water
Article
Re-Staging La Rasgioni: Lessons Learned from
Transforming a Traditional Form of Conflict
Resolution to Engage Stakeholders in Agricultural
Water Governance
Maria Laura Ruiu 1,2, *, Sante Maurizi 1,3 , Simone Sassu 4 , Giovanna Seddaiu 1,5 , Olga Zuin 6 ,
Chris Blackmore 7 and Pier Paolo Roggero 1,5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
*
Nucleo Ricerca Desertificazione, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; [email protected] (S.M.);
[email protected] (G.S.); [email protected] (P.P.R.)
Department of Social Sciences, Northumbria University, NE1 8ST Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Cinearena, 07100 Sassari, Italy
Honorary Magistrate, Public prosecutor, Prosecutor’s Office of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy;
[email protected]
Dipartimento di Agraria, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
Baltic 2030 Unit, Council of Baltic Sea States Secretariat, 103 11 Stockholm, Sweden; [email protected]
Applied Systems Thinking in Practice Group, School of Engineering and Innovation, The Open University,
MK7 6AA Milton Keynes, UK; [email protected]
Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-3288346166
Academic Editors: Tim Smith and Arjen Y. Hoekstra
Received: 20 November 2016; Accepted: 17 April 2017; Published: 22 April 2017
Abstract: This paper presents an informal process inspired by a public practice of conflict mediation
used until a few decades ago in Gallura (NE Sardinia, Italy), named La Rasgioni (The Reason). The aim
is twofold: (i) to introduce an innovative method that translates the complexity of water-related
conflicts into a “dialogical tool”, aimed at enhancing social learning by adopting theatrical techniques;
and (ii) to report the outcomes that emerged from the application of this method in Arborea,
the main dairy cattle district and the only nitrate-vulnerable zone in Sardinia, to mediate contrasting
positions between local entrepreneurs and representatives of the relevant institutions. We discuss
our results in the light of four pillars, adopted as research lenses in the International research
Project CADWAGO (Climate Change Adaptation and Water Governance), which consider the
specific “social–ecological” components of the Arborea system, climate change adaptability in water
governance institutions and organizations, systemic governance (relational) practices, and governance
learning. The combination of the four CADWAGO pillars and La Rasgioni created an innovative
dialogical space that enabled stakeholders and researchers to collectively identify barriers and
opportunities for effective governance practices. Potential wider implications and applications of
La Rasgioni process are also discussed in the paper.
Keywords: co-researching; dairy farming; ecosystem perception; systemic governance; governance
learning; irrigation; knowledge co-production; nitrate pollution; social learning; stakeholders; theatre
1. Introduction
This paper describes and evaluates the design and trial of an innovative approach to reconciling
disputes over both access and management of natural resources that was inspired by La Rasgioni
(Phonetics: [La RaZioni]) (“The Reason”), a traditional local practice of peaceful dispute resolution
that existed in Gallura (a province located in the north-east of Sardinia, Italy) until a few decades ago
Water 2017, 9, 297; doi:10.3390/w9040297
www.mdpi.com/journal/water
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(Box 1). The modern-day La Rasgioni process was part of a long-term participatory scheme adopted
to address agricultural water management in a Mediterranean nitrate-vulnerable zone, the Arborea
district (Oristano, central Sardinia, Italy), which is described and analyzed below. It was also one of
three international learning events of the international CADWAGO research project. The CADWAGO
(Climate Change Adaptation and Water Governance) project, with the aim of reconciling food security,
renewable energy, and the provision of multiple ecosystem services, was led by the Stockholm
Environment Institute from 2013 to 2016 and involved a consortium of researchers mainly from
Sweden, Italy, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Australia, and Canada who had all previously
worked on water governance. The process and outcomes of the trial are therefore interpreted in this
paper using the multi-perspective and interdisciplinary approach that was framed by the CADWAGO
project [1]. The lessons learned from this interpretation are detailed and discussed.
Box 1. La Rasgioni in Gallura, Sardinia.
