. However, if the Web had been built in a different way, perhaps
something greater than the sum of its parts would emerge.
Not that we would necessarily recognize it. Machines may evolve a higher
intelligence rather than having it engineered, but that means it may not look like
human intelligence, he warns. It wouldn’t be a robot that acted like a little boy,
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but a machine so smart that we wouldn’t recognize it. It would be like the film
The Matrix where there were no paranoid androids but a bizarre faceless regime.
Now that’s scary.
(設問)
１．下線部(a)の“when viewed through the lens of emergence”とはどういうことか，
本文中における“emergence”の意味がわかるように 55 字以内で説明しなさい。
２．下線部(b)で言うように，“Ant colonies are remarkably similar to cities.”と見な
されるのはなぜか，50 字以内で説明しなさい。
３．下線部(c)の“a global behavior”とはどのようなもののことか，具体例を挙げながら
70 字以内で説明しなさい。
４．下線部(d)で言うように，“This local information flow is the lifeblood of cities.”
と主張されるのはなぜか，70 字以内で説明しなさい。
５．下線部(e)の“some kind of macro-intelligence”はどのようなものを指すと考えら
れるか，55 字以内で説明しなさい。
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【３】2005 千葉大学・後期日程
次の英文は，インターネットを規制する諸手段を論じた書物の中の，“The Values of a
Space”と題された節である。これを読み，以下の問いに答えなさい。なお，＊印の付され
た語句については，日本語による説明を付してある。またイタリック体(斜めの活字)は原
文にあるものである。
Spaces have values. They express these values through the practices or lives
that they enable or disable. Differently constituted spaces enable and disable
differently. This is the first idea that we must make plain. Here is an example.
At the start of the Internet, communication was through text. Media such as
USENET* newsgroups, Internet Relay Chat*, and e-mail all confined exchange to
text ― to words on a screen, typed by a person (or so one thought).
The reason for this limitation is fairly obvious: the bandwidth* of early Net life
was very thin.
①
In an environment where most users connected at 1,200 baud*, if
they were lucky, graphics and streaming video would have taken an unbearably
long time to download, if they downloaded at all. What was needed was an
efficient mode of communication ― and text is one of the most efficient.
Most think of this fact about the early Net as a limitation. Technically, it was.
But this technical description does not exhaust
②
its normative description as an
architecture that made possible a certain kind of life. From this perspective,
limitations can be features; they can enable as well as disable. And this
particular limitation enabled classes of people who were disabled in real-space
life.
Think about three such classes ― the blind, the deaf, and the “ugly”. In real
space these people face an extraordinary array of constraints on their ability to
communicate. The blind person in real space is constantly confronted with
architectures that presume he can see;
retrofitting*
③
he bears an extraordinary cost in
real-space architectures so that this presumption is not totally
exclusionary. The deaf person in real space confronts architectures that presume
she can hear; she too bears an extraordinary cost in retrofitting these
architectures. The “ugly” person in real space (think of a bar or a social club)
confronts architectures of social norms that make his appearance a barrier to a
certain sort of intimacy. He endures extraordinary suffering in conforming to
these architectures.
In real space these three groups are confronted with architectures that disable
them relative to “the rest of us.” But in cyberspace, in its first iteration*, they did
not.
The blind could easily implement speech programs that read the (by definition
machine-readable) text and could respond by typing. Other people on the Net
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would have no way of knowing that the person typing the message was blind,
unless he claimed to be. The blind were equal to the seeing.
The same with the deaf. There was no need to hear anything in this early
Internet. For the first time many of the deaf could have conversations, or
exchanges, in which the most salient* feature was not that the person was deaf.
The deaf were equal to the hearing.
And the same with the “ugly.”
④
Because your appearance was not transmitted
with every exchange, the unattractive could have an intimate conversation with
others that was not automatically defined by what they looked like. They could
flirt* or play or be sexual without their bodies (in an extremely underappreciated
sense) getting in the way. This first version of the Net made these people equal to
“the beautiful.” In a virtual chat room, stunning* eyes, a captivating* smile or
impressive biceps* don’t do it. Wit, engagement, and articulateness do.
⑤
The architecture of this original cyberspace gave these groups something that
they did not have in real space. More generally, it changed the mix of benefits
and burdens that people faced ― the literate were enabled and the attractive
disabled relative to real space. Architectures produced these enablings and
disablings.
I’ve told this story as if it matters only to those who in real space are “disabled.”
But of course, “disabled” is relative. It is more accurate to say that the space
changes the meaning of the enabled. A friend ― a strikingly beautiful and
powerful woman, married, and successful ― described for me why she spends
hours in political chat spaces, arguing with others about all sorts of political
topics:
You don’t understand what it’s like to be me. You have lived your whole life in a
world where your words are taken for their meaning; where what you say is
heard for what it says. I’ve never had a space, before this space, where my words
were taken for what they meant. Always, before, they were words of “this babe *,”
or “wife,” or “mother.” I could never speak as I. But here, I am as I speak.
Clearly,
⑥
the space is enabling her, even though one would not have said that
in real space she was “disabled.”
Over time, as bandwidth has expanded, this architecture has changed. So has
the mix of benefits and burdens changed. When graphics entered the Net
through the World Wide Web, the blind became “blind” again. As sound files or
speech in Avatar* spaces have been created, the deaf have become “deaf” again.
And as chat rooms have started segregating into spaces where videocams capture
real images of the people chatting, and spaces where there is just text, the
video-unappealing
are
again
unappealing.
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As
the
architectures
change,
definitions of who is “disabled” change as well.
My point is not to argue that the Net should not change ― though of course, if
it can change in ways that minimize the disabling effect of sound and graphics,
then it no doubt should. However important, my point is not really about the
“disabled” at all. I use this example simply to highlight a link ― between these
structures of code and the world this code enables. Codes constitute
cyberspaces; spaces enable and disable individuals and groups. The selections
about code are therefore in part a selection about who, what, and, most
important, what ways of life will be enabled and disabled.
Lawrence Lessig, Code and other Laws of Cyberspace, New York: Basic
出典
Books, 1999, pp. 64 ― 66.
語句説明
・USENET インターネットにおける情報交換システムの形式の一種
・CHAT パソコン通信でリアルタイムに参加者同士が会話を行なえるようにしたサー
ビス
・bandwidth
データ転送の容量
・baud 信号を利用して情報をコード化して転送するために,キャリア波(一定の振幅と
周波数,位相を持つ波)に対して変更を加えることについての単位。1 baud は 1 秒
間に 1 回変調をかけること
・retrofit (部品の入れ替えなどで)改造[改良]する
・iteration 繰り返し
・salient 目立つ
・flirt
・stunning
戯れに恋をする
・captivating
・babe
魅惑的な
・biceps
驚くほど美しい
二頭筋
「かわいこちゃん」
・Avatar コンピューター画面の中に登場させた自分の分身キャラクター
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問１
下線部①を和訳しなさい。原文を正しく訳していれば直訳である必要はない。また
baud は「ボー」，streaming video は「ストリーミングビデオ」，download は「ダ
ウンロード」と訳せばよい。
問２
下線部②について，normative description とは何か簡潔に説明しなさい。
問３
下線部③を，文章の意味内容がわかるように言葉を補って和訳しなさい。
問４
下線部④を和訳しなさい。原文を正しく訳していれば直訳である必要はない。
問５
下線部⑤について,
(1)
the architecture of this original cyberspace の具体的内容を簡潔に説明しなさ
い。
(2)
these groups に当たるものを日本語で答えなさい。
(3)
something の内容を簡潔に説明しなさい。
問６
下線部⑥について，the space が彼女にいかなる点で力を与えているのか，real
space での彼女と比較しながら説明しなさい。
問７
この文章における著者の主張を簡潔に説明しなさい。
10
【４】2002 東京大学・後期日程
次の文章を読み，後の設問に答えなさい。
Writing more than two centuries ago, Adam Smith introduced his concept of
‘the invisible hand,’ which went on to become one of the most celebrated and
influential ideas of all time. His idea was that individuals seeking to promote only
their own interests in the marketplace would be driven, “as if by an invisible
hand,” to promote the greatest good for all. Thus producers seeking to steal a
market share from their rivals would develop cost-reducing innovations, which
would be copied by others, and which in time would lead to lower prices for all.