Traditionally, La Rasgioni was used as a public mediation process for reconciling two parties whenever a
conflict, often regarding property or livestock, could not be solved in other ways. Five people were involved in
the process of reconciliation: two Alligadori (lawyers) who represented the interests of each party; three rasgiunanti
(judges: two nominated by each side, and the omu di mezu, arbiter, chosen by both). Once the Alligadori had
presented their speeches, the rasgiunanti examined relevant documents and afterwards were called to pronounce
their final verdict. Two solutions were possible: dizisa if the request of one of the parties was accepted; or arrangiu
when a compromise solution was suggested. Everyone could attend the debate, thus turning private conflicts
into collective public events in order to create learning opportunities for the whole community [2]. “La Rasgioni
aimed not only to solve disputes quickly and peacefully, but primarily to restore the pre-existing relationships
negatively affected by the conflict, thus preserving the community cohesion” [3].
This paper aims to reflect on the process through which “a change in understanding ( . . . )
goes beyond the individual” [4] and favorable conditions for both learning and developing shared
visions [5] are created “through social interactions between actors within social networks” [4].
The overall hypothesis discussed in this paper is that agro-environmental conflicts often arise
because of the contrasting perspectives on issues of interdependent stakeholders [6], e.g., of particular
relevance to this case, entrepreneurs complaining about public resource mismanagement, contrasts
with public authorities applying a command-and-control paradigm to collective natural resource
management who assume that people are not acting to protect their resources because they lack
the necessary knowledge and understanding [7]. In such situations, the conventional paradigm of
producing new scientific knowledge through experimental research to be transferred to users via
advisory services aiming to achieve ideal states has been proven to be ineffective [8]. Instead, integrated
approaches based on social learning theories and focusing on sustainable transformation processes
rather than on sustainable states have generated trust and conducive situations for a change in the
understanding of the nature of the issues involved. This change in understanding is a prerequisite for
a change in practice [5,6]. This means that the introduction of “new sustainable” practices tends to be
facilitated by the adoption of participatory approaches aimed at generating “collective knowledge”.
Following this approach, the participation of all the stakeholders is considered vital throughout the
entire process of research, because they are active producers of knowledge rather than final “passive
receivers” of recommendations. As a consequence of both participating in and understanding all
phases of the process, our experience suggests that these stakeholders will be more likely not only
to better understand the nature of the problems, but also to put into practice the changes needed.
Combining the grounded evidence of action research practice with the power of artistic creativity in
generating conducive situations has been shown, in some situations, to help ease the tensions among
interdependent stakeholders and provide ideal pre-conditions for the emergence of new learning
opportunities for addressing complex issues [9–11].
The long-term participatory scheme that contextualized the modern-day La Rasgioni process
described and discussed in this paper involved some eight years of participatory co-researching to
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identify viable options to mitigate nitrate pollution of groundwater in a highly intensive dairy farming
area classified as a nitrate-vulnerable zone by the EU Nitrates Directive (ND). The process was also
contextualized in the CADWAGO project, which acted as a catalyst for a “critical learning event” in
the community of Arborea, inspired by La Rasgioni, and initiated and designed by the research team of
the University of Sassari. This event had two main objectives:
(i)
(ii)
to explore the potential of a creative re-interpretation of the traditional local practice to
mediate environmental conflicts and controversies and to facilitate governance learning between
representatives of formal institutions and of farmers’ interest in the context of agricultural
water governance;
to explore how the outcomes deriving from this new process, interpreted through the lenses of
the CADWAGO project framework, could help to identify barriers and generate opportunities
from enhanced governance learning.
2. Conceptual Framework and Background
The main conceptual framework discussed in this paper is that of the CADWAGO project, based
on four pillars (perceived ecosystems, institutions and organizations, systemic governance practices,
and governance learning), employed together as research lenses [1]. The first three pillars were applied
in the project to case studies, whereas the governance learning lens was of a different nature, emerging
at the meta-level of the project and with a focus on not just the cases but also on co-learners who
worked with the project researchers to consider European water dilemmas [12]. The first pillar was
used to consider the “Ecological Components of Ecosystems”, as perceived by local stakeholders.