Farmers rush to adopt higher yielding varieties of corn of mixed species;
cattlemen rush to adopt faster growing breeds of cattle; and long-distance
truckers rush to install fuel-saving air foils* on the top of their cabs. In each case
the early adopters enjoy lower costs than their rivals and hence reap higher
profits. But as the superior methods spread, increasing supplies drive prices
down, causing profits to return to levels that prevail in other sectors. Those who
enjoy benefits in the end are the consumers who pay lower prices.
The invisible hand not only applies pressure without limits to reduce costs but
it also rewards those who are first to enter markets that were previously
underserved. By the same token, it is quick to punish those who stay on in
markets that are overserved. For instance, if there were too many carriage
makers and not enough automobile assembly workers, wage adjustments in
these and other labor markets would quickly recover the proper balance ― all
without government officials’ stepping in.
Eighty-three years after publication of The Wealth of Nations*, Charles Darwin
launched a series of books that analyzed competition not among human traders
but among animals in the wild. Darwin was much influenced by the British
economist Thomas Malthus, an intellectual descendant of Adam Smith. It is
therefore no surprise that Darwin’s view of competition was in many ways similar
to Smith’s. For example, in Darwin’s scheme, the beneficial mutation* played the
role of Smith’s cost-saving innovation, and transmission was accomplished not
by imitation but by relative reproductive success. Thus a shark born with a
sharper sense of smell than its rivals due to mutation would find more prey, and
therefore tend to pass on its advantage to more surviving offspring. In a process
spanning millions of generations, increasing refinements have led to the high
skill of the modern shark, perhaps the most effective hunter that has ever lived.
Yet Darwin’s view of competition was by no means as broadly optimistic as
Smith’s. Indeed, he identified numerous cases in which natural selection
appeared to favor a distinguishing characteristic that has helped individuals and
11
yet proved deeply harmful to larger groups. The common feature of these
characteristics is that they actually cause problems to the individual, but
compensate by making it a more effective competitor against rivals in its own
species.
Modern economists now recognize similar patterns in human rivalry. For
example, reckless tackling in football may lead to more injury on the defensive
team, yet will nevertheless tend to be widespread if it presents even more
problems on the offense. In these situations, Smith’s invisible hand simply
breaks down. Competition among individuals does not promote the greatest good
for all. But whereas economists recognize that such cases exist, they tend to view
them as isolated and rare. They condemn industrial sabotage and similar
behavior, but do not think them much of a problem in practical terms.
On careful examination, however, it becomes clear that rivalry weakens the
interests of larger groups, as often among humans as among any other animal
species. And in this fact lies the most convincing explanation for our failure to
achieve more balance in our lives. The explanation I propose is neither
complicated nor new. If there is any novelty to my claim, it is that the conflict
between individuals and groups is far more widespread than commonly believed.
It spreads virtually to all animal species and has been a central concern in
human societies ever since our ancestors first climbed down from the trees. What
is more, it is a stubborn problem, one that simply cannot be dealt with at the
individual level.
Darwin recognized clearly that the interests of individuals are often in harmony
with the interests of larger groups, just as Adam Smith had claimed. Consider,
for example, the keen eyesight of the red-tailed hawk*. At a distance of a quarter
of a mile, this bird can see a motionless brown mouse in a pile of dry leaves. This
is fortunate, for sharpness of vision is most important for hawks, whose living
depends on circling at hundreds or even thousands of feet above ground level in
search of rabbits, mice and other small prey. But that hawks see so well is hardly
an accident. The bird’s magnificent complex of visual organ and nervous system
has developed over millions of generations in which those with the sharpest
eyesight caught more prey, and hence left more offspring, than their more
nearsighted fellow species. The ability to see clearly at long distances is a
characteristic that is advantageous not only to individual hawks but also to
hawks as a species. If all hawks had sharper eyesight, the species would do
better. For hawks, sharp eyesight is better for one, better for all.
The same is true of many other characteristics and abilities. Thus, if all
cheetahs could run a little faster, cheetahs as a species would do better; if all
chimpanzees were a little smarter, chimpanzees as a species would do better; if
all sharks had a keener sense of smell, sharks as a species would do better; and
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so on.
There are many other characteristics and abilities, however, for which this
pattern does not hold. Consider, for instance, the antlers of the male elk*.
Natural selection favored individual males with larger antlers because the
broader an individual male’s antlers, the more likely he was to prevail against his
rivals for reproductive access to females. Over millions of generations, this
advantage led to a gradual increase in the size of elk antlers, and today the
antlers on some males are almost five-foot broad. But whereas larger antlers help
any given male gain advantage over others, they give no similar advantage for
male elks as a group. On the contrary, they are positively harmful.
The reason is that broader antlers make it more difficult to escape from
predators. Once a pack of wolves chases a male elk with five-foot antlers into the
woods, the elk is in trouble. Twist and turn though he might, he simply cannot
run quickly through the trees with heavy antlers. This is a serious disadvantage,
and it might seem that natural selection could not possibly have favored elks who
were thus loaded down.
In spite of this disadvantage, however, elks with the broadest antlers had
access to more females and therefore left more offspring, even though their lives
were briefer. As long as this advantage was more than sufficient to compensate
for the increased risk of being caught and eaten, natural selection continued to
favor bigger antlers. Eventually, however, the advantage from further increases in
size no longer outweighed this risk, and from that point on antlers grew no
further.
The important message of this story is that even though all elks would clearly
do better if every animal’s antlers were cut by half, it would not be advantageous
for any single animal to have his antlers cut. Thus, if a male elk was born with
half-sized antlers due to mutation, he would be at a hopeless disadvantage in the
competition for mates. He might survive to a ripe old age, but in evolution what
counts is not how long an individual lives but the number of offspring he leaves.
And an elk with short antlers due to evolution simply will not leave many
offspring. Big antlers are better for one, bad for all.
This example illustrates Darwin’s central idea that natural selection can, and
often does, favor characteristics that increase the reproductive fitness of
individuals at the expense of larger groups. If a characteristic serves the interests
of both individuals and the groups to which they belong, so much the better. But
when conflicts arise, individual interests often prevail.
With this understanding, some modern biologists have begun to recognize a
long list of points of animal behavior that are clearly against reproduction at the
species level. Thus, in many polygynous* species, such as lions, a successor’s
first act on defeating a dominant male is to kill all young offspring left behind.
13
This practice speeds up the fertility cycle of producing milk of the females, and
thus serves the interests of the new conquering male who wants to leave his own
offspring. Yet it is utterly wasteful from the perspective of lions as a group.
In these and countless other cases, we see behavior and characteristics that
are better for one, bad for all.