In this Arborea case, the intent was to analyze the water resource system by integrating different
systems of interest. The knowledge and perspectives of local stakeholders concerning ecosystem
processes were considered in order to identify what they perceive to be either barriers or opportunities
to systemic and adaptive governance in the face of climate change [6–13]. The second pillar—climate
change adaptability in water governance institutions and organizations—was used to reflect on the
institutional landscapes and governance environments involved in the definition and resolution of
water-related issues. It also considered how these landscapes and environments hinder and support
systemic and adaptive water governance in the context of climate change [14]. The third pillar
concerned systemic governance practices, where existing praxis (theory-informed practice), as well
as new forms of praxis, are analyzed with the aim of investigating how systemic and adaptive water
governance can be enabled in the context of climate change [15–17]. The fourth pillar, governance
learning, worked with the meta-level outputs of the other three pillars, or research lenses, and tried
to reflect on the most effective ways to translate the results into tools for social learning with the
aim of promoting positive change in the governance system. Overall, the scope of the research was
to investigate water governance-related issues by acknowledging their uncertain and controversial
contexts, determined by a multiplicity of interacting factors such as unpredictable climate fluctuations,
fragile environmental balances, and socioeconomic conflicts.
In this paper the contributions of the La Rasgioni event and its context are considered one of
the CADWAGO project’s three international governance learning events; therefore, the governance
learning research lens was considered of particular relevance [12]. Governance learning in CADWAGO
(and more concretely in the context of La Rasgioni) was conceptualized as an interactive co-production
process that drew on “theoretical and applied literature on ( . . . ) how change processes for adaptation
and sustainability can be facilitated and enhanced through governance learning and co-production of
knowledge” [12] (see paragraph 4.1). Rather than focusing on “individual learning” from others [18],
we adopted a definition of social learning that is based on collective or “concerted” learning, aimed at
creating shared visions [5] and outcomes not only in terms of “technical qualities” but also “relational
qualities” [19]. Specifically, given that a need for a shift from one-directional decision-making
towards dialogical, iterative, flexible, transparent, and decentralized practices in the context of water
management is generally recognized by scholars (e.g., [19]), we aimed to contribute towards producing
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new insights in terms of how participative processes can be framed for actively involving different
constellations of stakeholders. Following Pahl-Wostl et al. [20], the social learning process “takes
place in a natural/technical and a social (institutional, cultural) context”. This conceptualization of
social learning as a process to be “contextualized” is similarly reflected in our adoption of the four
CADWAGO pillars, which simultaneously consider the specific “social-ecological” components of
the Arborea system, climate change adaptability in water governance institutions and organizations,
Systemic Governance (relational) Practices, and Governance Learning. Through the lens of social
learning, systemic governance practices and learning are interpreted as multi-stakeholder learning
processes that “if adequately conducted, open space for people—including scientists and policy
makers—to speak about their assumptions, values, and norms so that decisions become based
less on the defense of autonomous interests and hidden meaning and more on appreciation of the
interdependency of collective interests” [7]. Further details of how this framework was used and the
insights that emerged are provided in the discussion.
The research tradition of the long-term participatory scheme also has a wider conceptual
framework that is complementary to and enhanced by the CADWAGO project’s conceptual framework.
It is discussed elsewhere [21], but it is important to recognize that it values co-researching with multiple
stakeholders. Of particular relevance to the overall scheme in Arborea is the study of collaborative
management systems, which offer a number of classifications and interpretations of specific segments
of the participatory process [22]. Some scholars have classified the increasing number of collaborative
management approaches in order to compare the effectiveness of each method in relation to the issues
investigated [23,24]. Others have focused on identifying criteria to evaluate the effects produced
by collaborative natural resource management [25,26]. Further studies have explored approaches to
identifying stakeholders in environmental management [27]. What these studies have in common
is the key role of participative processes for engaging stakeholders in governance systems, trying to
attribute them the same weight. Another lesson emerging from the literature is the mediating role
played by research [28] when it comes to enabling dialogue between different parties. Following this
line, this paper bases its premises on the assumption that research contexts are potentially capable of
creating favorable conditions for stakeholders belonging to different governance scales and sectors
to gather and start dialogical processes, when researching modalities are purposefully designed.
Secondly, within the research environment, capacity is held for facilitating these types of interactions
and boosting participatory processes. Thirdly, researchers are capable of conducting meta-analysis
on the outcomes of these processes in order to synthesize the lessons learned and feed back to the
engaged actors, thus promoting the development of new knowledge, awareness raising, and enhancing
democratic approaches for the solution of water-related dilemmas.
3. Approach and Methodology
3.1. The Context of La Rasgioni
The event of La Rasgioni was part of a long-term participatory action research process adopted
to address agricultural water management in a Mediterranean nitrate-vulnerable zone, the Arborea
district (Oristano, central Sardinia, Italy). The Arborea district can be described as a “complex,
uncertain and controversial system” due to a multiplicity of inter-related interests, mainly concerned
with economic activities (such as tourism, agriculture, dairy cattle production, fishing, etc.), which
caused conflicts for accessing and managing natural resources and uncertain consequences for
the environment (Box 2). Researchers investigated the case study, adopting a long-term and
cross-disciplinary approach, recognizing the need to account for a multi-perspective and continuative
process, in this case water- and agricultural-related, in order to adequately understand the context and
changes of understanding and practice [29–31]. During the research process, researchers were directly
involved in “community life” by actively participating in a number of local events (spontaneously or
invited by the local community), such as public debates and local festivals. Active participation in these
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activities proved significant for increasing local stakeholders’ trust in scientists. This is also confirmed
by the fact that some farmers provided pieces of their land as sites for experiments. The result was an
articulated picture of Arborea’s social system, which provided the basis for the development of the
methodology underlying La Rasgioni event (Box 2).
Box 2. Arborea case study.
In the 1930s the land was drained and reclaimed for agricultural production, mainly of irrigated crops, and
assigned to rural families coming from other regions of Italy, primarily from Veneto (NE) [32,33]. Nowadays,
the dominant activity is dairy farming, with 150 dairy cattle farms rearing some 30,000 cattle. The farms are
organized in a cooperative system on 6000 ha of irrigated lowland. Irrigation is provided through infrastructure
built downstream: the Eleonora d’Arborea dam, built in 1920. At that time, it was the largest reservoir in
Europe, now with extended capacity up to some 800 Mm3 of freshwater, delivering irrigation water to a potential
of some 1000 km2 agricultural fields through the Oristanese Land Reclamation Consortium. However, for a
variety of reasons, only 35% of the land served by the irrigation infrastructures does exploit the potential of the
irrigation system, which is mainly used [34] to grow rice, silage maize, forage, and horticultural crops. Given
the geographical position of Arborea, directly connected to the salty sea, the land needs to be constantly drained
in order to maintain the status quo of the landscape and, consequently, of agricultural practices. The pumping
station, built in 1931 during Fascism, with its five electric engines pumping up to 3000 L s−1 , reminds the local
community of the efforts of their forefathers to provide a better future for what is now the present generation [35].
Besides dairy farming, several other activities take place in the area, including agriculture, agro-food industry,
fishing, and tourism, mainly attracted by the wetlands and their ornithological biodiversity. A system of natural
shallow brackish wetlands still exists in the area between the reclaimed land and the seashore, some of which
are declared Sites of Community Interest according to EU Directive 92/43/EEC and Ramsar sites under the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, which are threatened by increasing temperature and
eutrophication [36].
The adoption of the EU nitrates directive in 1991 and its related monitoring system brought water pollution
to the attention of the Arborea farmers’ community, which until that point did not perceive its stake in the
environmental issue. With the implementation of the directive, however, Arborea began to perceive a real
threat of damage the image of the local high-quality dairy industry, and started to increase local environmental
awareness. Another issue of complaint raised by the local farmers is the inefficient management of the Nitrate
Directive implementation, which resulted in delay in compliance at an institutional level (regulations were
applied only in 2005), but required farmers to adjust rapidly to new regulations. Restrictions were imposed on
animal effluent management, which forced farmers to build manure containers, which resulted in increased
costs for dairy farmers already facing a multi-year crisis of milk prices, feedstuff, and mineral fertilizers. In this
scenario, the crisis is intensified by climate change, which not only undermines farmers’ knowledge of climate
prediction, but also threatens cow mortality, fertility, and productivity, as well as crop production and the spread
of diseases due to increasingly frequent summer heat waves [37].