*(注)
air foil
走行中の空気抵抗を少なくするためにトラックの運転席の屋根
にとりつける L 字型の板
The Wealth of Nations アダム・スミス著『諸国民の富』(1776 年出版)
mutation 突然変異
red-tailed hawk アカオノスリ(タカの一種)
antlers of the male elk 雄ヘラジカの枝角
polygynous
〔設
１
多雌性(一夫多妻)の
問〕
筆者の論述によると，アダム・スミスとチャールズ・ダーウィンのそれぞれの考え
のどこが一致し，どこが異なっているか。350 字以内の日本語で説明しなさい。句読
点も 1 字に数える。
２
下線部の意味を本文の具体的な例にそって 350 字以内で説明しなさい。句読点も 1
字に数える。
３
筆者の論述を参考にして，ア，イのいずれか一方の立場から 700 字以内の日本語
で議論を展開しなさい。句読点も 1 字に数える。
ア
動物界の競争原理が人間社会にも当てはまる。
イ
動物界の競争原理と人間社会の競争原理との類比関係は成立しない。
14
【５】2004 秋田大学・前期日程
次の英文を読み，以下の設問に答えなさい。
“I felt I was spending my life on the road,” said editor Helene McQuade. For five
and a half years she spent three hours a day driving to and from her job at a
magazine. When she married her husband, Jack, she moved into his home in the
country. She did not want to quit her job, so she continued to work. But her
office was in the city, 75 miles away. She left the house at 6:00 A.M. five days a
week and got home each night at 7:30 P.M. By the time she got home each night,
she felt tired, stressed, and depressed. And things only got worse when she and
her husband had a baby.
McQuade finally decided to quit her job. But her boss asked her to continue
working for the company. He said she could stay in the country and work at
home. She only had to drive into the city once a week to pick up and deliver her
work or attend meetings. McQuade agreed to try it.
Today fewer people in the United States drive to work. Like Helene McQuade,
they have stopped commuting to work. They stay home. They have not lost their
jobs or started their own companies ― they are a new type of employee: the
telecommuter. Over 5 million working people in the U.S. divide their work
between home and the office. Some work mostly at home, some work mostly in
the office, and some work at home half the time and in the office half the time.
Today, with a modern system of communications, many people can work
anywhere. An individual only needs a supportive boss and a well-equipped office:
a telephone and an answering machine, a computer and a printer, a copier, a fax
machine, and a modem. Researchers predict that, in just a few years, 41 percent
of workers in the United States will telecommute. Driving to work may soon
become something from the past.
Employees like telecommuting because they can have a more flexible working
schedule. They can start to work when they want. They can work in the evening
and go out in the morning or the afternoon. They don’t have to spend as much
time sitting in highway traffic. They can take advantage of the fresh air. Moreover,
telecommuting gives working mothers and fathers more time with their families.
But telecommuting is not the cure for all working people who feel stressed in
their jobs. People who work at home alone often feel isolated. They seldom see
people face-to-face. With less time in the office, they may spend most of their
working hours alone. They usually spend more time in contact with machines
than with human beings, so they sometimes feel lonely.
In fact, not everyone makes a good telecommuter. People who telecommute
need to make their own work schedule. Some telecommuters report that they
15
work more hours when they are in the comfort of their own homes. In fact, they
sometimes think their home is work, and this makes them feel confused. When
home and work get confused, people feel as if they never leave work. Some
families have problems coping with work at home. For example, the children may
not understand that they cannot talk to mom (or dad) when she (or he) is
working. In addition, not all jobs or professions can allow telecommuting. An
editor of a magazine may be able to spend most of the time working at home. A
hospital nurse or school teacher, however, may not.
Employers may not accept the idea of telecommuting, either. They may feel a
loss of control over employees who work at home. Also, employers often believe
that the best work gets done when people work with people. Face-to-face
meetings are not possible with telecommuters. Meetings on the phone are not the
same. The subtle messages of body language get lost in phone discussions. In
addition, when employees work at home, it is not possible to solve problems that
need immediate attention. The biggest problem, in fact, may be trust. Can an
employer trust the employee to do his or her work without a manager watching?
The employer must choose the right person to telecommute.
Yet if employers can manage feeling a loss of control over employees, they may
find many advantages. Telecommuting can save money for a business. Running
an office will be less expensive if people work at home. Employees will be happier
and, as a result, more productive. A California study showed that telecommuters
were
20 percent
more
productive
than
office
workers. Actually, many
telecommuters report working ten-hour days, rather than eight-hour days, when
they work at home. Another advantage for employers is that they can hire more
employees who cannot relocate. If an employee cannot move to where the
company is, he or she can telecommute. They can also keep employees who
might want to leave the company because of long commutes. If a company can
keep its employees, it can save on the money that would be needed to train new
employees.
The benefits of telecommuting may be even greater for society. If more people
work at home, there will be fewer cars on the highways. If there are fewer cars on
the highways, there will be less gasoline used and less pollution. In addition, if
people are able to work at home, more women and workers with disabilities can
be hired. As families balance the demands of work and family life, they will be
happier and more productive.
But again, is telecommuting the perfect solution for society? As people have
more opportunities to work at home, many may move to the suburbs or to rural
areas. As they move out of the cities, the cities will be left without their employed
population. The unemployed people who stay in the cities will not pay taxes to
the cities. Therefore, there will be less money to maintain the cities’ roads, water
16
supply, electric supply, and so on.
There is a more serious problem than maintaining the cities. As people become
more comfortable working alone, they may become less social. It’s easier to stay
home in comfortable exercise clothes or a bathrobe than to get dressed for yet
another business meeting!
“I am happy to keep my job and work at home,” says Helene McQuade, “but I
feel isolated from my colleagues in the office.” Spending more time with machines
than people may also add to this social problem. It has been shown that people
have become less polite in their electronic mail (e-mail) communications.
Both the crumbling, or breaking down, of our cities and the desocializing of
society are not small problems as we consider the possibility of telecommuting.
― Laurie Betta and Carolyn DuPaquier Sardinas (1998) North Star: Focus on
Reading and Writing, Intermediate. New York: Longman
本文の内容に関する次の各問(Q)に対する答(A)となるよう，(
問１
)内に 1 語ずつ英
語で書き入れなさい。単語は必ずしも本文で使われているものとは限らない。
(1)
Q：
Why did Helene McQuade decide to quit her job?
A：
Because she felt tired from ( ア ) and caring for her ( イ ).
(2)
Q：
What did Helene McQuade agree to try to do?
A：
She agreed to try to ( ウ ) mostly at ( エ ) in the ( オ
).
(3)
Q：
From what do telecommuters benefit?
A：
They benefit from reduced (
) time, more scheduling (
カ
and the pleasure of spending more time with their ( ク
キ
),
).
(4)
Q：
What is the most serious problem of telecommuting for the employer?
A：
Employers are not always sure (
ケ
) they can (
コ
) their
employees to do their work without ( サ ) watched by a manager.
(5)
Q：
From what do the employers benefit?
A：
They benefit from greater (
シ
), reduced (
ス
) for running an
office, and ( セ ) retention of the most productive employees.
(6)
Q：
From what does society as a whole benefit?
A：
It benefits from reduced (
ソ
) congestion, decreased demand for
( タ ), less ( チ ), and greater employability of people with ( ツ ).
(7)
17
Q：
Why will there be less money to maintain the cities’ basic systems
and structures?
A：
Because many telecommuters who pay ( テ
) will move out of the
( ト ).
(8)
Q：
What is another social problem of telecommuting that is more serious
than maintaining the cities?
A：
Telecommuters may become ( ナ ) social and feel ( ニ ) from their
colleagues in the office.