The majority of local people in the Arborea district are members of at least one of the four
cooperatives that work in the area. The 3A and the Farmers’ Cooperatives involve some 200 livestock
farmers and horticulture crop farmers; the Fishermen Cooperative involves more than 100 fishermen
from the local and neighboring areas; the Bank Cooperative involves savers and investors. The local
implementation of the EU Nitrate Directive was expected to satisfy fishermen’s needs to reduce fish
diseases and mortality and the eutrophication of water, and to improve surface and groundwater
quality [38]. However, the lack of involvement of local professionals in the decision-making process
and the lack of awareness-raising anticipating the enforcement of the ND resulted in unpreparedness
of farmers for the implementation process, which translated into a crisis in the local system [21].
The farmers, in fact, did not perceive their role in the un-sustainability of the system management,
or did not feel that the issue affected their own livelihood. A participatory action research process
started in 2008 [21–37] and involved interdisciplinary teams composed of agronomists, economists,
animal scientists, meteorologists, and social scientists. This research pathway was able to consolidate
a long-term trust relationship between researchers and local stakeholders [38–42] and revealed
asymmetries between the effective cooperation among livestock farmers and the fragmentation of
competences and actions among the public institutional actors in the same catchment. Moreover,
following the implementation of the Nitrate Directive, the initial tension between farmers and
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fishermen came to also include policy-makers in different positions in the governance system.
The European legislators were “accused” of enforcing regulations perceived as top-down and not
considering local contexts; the national governments were blamed for promoting controversial policies,
supporting agricultural development and, hence, intensification on one side, and environmental
protection hence reduced land exploitation on the other; the regional boards were criticized for the lack
of awareness raised among the local population despite the long time span between the publication
of the Nitrate Directive in 1991 and its implementation (2005) [38]. As a result, the eutrophication
of the wetlands surrounding the Arborea District is still an unsolved problem and Nitrate Directive
implementation also resulted in a loss of income for dairy farmers. In addition, the delay in regional
economic compensations for supplying the economic damage deriving from mass fish death increased
this tension [38].
3.2. La Rasgioni Event
La Rasgioni represented the last of three CADWAGO international governance learning events,
and took place on the occasion of the final Conference of the CADWAGO International Research
Project (15 October 2015, Arborea, OR, Italy). The event was designed to provide a unique opportunity
for the local stakeholders to publicly tell their stories and the reasons informing their practice, in front
of a team of scientists willing to understand the nature of the issues and provide critical reflections.
La Rasgioni was also conceived, following a theatrical format derived from the local tradition, to provide
the CADWAGO team with a short but authentic illustration of the complexity of the local situation
through the lens of the CADWAGO framework.
According to these premises, La Rasgioni was articulated as follows: (i) identification of the
nature of the local disputes; (ii) gathering of information for implementing a process of “negotiation”;
(iii) active involvement and empowerment of stakeholders in preparation for negotiation; (iv) creation
of a space for dialogue between conflicting parties; and (v) definition of shared options for
future improvements.
A broad spectrum of stakeholders and actors from different sectors and governance levels were
identified through a series of semi-structured interviews with representatives of institutions, private
companies, local cooperatives, and environmental movements operating in Arborea.