問２
以下の表は，日本の telecommuting に関するアンケート調査の結果を示したもの
である。この結果に基づき，以下の各問に英語で答えなさい。なお，すべて 1 文で答え
ること。
１．グラフ A およびグラフ B を比較して気づいたことを 1 つ書きなさい。
２．Telecommuting の利点(advantage)を 1 つあげなさい。
３．Telecommuting の欠点(disadvantage)を 1 つあげなさい。
４．グラフ C から読み取れる傾向を 1 つあげなさい。
５．あなた自身は将来 telecommuter になりたいと思いますか。自分がなりたいか，な
りたくないか，およびその理由を書きなさい。理由はアンケート調査の項目から選ぶ
こと。
18
19
【６】2005 東京医科歯科大学・前期日程
次の英文は Popular Science 2004 年 8 月号に掲載された Theodore Gray 氏の“For
that Healthy Glow, Drink Radiation!”を一部改変したものです。この文章をよく読んで，
問題[1]から[5]に答えなさい。
解答は解答用紙の指定された欄に記入すること。
*印のついている語句の注は問題のあとに示されています。
A century ago radioactivity was new, exciting and good for you ― at least if you
believed the people selling radium* pendants for rheumatism*, all-natural radon*
water for vigor, uranium* blankets for arthritis* and medicines containing
thorium* for digestion.
Do you think this is crazy? Until I ran into the fascinating book Living with
Radiation, the First Hundred Years, self-published by Paul Frame and William
Kolb, I had no idea that radiation was the basis for a huge fake-medicine
industry that lasted for decades and took in millions of dollars.
Today we know that exposing yourself to radiation is a bad idea. Even when
radiation is used to treat cancer, its deadliness is what does the work, killing
cancer cells at a slightly higher rate than normal cells.
But imagine yourself 100 years ago, before many of the first researchers
studying radioactivity had died of cancer or other radiation-induced causes.
Electricity had been discovered relatively recently, and it turned out to be
perfectly safe in moderation, so many people believed the same would be true of
radiation.
( ｱ )In
fact, early discoveries made plenty of reasonable people think that
radiation could be good for you. Natural hot springs have been used as health
spas for thousands of years; even today, many vacationers go to
(1)their
“healing”
waters. When scientists went around with radiation detectors, they discovered
that the waters from quite a few well-known hot springs were radioactive. (Radon
gas produced by the decay of thorium and uranium deep in the earth is
contained within the water at many natural hot springs.)
Since no one really knew what made them healthful, the springs’ radioactivity
was as good a guess as any. Business people started bottling the water and
selling it as “Radon Water.” But rivals soon pointed out a problem: Radon’s
half-life* is just 3.82 days. By the time the bottle reached the customer, most of
the radiation would be gone.
You might go so far as to say that Radon Water was a deception, which is
exactly what the Radium Ore Revigator company said to sell its “better,” “more
scientific” product: a watercooler lined with a serious amount of carnotite*, a
rock containing uranium and radium that undergoes radioactive decay*, yielding
20
radon gas. Storing any water in this cooler overnight would give you fresh, potent
radon water to drink by morning. Unfortunately for those who used them,
Revigators actually worked. (Today, of course, we run as fast as we can from
radon; clearing basements of it is a big business.)
( ｲ )Many
of the radioactive products marketed at the time, such as uranium
blankets, contained radioactive materials, but at such low levels that they
probably did little harm to consumers. But over time, competition caused
companies to produce ever more powerful devices, most of them based or radium,
the element with the strongest marketing appeal. The supremely scary product,
the Radiendocrinator, was a 2-inch by 3-inch case that contained paper infused
with radium, enough to illuminate a screen placed near
(2)it.
It was meant to be
placed over ― the very thought makes me shudder ― the endocrine glands*.
As the industry developed, it gave birth to the inevitable wave of fake and
misleading products ― misleading in the sense that they did not emit the high
levels of radiation they claimed to. This led to a couple of the more ironic aspects
of the whole episode: advertisements that positively guaranteed that a company’s
products exposed you to the full dose of radiation promised, and instances of the
government shutting down companies selling fake (perfectly safe) products
instead of the real (deadly) items they claimed to be offering.
For example, the Bailey Radium Laboratories of East Orange, New Jersey,
offered $1,000 to anyone who could prove that its “Certified Radioactive Water,”
sold under the brand name Radithor, did not contain the large amount of radium
and thorium it claimed to. Regrettably, Radithor was the real thing: No one ever
claimed the prize. But Radithor did claim at least one life, that of the well-known
industrialist, playboy and three-bottle-a-day Radithor user Eben Byers. Byers’s
shocking death in 1932 inspired the Wall Street Journal headline “The Radium
Water Worked Fine until His Jaw Came Off.”
Byers’s death also prompted the newly formed FDA* to take serious action
against radioactive health products, insisting on proof of their safety and
effectiveness. Since they were
(3)neither,
this had the effect of putting
manufacturers out of business. Although low-radioactivity devices continued to
escape the FDA restrictions until well into the 1960s, the era of dangerously
radioactive fake cures essentially went to the grave with Eben Byers.
The radium mania was a crazy little episode in the world of medicine, but it
was not at all out of the ordinary. Pain and suffering have always helped foster
an uncritical market for remedies and preventatives.
(ｳ)People
seeking money are
quick to make use of the latest discoveries and promote them to the
desperate-for-a-cure market, regardless of how remote the connection between
the discovery and any likely health benefits might be. Exposing yourself to
radiation in the hope of feeling better was no more ridiculous than, say, drinking
21
what amounts to a few teaspoons of plain water as medicine, which is called
homeopathy and is extremely popular today.
These crazy trends, old and new, tend to make remarkably similar claims,
using the same arguments and marketing methods. Take a look, for instance, at
the following passage, from a 1928 Revigator pamphlet, and see if it sounds
familiar:
Is radio-activity dangerous to health? Most everyone asks this question
because it is only natural to regard this as a drug or medicine. The answer is
that radio-activity is not a medicine or drug, but a natural element of water, and
that since practically all spring and well water that Nature herself gives for
drinking purpose contain this highly effective beneficial element, it is but common
sense to restore it to water that has lost it just as we restore oxygen to a stuffy
room by opening a window.... The United States Government says that the
radio-activity of natural water is never strong enough to be injurious.
In short, what
(4)we
are selling is “natural,” unlike those potent medicines your
doctor prescribes; maybe you are not getting enough of this natural substance;
and the government hasn’t stopped us (yet). Remember, they’re talking about
radon gas.
You could find a paragraph almost identical to this one in any health food store
today:
Is SlimMaker safe?
Because SlimMaker is an all natural nutritional supplement containing only the
finest herbs, there are no harmful side effects when taken as directed.
SlimMaker is not a medical drug and contains none of the synthetic chemicals
found in prescription medications. It is a safe alternative to prescription drugs,
which can sometimes have serious side effects.
Now, I’m not saying herbal medicines are as harmful as radiation, simply that
promoting them as “all natural” tells you absolutely nothing about whether they
are safe, effective, both or neither. What matters is what’s in the pill, not how it
got there. There may be all kinds of herbal medicines that are safe and effective ―
just don’t expect the industry, or the government, to tell you which ones.
Amazingly, the current U.S. federal law (the Dietary Supplement Health and
Education Act of 1994) specifically orders the FDA to keep its hands off virtually
all herbal medicines, preventing it from regulating the claims, ingredients or
safety of these preparations and forbidding it to require the tracking of side
effects and deaths caused by them. And although the FDA banned ephedra* after
several well publicized deaths, it will probably take many more such tragedies
before the law is changed to allow
(5)the
agency to act against many other
dangerous products.
Radon Water was harmless because it contained nothing, the radiation having
22
vanished before it reached customers. Amusingly, this has an exact parallel in
modern homeopathic remedies. Homeopathy “works” by mixing an ingredient
with water: Preparations of powerful substances are mixed with water, then
mixed with water again and again and again until there is almost no chance that
even a single molecule of the original substance remains in the final “medicine.”