A total of 12 interviews were video recorded (see Table 1). The interviews for the representatives
of institutions were focused on two questions: (i) from your perspective and professional context,
what are the priorities for the management, distribution, and quality of water? (ii) which modalities and
measures would be useful to address such issues in the short, medium, and long term? The questions
for representatives of entrepreneurs and NGOs were three: (i) Do you, personally and as an enterprise,
feel constrained by the current laws and regulations about the management, distribution, and quality
of water? (ii) Thinking about the water system, do you or your enterprise feel constrained by other
productive activities or by the behavior of other actors in the area where you operate? (iii) If you were
God, what priorities would you set in the short, medium, and long period? The video of the interviews
was edited in order to get a short introduction of the various positions by topic, leaving the final word
to entrepreneurs and NGOs about priorities to be addressed in the future.
The aim of these preliminary interviews was threefold: (i) identifying the main causes of the local
“disputes”; (ii) identifying additional actors involved in water management in Sardinia to be involved
in the La Rasgioni event; and (iii) gathering information to introduce the public mediation process at
the event.
All the interviewees, as well as the other actors identified in the interview phase, were invited to
actively participate in the La Rasgioni event in Arborea. Additional representatives of the organizations
and institutions interviewed, representatives of local environmental movements, and the mayor of
Arborea were identified as actors to be invited to the La Rasgioni event. In addition to representatives
of institutions and agencies that operate at the community, provincial, and regional levels, local actors
who deal directly with water-related issues were involved. They mainly belonged to the cooperatives
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that work in the Arborea district (Cooperativa 3A, Cooperativa Produttori Arborea, and Cooperativa
Pescatori Arborea). Moreover, the mayor of Arborea took part in the trial as a representative of
the institutions who could give an additional point of view on local water-related criticisms. These
participants were identified as the main actors who deal with water-related issues according to the
activities implemented in the area (dairy cattle and fishing) that produce impacts on water resources.
Before starting the La Rasgioni process, “The song of Arborea” [43], specifically written for the
event, was performed by a professional singer. The song told the story of Arborea, characterized by
cultural and identity issues running parallel to economic and environmental ones, and described the
current challenges for Arborea. Afterwards, a video [44] presenting the interviews was shown. These
introductory moments aimed to create a relaxed context for the participants as well as for the audience,
and to immerse participants in the issues at stake (context immersion). Afterwards, the La Rasgioni
process was briefly described by the moderator, playing the role of Omu di mezzu, who introduced the
event and the participants.
“The Rasgioni: the water court” was structured as follows:
Omu di mezzu (judge): role played by a real judge
Rasgiunanti (jury): 40 researchers of the CADWAGO project.
Alligadori of institutions (lawyer): a researcher from the University of Sassari.
Alligadori of farmers, private companies, and environmental movements (lawyer): a researcher
from the University of Sassari.
La Rasgioni followed a four-phase scheme: after an introduction by the Omu di mezzu, the two
Alligadori highlighted the positions of their respective parties. Then, the Omu di mezzu asked the
Alligadori to report the statements of their witnesses. Witnesses were also asked to reveal how their
interests were affected by their counterpart. Finally, the two Alligadori made closing statements.
The role of the two Alligadori was to introduce stakeholders and their motives and stakes in the
“process,” to emphasize the “core arguments” that emerged from each testimony, and to deliver the
closing arguments. The international participants of the CADWAGO project played the role of the
“external jury” and expressed an independent, external point of view based on the public debate they
attended. At the end of the dispute, following the old tradition, everyone was invited by the Omu di
mezzu to join the dinner offered by the farmers’ cooperatives. During dinner the Omu di mezzu and the
Rasgiunanti wrote the “final verdict,” whereas the other participants continued to discuss the issues
that arose during the event. This format was designed to create a friendly atmosphere despite the
conflicting parties and encourage the shared acceptance of the verdict (see Appendix A for more details
of the event script). The choice of an “external jury” made up of international researchers was twofold:
giving participants an “external” perspective on their “disputes”; and giving them some “fresh” ideas
about how to tackle “water-related disputes”, as suggested by experts in the sector. In contrast with the
original scheme, we excluded local actors from the jury in order to avoid potential additional conflicts
deriving from the consolidated perspectives of local actors about how to solve the problem. However,
the verdict was conceived as an additional “mediating object” to trigger further discussion even after
the event was concluded.
After dinner, the final verdict produced by the jury was publicly read to the participants and the
Arborea song closed the event.
La Rasgioni scheme was intended to create a “public arena” in which local actors, practitioners,
and researchers were involved in a process of mutual exchange and learning. The proposed trial aimed
to create a platform of dialogue between policy-makers and local actors through the mediation of
scientists (who played the role of lawyers in the trial). This approach differs from that taken by Laing
and Wallis in their action research [44], which aimed to construct a capacity-building initiative in which
policy-makers and scientists dialogue in a setting similar to an actual policy-making process within
government or industry. However, in line with their study, La Rasgioni reflects on the dramaturgical
expedient as a tool for creating a “comfortable” setting for different types of actors, aiming to produce
“shared” solutions. At the same time, some reflections on the “authenticity” of the expedient are needed
Water 2017, 9, 297
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to highlight both the opportunities and the drawbacks of the method. In fact, as shown by Hajer [45],
the “public becomes what the setting makes it,” and this indicates that the ways in which the setting is
constructed influence the outcomes of the process in terms of new insights and new ideas. On the one
hand, the adoption of a “theatrical” scheme (pre-framed by scientists and artists), which attributes
specific roles to the participants, lawyers, judge, and jury, might somehow affect the “genuineness” of
the stakeholders’ “performances”. On the other hand, the theatrical framework was interpreted as a
useful tool for creating an “informal” and “friendly” exchange, simultaneously informed by “real”
content related to “real problems”. Although the long-term involvement of the researchers in studying
the local context might have “influenced” the “neutrality” of the trial, the steady dialogue between
scientists and the local community also represented a further resource for facilitating the “construction”
of the “participatory scheme” informed by previous findings.
Table 1. Competences and roles of the institutions and organizations interviewed.
Interviewees
Organization/Institution
Competences/Roles
Representatives of ARDI
Regional Agency of the
Hydrographical District
Technical and operational role for protecting
water ecosystems and for water-related policy
measures at the regional scale.
Representatives of ENAS
Sardinian public water authority
Supply of water for civil, agricultural and
industrial uses.
Representatives of ARPAS
Agency for technical support to
the Sardinian Government
Control of the application of
agro-environmental measures at farm scale and
monitoring of water quality in wells, channels,
and wetlands.
Representatives of Oristano
province
Oristano Province
Responsible for authorizations to the levy and
the water outlet and of the control of water
treatments.
Representatives and engineers of
the Land Reclamation Consortium
Consorzio di Bonidica
dell’Oristenese
Provision of water for irrigation to farms and
management of the irrigation water systems.
Representatives of the dairy
cooperative
Cooperativa 3A
Milk processing, distribution, and marketing of
dairy products.
Representatives of the Farmers’
Cooperative
Cooperativa Produttori Arborea
Horticultural products, meat market,
and provider of services for farmers.
Representatives of the Arborea
fishermen cooperative
Cooperativa Pescatori Arborea
Fishing, aquaculture in wetlands,
and fishponds.
3.3. Method of Data Analysis
The video records of the preliminary semi-structured interviews were transcribed verbatim (with
the permission of the interviewees) and examined through thematic analysis [46]. The aim was to
identify the main topics related to the ecological components of the Arborea system, climate change
adaptability in water governance institutions and organizations, Systemic Governance (relational)
Practices, and Governance Learning, and how these four elements combine generating water conflicts
at both the regional (Sardinia) and local (Arborea) levels. This preliminary analysis contributed
towards designing the strategy of mediation to be implemented by the researchers playing the role of
the Alligadori during La Rasgioni event. The main topics resulting from the preliminary semi-structured
interviews were recalled during the “trial” by both the Alligadori in order to deepen the discussion
(see Table 2).
La Rasgioni event was documented through direct observation by researchers not directly involved
in the process. Researchers took notes of the main themes and dynamics that emerged during the
events, and the topics were later compared to those highlighted during the preliminary interviews.
The issues that emerged were classified under the four CADWAGO pillars and analyzed in relation
to the position expressed by each category of participants, paying particular attention to changes in
participants’ perspectives during the evolution of the event, in order to evaluate the potential of the
dialogical tool adopted.