These expensive, fake products are sold to the public, labeled with their original
starting-point ingredients as if they still contained any of them, when in fact the
final product does not contain a detectable amount of these ingredients.
So don’t for a minute think that we’re all smarter and more modern than those
idiots eating radium 100 years ago: Homeopathy is a huge industry today, and it
is every bit as foolish. Once people suspend their critical thinking skills and go
for hope over reality, there is no limit to
[1]
(A)silly
and dangerous medicines.
Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) and circle
the correct answer for each question.
(1)
About one hundred years ago, some people believed that using a
radioactive blanket could help treat arthritis.
(2)
Radiation is used to treat cancer since it kills cancer cells but does not
harm normal cells.
(3)
Electricity was discovered a long time before radiation was discovered.
(4)
“Radon Water” that was sold to the public probably had little or no
radiation in it by the time the customer drank it.
(5)
Competition between competing businesses led to the creation of more
dangerous radioactive products.
(6)
According to the article, the government prohibited companies from selling
safe products instead of forbidding the sale of dangerous ones.
(7)
Eben Byers died because of his usage of Radithor, a radioactive product.
(8)
The FDA was formed after Byers’s death for the purpose of inspecting
radioactive products.
(9)
In the United States, herbal medicines are under the strong regulatory
control of the FDA.
23
(10)
The author believes that people today are more sensible in choosing
remedies than people a century ago, who ate radium for their health.
[2]
What do the following words, which are underlined in the text, refer to?
Answer in English.
(1)
their
(2)
it
(3)
neither
(4)
we
(5)
the
agency
[3]
Answer the following questions in English.
(1) In your own words, explain why people thought that radiation was good
for health.
(2)
List up to three arguments/points that are used in the advertisement for
SlimMaker that were previously used in the advertisement for the Revigator.
(3)
In the second to last paragraph, why does the author put the word
medicine in quotation marks?
[4]
下線部(ｱ)から(ｳ)を日本語に訳しなさい。
[5]
この文章の終わりの(A)silly and dangerous medicines とはどのようなものですか？
過去と現在の具体的な例に言及しながら，その問題点を 400 字以内で論じなさい。
注
arthritis
carnotite
関節炎
カルノー石(ウラニウム原鉱)
endocrine gland 内分泌腺
ephedra マオウ(麻黄)科マオウ属の植物の総称。漢方で利用される中国産の植物。
FDA Food and Drug Administration，米国食品医薬品局
half-life
半減期。放射性元素が崩壊し，その原子数が半減するまでの時間。
radioactive decay
放射性崩壊，原子核崩壊
radium ラジウム(元素記号 Ra)
radon
ラドン(元素記号 Rn)
rheumatism リウマチ
thorium トリウム(元素記号 Th)
uranium ウラニウム，ウラン(元素記号 U)
24
【７】2002 東京医科歯科大学・前期日程
次の英文は European Molecular Biology Organization Reports vol. 2, no. 5, 2001
に掲載された記事です。の文章をよく読んで，問題１～５に答えなさい。
*のついている語句の注は問題のあとに示されています。
The ultimate ethical standard among the medical profession demands that the
physician use every means possible to cure the patient’s illness ― but does this
apply in a clinical trial, which is understood to be experimental, not treatment?
In a clinical trial, tension exists at the beginning between gaining knowledge that
can be used in the longer term to benefit the public health, and the basic right of
the patient to receive treatment.
(ｱ)For
the scientific profession, the ultimate standard is to produce results that
withstand scrutiny. For physicians and researchers, the ‘gold standard’ in testing
new drugs is a placebo-controlled* study in which some of the patients receive no
treatment at all. These standards present an ethical dilemma as drug-approval
agencies tend to lean toward the need for clear scientific data, which is best
gained when a drug is tested against a control, or placebo. Furthermore, it
becomes harder to convince patients in First World countries to participate in
drug trials when there may be a 30 - 50 % chance of receiving only a sugar pill
instead of a helpful medicine.
As a consequence, drug companies are looking increasingly to Third World
countries to conduct placebo-controlled trials, and therefore raising much
dissent in the medical community, with cries of ‘medical imperialism’.
This issue has heated up following the World Medical Association (WMA)*
revision in October 2000 of its guidelines, known as the Declaration of Helsinki.
First issued in 1964 as the successor to the Nuremberg Code, which was created
in response to Nazi doctors’ abuses during World War II, the Declaration is
generally recognised as a universal foundation of human research ethics,
although it does not have the force of law. The new version prohibits the use of
placebos when an approved treatment exists, stating that the ‘benefits, risks,
burdens and effectiveness of a new method should be tested against those of the
best current preventive, diagnostic* and therapeutic methods’ and that every
patient ‘should be assured of the best proven diagnostic and therapeutic
method.’
The most recent revision was the result of an AIDS drug trial, known as 076,
conducted in Thailand and Africa in the mid-1990s, in which pregnant women
were given either a placebo or AZT* to determine whether a low-dose treatment
could prevent transmission of the disease to
(a)their
infants. The alternative would
have been a non-inferiority trial, in which a drug candidate is tested against an
25
approved medicine; the problem is that such trials may produce results that are
more difficult to interpret than placebo-controlled studies.
Due to the accepted ethical standard that one must treat a patient with a
life-threatening disease, or not expose her or her offspring to undue risk, trial
076 would have been forbidden in the USA and Europe. But its sponsors, the US
Centers for Disease Control and the US National Institutes of Health maintained
that it should be permitted in developing countries, since women in these regions
generally have no access to anti-HIV medicines. Hence,
(b)their
thinking was that
a 50 : 50 chance of treatment would be better than no treatment at all, and they
argued that the treatment being tested was precisely for use in developing
nations where healthcare is minimal. According to an opposing view, ‘residents of
poor, post-colonial countries must be protected from potential exploitation in
research. Otherwise the terrible state of health care in these countries can be
used to justify studies that could never pass the ethical standard of the
sponsoring country,’ maintained Peter Lurie from the Public Citizen Health
Research Group.
While the EU and Japan strongly support the revised Declaration, the US Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) *, the agency responsible for approving new
drugs in the USA, has not yet taken a clear stand. In March 2001, the FDA
issued a report in which it stated that ‘the FDA has not taken action to include
this revision into its regulations.’ Furthermore, it notes ‘that the action of the
World Medical Association did not change FDA regulations.’ Paradoxically, the
document also states that the FDA ‘will accept a foreign clinical study only if the
study conforms to the ethical principles contained in the Declaration of Helsinki,
here referring to the previous version from 1989, or to laws of the country in
which the research is conducted ― whichever provides greater protection of
human subjects.’ In January 2001, the FDA held an internal meeting entitled,
‘Use of placebo-controls in life-threatening diseases: Is the developing world the
answer?’ The subject of the discussion was a placebo-controlled study designed
by Discovery Labs, a drug company in Pennsylvania, to be conducted in Latin
America, to test a new surfactant* to treat premature infants * with respiratory
distress syndrome (RDS)*, a life-threatening condition.
According to Robert Capetola, president of Discovery Labs, previous
non-inferiority trials of other drugs had yielded ambiguous results, although they
had ultimately been approved, so it was now necessary to test
(c)its
drug, Surfaxin,
against a placebo. ‘We had in mind several types of trials and conducted about
nine months of discussion with the FDA,’ said Capetola. Indeed, FDA documents
state that ‘a non-inferiority surfactant RDS European trial versus another
surfactant is also planned by the sponsor.’
Furthermore, as an incentive for the countries that Discovery was targeting for
26
the placebo-controlled trials, the company proposed to build neonatal* units in
areas that lacked them and provide its drug for slightly above the production cost
for 10 years, explained Capetola.
(d)One
such unit has already been built, he
added. Capetola believes that the proposed placebo-controlled trial in Latin
America was ethical because relatively few infants born with immature lungs are
treated in that region. ‘Effectively, in these nations, 80 - 90 % of those needing
the drug do not receive any treatment,’ he said, adding that representatives from
a number of developing countries had asked Discovery to build neonatal units
and conduct trials in their countries.
But, it is the regulatory agency that decides whether to accept the results of a
placebo-controlled study or to demand a non-inferiority study from the drug’s
sponsor. And one of the strongest supporters of placebos is Robert Temple,
Director of Medical Policy at the FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
Anticipating the Declaration’s coming revision, Temple published a two-part
article in September 2000 in the Annals of Internal Medicine, laying the
groundwork for a scientific defence of placebo use in most trials. Temple ― and
most scientists ― believe that placebo-controlled trials yield the strongest data
in drug testing, and, therefore, in all but the most life-threatening situations,
(e)such
a design is necessary. He said that ‘the revised Declaration is too rigid,
and does not distinguish between the use of placebos in conditions such as
headache, hair loss, allergies, heartburn, or other non-life-threatening conditions
that do not place patients who have given their informed consent at a risk of
damage or death.’ In summary, for the FDA, public health needs in medical
research in non-life-threatening situations must receive priority over the
individual’s right to treatment in a trial, Temple maintains.
In contrast, the World Medical Association holds that the rights of individual
patients must always come before the needs of science, and, if not, there is a risk
of research abuses like those in the AIDS trials and Nazi Germany, Delon Human,
head of the WMA, has said.
( ｲ )In
other words, ethics and protection of the
individual patient must take priority over the needs of science and public health.
‘When a clear-cut result is reached in one or more placebo-controlled superiority
trials, one ought not to undertake placebo-controlled trials,’ Leroy Walters,
Director of the Kennedy Institute of Ethics at Georgetown University, said. ‘The
next step should be an active control equivalence trial,’ he added. Indeed, when
the Harvard School of Public Health conducted a randomised equivalence trial of
AZT in overseas patients, they reproduced the results of the previous
placebo-controlled trial. ‘In this case, all patients benefited by being in the study,’
Walters said, although he admits that sometimes, some scientific information
may be sacrificed in equivalence trials in the name of ethical research.
So, with the FDA’s defence of the use of placebos in most circumstances, and
27
the increase of overseas trials conducted by US drug companies, the dispute
promises to continue. In June 2001, the new Office for Human Research
Protections (OHRP) was created at the US Department of Health and Human
Services, replacing the Office for Protection from Research Risks. In January
2001, OHRP’s first director, Greg Koski, established a new office to oversee
ethical problems caused by conducting trials in developing nations.
(ｳ)It
may be
just a matter of time before the USA decides to uphold the revised Declaration of
Helsinki or challenge it.
Adapted from Vicki Brower (2001)
What do the following words and expressions, which are underlined in the
１
text, refer to ? Answer in English.
(a)
their
(b)
their
(c)
its
(d)
One such unit
(e)
such a design
２
Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) and circle
the correct answer.
1)
2)
Nazi doctors were punished according to the Declaration of Helsinki.
The revised Declaration of Helsinki is unanimously accepted as the
defining document on ethical standards related to drug testing.
3)
The results of the testing of AZT in Africa and Thailand were ambiguous
since a non-inferiority trial was used, rather than a placebo-controlled trial.
4)
The US Centers for Disease Control supports studies, such as drug trial
076, where placebos are used in research in Third World Countries.
5)
Robert Temple thinks that the use of placebos is essential to get the most
useful data in drug testing research.
３
Answer the following questions in English.
1)
Why do some researchers prefer not to use non-inferiority trials?
2)
Why
do
some
drug
companies
say
it
is
ethical
to
conduct
placebo-controlled trials in Third World countries?
3)
According to Leroy Walters, after a clear result of effectiveness of a drug in
a placebo-controlled trial is found, what type of trial should be used in the
28
next experiment, and what is the advantage of that type of trial?
４
下線部(ｱ)～(ｳ)を日本語に訳しなさい。
５
この文章で指摘されている，現代の医療における問題点はどのようなものですか。
「医療帝国主義」，「ヘルシンキ宣言」，「アメリカ食品医薬品局」という 3 つの言
葉を必ず使って，600 字以内でまとめなさい。
注
AZT：アジドチミジン(azidothymidine)。エイズ治療用に用いられる抗ウイ
ルス薬のひとつ。
diagnostic (adj.) ＜ diagnosis：診断
neonatal：
placebo：
新生児の(生後 4 週間未満)
プラセポ。新薬テストの対照剤として用いられる有効成分のな
い偽薬。
premature infants：未熟児
respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)：
呼吸窮迫症候群。新生児，特に
未熟児に見られる呼吸障害の総称。
surfactant：
界面活性物質
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)：
World Medical Association (WMA)：
29
アメリカ食品医薬品局
世界医師会
【８】2005 横浜国立大学・前期日程
次の英文は，ある宇宙物理学者が未来について書いた書物からの抜粋です。この文章及
び図表から，以下の問いに答えなさい。
ア
Star Trek shows a society that is far in advance of ours in science, in
technology, and in political organization. (The last might not be difficult.) There
must have been great changes, with their accompanying tensions and upsets, in
the time between now and then, but in the period we are shown, science,
technology, and the organization of society are supposed to have achieved a level
of near perfection.
I want to question this picture and ask if we will ever reach a final steady state
in science and technology. At no time in the ten thousand years or so since the
last ice age has the human race been in a state of constant knowledge and fixed
technology. There have been a few
イ
setbacks, like the Dark Ages after the fall of
the Roman Empire. But the world’s population, which is
(1)a
measure of our
technological ability to preserve life and feed ourselves, has risen steadily, with
only a few
ウ
hiccups such as
エ
the Black Death.
In the last two hundred years, population growth has become
A
, that is,
the population grows by the same percentage each year. Currently, the rate is
about 1.9 percent a year. That may not sound like very much, but it means that
the world population doubles every forty years (Figure 1).
30
Other measures of technological development in recent times are electricity
consumption and the number of scientific articles. They too show
オ
exponential
growth, with doubling times of less than forty years. There is no sign that
scientific and technological development will slow down and stop in the near
future ― certainly not by the time of Star Trek, which is supposed to be not that
far in the future (Figure 2). But if the population growth and the increase in the
consumption of electricity continue at their current rates, by 2600 the world’s
population will be standing shoulder to shoulder, and electricity use will make
the Earth glow
If you
カ
B
.
stacked all the new books being published next to each other, you
would have to move at ninety miles an hour just to keep up with the end of the
line. Of course, by 2600 new artistic and scientific work will come in
forms, rather than as
C
D
books and papers. Nevertheless, if the exponential growth continued, there
would be ten papers a second in my kind of theoretical physics, and
E
to
read them.
Clearly, the present exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely. So what
will happen? One possibility is that we will wipe ourselves out completely by
some disaster, such as a
F
have not been contacted by
キ
war. There is
(2)a
sick joke that the reason we
extraterrestrials is that when a civilization reaches
our stage of development, it becomes unstable and destroys itself. However, I’m
an optimist. I don’t believe the human race has come so far just to
31
ク
snuff itself
out when things are getting interesting.
The Star Trek vision of the future ― that we achieve an advanced but
essentially static level ― may come true in respect of our knowledge of the basic
laws that govern the universe. As I shall describe in the next chapter, there may
be an ultimate theory that we will discover in the not-too-distant future. This
ultimate theory, if it exists, will determine whether the Star Trek dream of
ケ
warp
drive can be realized. According to present ideas, we shall have to explore the
galaxy in a slow and
サ
コ
tedious manner, using spaceships traveling slower than
light, but since we don’t yet have a complete unified theory, we can’t quite rule
out warp drive.
By far the most complex systems that we have are our own bodies. Life seems
to have originated in the
シ
primordial oceans that covered the Earth four billion
years ago. How this happened we don’t know. It may be that random
between atoms built up
セ
ス
collisions
macromolecules that could reproduce themselves and
assemble themselves into more complicated structures. What we do know is that
by three and a half billion years ago, the highly complicated DNA molecule had
emerged.
DNA is the basis for all life on Earth. It has a double
ソ
helix structure, like a
タ
spiral staircase, which was discovered by Francis Crick and James Watson in the
Cavendish lab at Cambridge in l953. The two
linked by pairs of
ツ
チ
strands of the double helix are
bases, like the treads in a spiral staircase. There are four
bases in DNA: adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. The order in which they
occur along the spiral staircase carries the genetic information that enables the
DNA to assemble an organism around it and reproduce itself. As it makes copies
of itself, there are occasional errors in the proportion or order of the bases along
the spiral. In most cases, the mistakes in copying make the DNA either unable or
less likely to reproduce itself, meaning that such genetic errors or
テ
mutations, as
they are called, will die out. But in a few cases, the error or mutation will
increase the chances of the DNA surviving and reproducing. Such changes in the
genetic code will be favored. This is how the information contained in the
sequence of DNA gradually evolves and increases in complexity.
Because biological evolution is basically a random walk in the space of all
genetic possibilities, it has been very slow. The complexity, or number of bits of
information, that is coded in DNA is roughly the number of bases in the molecule.
For the first two billion years or so, the rate of increase in complexity must have
been of the order of one bit of information every hundred years. The rate of
increase of DNA complexity gradually rose to about one bit a year over the last
few million years. But then, about six or eight thousand years ago, a major new
development occurred. We developed written language. This meant that
information could be passed from one generation to the next without having to
32
wait for the very slow process of random mutations and natural selection to code
it into the DNA sequence.
(3)The
amount of complexity increased enormously.
A single paperback romance could hold as much information as the difference in
DNA between apes and humans, and a thirty-volume encyclopedia could describe
the entire sequence of human DNA.
Even more important, the information in books can be updated rapidly. The
current rate at which human DNA is being updated by biological evolution is
about one bit a year. But there are two hundred thousand new books published
each year, a new-information rate of over a million bits a second. Of course, most
of this information is garbage, but even if only one bit in a million is useful, that
is still a hundred thousand times faster than biological evolution.
This transmission of data through external, nonbiological means has led the
human race to dominate the world and to have an exponentially increasing
population. But now we are at the beginning of a new era, in which we will be
able to increase the complexity of our internal record, the DNA, without having to
wait for the slow process of biological evolution. There has been no significant
change in human DNA in the last ten thousand years, but it is likely that we will
be able to completely redesign it in the next thousand. Of course, many people
will say that genetic engineering of humans should be
we will be able to
H
ト
banned, but it is
it. Genetic engineering of plants and animals will be
G
I
for economic reasons, and someone is bound to try it on humans. Unless we
have a
ナ
totalitarian world order, someone somewhere will design improved
humans.
Clearly, creating improved humans will create great social and political
problems with respect to unimproved humans. My intension is not to defend
human genetic engineering as a desirable development, but just to say it is likely
to happen whether we want it or not. This is the reason why
(4)I
don’t believe
science fiction like Star Trek, where people four hundred years into the future
are essentially the same as we are today. I think the human race, and its DNA,
will increase its complexity quite rapidly. We should recognize that this is likely
to happen and consider how we will deal with it.
Stephen Hawking(2001), The Universe in a Nutshell より抜粋
ア
Star Trek:「スタートレック／宇宙大作戦」。アメリカの人気 SF シリーズ
イ
setback：中断，頓挫
ウ
hiccup：短い中断，しゃっく
カ
stack：積み重ねる
ケ
warp drive：ワープ航法
り
エ
the Black Death：黒死病(ペスト)
オ
exponential：急激な，指数関数的な
キ
extraterrestrial：地球外生命体，異星人
ク
snuff：滅ぼす，消滅する
33
コ
galaxy：銀河
サ
tedious：のろい，ひどくゆっくりとした
シ
primordial：原始の
ス
collision：衝突
セ
macromolecule：巨大分子
ソ
helix：らせん状の
タ
spiral staircase：らせん階段状
チ
strand：要素，成分
ツ
base：(この場合には)塩基
テ
mutation：突然変異
ト
ban：禁止する
ナ
totalitarian：全体主義の
問１
下線部(1)a measure of our technological ability について，著者が人口増加の
ほかに 2 つ挙げている尺度を，それぞれ 10 字以内の日本語で書きなさい。
問２
文中 A～F の空欄部分に最も当てはまる語句を以下の中から選び，記号で答えなさ
い。
問３
あ
no time
い
red-hot
お
exponential
か
electronic
う
physical
え
nuclear
下線部(2)sick joke とは何か。文中からその内容を探し出して，日本語 100 字以内
で書きなさい。
問４
下線部(3)The amount of complexity increased enormously の原因となった
ものは何か。文中から英語 2 語でその原因を書き出しなさい。
問５
文中 G～I の空欄部分に入る最も適切な語句をそれぞれ以下から選び，その記号を
記しなさい。
問６
G
イ．arranged
ロ．simply
ハ．seems
ニ．doubtful
H
イ．shows
ロ．prevent
ハ．improve
ニ．find
I
イ．allowed
ロ．have
ハ．interesting
ニ．happy
下線部(4)I don’t believe science fiction like Star Trek と著者が言っている
理由について，日本語 80 字以内でまとめなさい。
34
【解答１】<F708E12> 2005
問１
秋田大学 2/25,前期日程,本学教育文化学部
その言語(標準語)は，共通語や公用語として役立つだけでなく，国民を統合する
象徴としても機能する。
(1)
日本人との交流を通して，日本語を身につけさせること。
(2)
目的は達成したが，完全に集団の一員として受け入れられはしなかった。
(3)
算数や暗記を必要とする分野における基礎学力を向上させること。
(4)
ためになったかどうかは，今のところまだわからない。
(1)
suit
(2)
corporations
(3)
pre-university
(4)
literacy
(5) economic
(6)
communicate
(7)
international
(8)
homogeneous
(9)
difference
(10)
問２
【解答２】<E708E21> 2004
intercultural
秋田大学 2/25,前期日程,本学医学部
問１
(1)
ア
work
イ
baby
(2)
ウ
work
エ
home
オ
suburbs
(3)
カ
commuting
キ
flexibility
ク
family
(4)
ケ
whether
コ
trust
サ
being
(5)
シ
productivity
ス
cost
セ
greater
(6)
ソ
traffic
タ
gasoline
チ
pollution
ツ
disabilities
(7)
テ
taxes
ト
cities
(8)
ナ
less
ニ
isolated
問２
１．The greatest number of respondents preferred telecommuting because
it allows them to entertain freedom of life.
２． About 40 percent of the respondents listed “an increase of
productivity” as one of the advantages of telecommuting.
３． The largest number of respondents answered that telecommuting
makes it difficult to separate leisure from work.
４． 51% responded that they would wish to continue telecommuting,
whereas 6% would wish to quit.
５．I would like to be a telecommuter, because I would spend much time
with my family.
35
【解答３】<F788E41> 2005
千葉大学 3/12,後期日程,本学英語読解力法
経学部(法学科)
問１
ほとんどの利用者が，運がよくて 1200 ボーで接続していた環境では，画像やス
トリーミングビデオをダウンロードするのに，耐え難いほどの長時間を要したであろ
う。そもそもダウンロードできたとして。
問２
その空間がどのような種類の生活を可能にしているかという評価・価値判断の観
点からの記述
問３
現実世界の諸構造が人は目が見えることを前提としていることが，盲目の人をコ
ミュニケーションから完全に締め出すものでないようにするためにその構造に後か
ら改善を加える際に，盲目の人は非常なコストを負う
問４
あなたの外見が個々のやり取りごとに伝達されることはなかったので，魅力的で
ない人は，その人がどのような外見かによって自動的に限定されない親密な会話を他
者と持つことができた
問５
問６
(1)
コミュニケーションの手段が文章を通じたものに限られていたこと
(2)
目の不自由な人
(3)
コミュニケーションにおける健常者との対等の地位
耳の聞こえない人
外見の醜い人
現実世界では，彼女の言葉は常に「妻」や「母」や「かわいい子」という立場や
属性を付け加えた上で解釈されていたので，自分の発言を文字通りに受け取ってもら
うために非常な負担を被っていた。これに対して，サイバースペースでは，そのよう
な彼女の立場や属性を相手は知ることができない結果，彼女の言葉は額面通り受け取
ってもらえることができる点で，彼女は力を得ている。
問７
サイバースペースにおける様々な生活の仕方はそれぞれ異なるの費用と便益を伴
っており，その結果ある生活の仕方が他の生活様式よりもハンデを負うということが
生じるが，この費用と便益の配合率はそれぞれのサイバースペースの設計・構造によ
って決定されている。
【解答４】<C792E21>
2002 東京大学 3/13,後期日程,本学
論文Ⅰ 文科
一類,文科二類,文科三類
１
アダム＝スミスは市場経済に競争原理を見出し，個人の利益を追求することは，
コスト削減の革新を起こし，価格を下げ，その技術がコピーされ普及された結果
として，あたかも見えざる手に導かれるように社会全体の利益につながると考え
た。ダーウィンはスミスの指摘する競争原理を動物界に見出し，個体の生殖に有
益な特質を生み出す突然変異がコスト削減の革新のような働きをし，生殖に有利
な形質が好んで選択された結果，種の繁栄につながると考えた。しかし，ダーウ
ィンは自然界の競争原理は，個体の利益追求が常に全体利益とつながるわけでは
なく，むしろ全体の利益と反する場合があり，その場合自然選択は全体利益を犠
牲にしてでも個の利益追求を優先するという性質を持つ，という点でスミスの考
36
えとは異なる。
２
雄ヘラジカの枝角は大きいほうがほかの雄を押しのけて雌を獲得する確率が高
くなることから，長い間の自然選択の結果，大きくなる方向に進化した。ところ
が，大きく重い枝角が邪魔になって，敵から逃れられず，捕食される可能性もま
た高くなり，種の繁栄という全体利益の観点から見れば，枝角が大きいことは非
常に不利である。このように，自然選択は子孫繁栄につながる個の利益を優先し，
捕食され個体数が減少する危険性があるにもかかわらず，大きい枝角という種全
体にとっては不利な特徴を選択して遺伝させることがある。すなわち、自然選択
はある特徴が 1 個体の利益にはなるが，種全体の利益とはならない場合，個の利
益が優先されることがしばしばあるという意味である。
３
省略
【解答５】<F793E11>
2005 東京医科歯科大学 2/25,前期日程,本学医学
部,歯学部
[1]
(1)
(T)
(2)
(F)
(3)
(F)
(4)
(T)
(5)
(T)
(6)
(T)
(7)
(T)
(8)
(F)
(9)
(F)
(10)
(1)
natural hot springs’
(2)
the Radiendocrinator
(3)
neither safe nor effective
(4)
the Radium Ore Revigator company
(5)
the FDA
(1)
(省略)
(2)
(省略)
(3)
(省略)
(F)
[2]
[3]
[4]
(ｱ)
(省略)
(ｲ)
(省略)
(ｳ)
(省略)
[5]
(省略)
【解答６】<C793E11>
2002 東京医科歯科大学 2/25,前期日程,本学医学
部,歯学部
１
37
(a)
pregnant women
(b)
the US Centers for Disease Control and the National Institutes of
Health
(c) Discovery Labs
(d)
a neonatal unit
(e)
a placebo-controlled trial
1)
F
２
2)
F
3)
F
4)
T
5)
T
３
1)
Because non-inferiority trials may produce results that are more
difficult to interpret than placebo-controlled studies.
2)
Because people in Third World Countries do not receive any treatment
and a 50:50 chance of treatment would be better than no treatment at
all.
3)
An active control equivalence trial should be used, and its advantage
is that all patients benefit by being in this study.
４
(ｱ)
科学という専門的な仕事にとって，究極の基準は厳密な検討にたえる結果を
出すことである。
(ｲ)
言い換えれば，倫理と，個々の患者の保護は，科学と公衆衛生の要請に優先
されなければならない。
(ｳ)
アメリカ合衆国が，修正されたヘルシンキ宣言を支持するか，異議を唱える
かを決定するのは，もはや時間の問題なのかもしれない。
５
省略
【解答７】<E794E11>
2004 東京外国語大学 2/25,前期日程,本学外国語
学部
(収録なし)
【解答８】<C794E11>
2002 東京外国語大学 2/25,前期日程,本学外国語
学部
１．全体は部分の総和にとどまらずそれよりずっと大きなものになるという現象を意
味する「創発」の観点から見てみると。
２．アリのコロニーが都市同様，トップダウン式にではなく，成員の相互作用に基づ
いて機能しているので。
３．個々のアリはほかのアリが出すフェロモンを手がかりに行動しているだけだが，
全体としてはそれがコロニーの機能維持に寄与している，というような行動。
38
４．都市は通りでの人々の低レベルの相互作用の結果繁栄するものであり，見知らぬ
者の間で情報が流れる状況がないと地域は活性化されないので。
５．脳の神経細胞の集積が生み出す人間の自己認識に相当する，意識を持ち自己管理
するインターネットのようなもの。
【解答９】<C797E21> 2002
東京工業大学 3/12,後期日程,本学理学部,工
学部,生命理工学部
１．
(1)
まるで心の底から楽しんでいるかのように
(2)
子供たちは，彼らにねらいを定めた巧みな広告によって，あれやこれやの土
産物を買うように強いられる。
(3)
私は臆病だったので，(そして，正直言って，今でもそうであるが)リチャード
おじさんに，自分をその乗り物に乗せないでほしいと強く頼んだ。
２．the fact that many of these fun parks won’t permit bringing food and
drink in
３．
(B)
Each year, I got ten dollars more than the previous year.
(C)
Later, a new law was passed to make amusement park rides safer for
both children and adults.
４．省略
【解答１０】<E847E33> 2004
三重大学 3/12,後期日程,本学医学部(医学
科)
(収録なし)
【解答１１】<F863E11> 2005
横浜国立大学 2/25,前期日程,本学総合問
題２教育人間科学部(地球環境課程/マルチメディア文化課程/国際共生社会課程)
問１電気消費量
科学論文数
問２ A
B い
お
E あ
問３
F
C か
D
う
え
これまでに地球外生命体が接触してきていないのは，文明が我々程度の発
展段階に達すると不安定になり，核戦争や災害などによりその文明自体を破壊
してしまうからだというジョーク
問４ written
language
問５ G
H
問６
ニ
I
ロ
イ
遺伝子工学によって人類の DNA が急速に進化(複雑化)されていくので，4
39
百年後の人類は我々とは本質的に異なっているだろうと予測しているから
40

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