(with
the permission
of the
interviewees)
and examined
throughthe
thematic
analysis
[46].
The
aim was
management.
-- Increase
coordination
through
preliminary
semi-structured
interviews were
recalled during
“trial”
by both
the water
Alligadori
in
Reduce
costs
and
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governance
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about
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available technologies.
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in are
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leakages
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governance
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use)
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qualityin improved farmers’
confusion
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and
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sufficient;
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obsolete
problems,
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and contradictions.
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Current Situation
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responsibilities.
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bureaucracy,
inefficiencies.
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in action
andawareness
research
flooding
emergencies.
(pollution,
sustainable
land of the ongoing
pollution
isand
improving.
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allentrepreneurs
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costs for maintenance
of
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and
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high
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dialogue
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during
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ruralefficiency.
districts.
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implementation
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Mayor of Arborea
decisions
should
take
into
flooding
emergencies.
(pollution,
sustainable
landto promote regional
management.
coordination
through
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ND
awareness
and
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management).
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quality
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farmers
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nitrogen
in
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account
opinions
and
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October
to
March
the
nitrate problem, but it is not yet
Systemic
and private organizations, and
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interactions
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required
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by
complying
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the ND dam
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from
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solved.
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clear directions
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given
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between
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-- Promote
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and by
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to practitioners. for innovation.
technical
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and the EU directive.
obsolete
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paradoxical
in addressing
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- products.
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Adaptability in
Agriculture
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localRevise
needs and
Mayor of Arborea
decisions
should
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into
bureaucracy,
and inefficiencies.
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in action
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pollution problem;
there is
governance
was effective in mitigating the
water governance
reduce inherent ambiguities
account
opinions
and
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costs
for maintenance
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entrepreneurs
and
confusion
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and contradictions.
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the riverbed and
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wastewater;
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(high water
of ecosystems;
surface water.
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ND raised
awareness
and
slowness
of formal
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water quantity (planning
Fishermen Cooperative
temperature)
andauthorization
wetlands
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ARDI
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- and Improve
farmers
now
manage
nitrogen in
processes;
dams
help
during
water governance
resource use)
quality the capability of the
eutrophication.
Responses
from Ecological
and private organizations, and
governance
public
administration to
a
more
sustainable
way.
components of
flooding
emergencies.
(pollution, sustainable
land
the
regional
and
province
LAORE—Regional
clear directions should be given
The
ND is inadequate
management). respond to emergent issues.
administrations
areand
slow and EU ecosystems;
Advisory Agency in
to practitioners.
paradoxical
in remain
addressing
the
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funds
Agriculture
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The
ND often
generated
newunused.
spaces for
pollution problem; there is
governance
between different political and
reduce inherent ambiguities
dialogue among stakeholders.
confusion about roles and
practices
technical agencies, and
and contradictions.
The implementation of the ND
Adaptability in
responsibilities.
Mayor of Arborea
decisions should take into
was effective in mitigating the
water governance
- Involve
stakeholders.
accountall
citizens’
opinions and
nitrate problem, but it is not yet
Agreements compensate for the
- Work
onresources.
legislation both on
limited
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quantity
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ARDI
processes; dams help during
water governance
resource use) and quality
flooding emergencies.
(pollution, sustainable land
management).
Water 2017, 9, 297
11 of 25
4. Results
4.1. Content of the Interviews and Learning Event
The key issues that emerged during the interviews were infrastructural inefficiencies and
environmental concerns, which are described below. Both institutional representatives and
entrepreneurs highlighted the importance of raising environmental awareness together with mindset
and cultural change, although it was not specified by which means or when this should be carried out.
The main results of the adoption of La Rasgioni approach can be described for the different stages of
the event.
At the beginning of the process, polarized positions emerged, with representatives of the
institutions claiming their role in ensuring water security and quality with limited public resources
but also recognizing the need for better coordination and investing in research to improve the
competitiveness of agricultural systems. Entrepreneurs complained about the confused structure
of water governance in Sardinia with overlapping competences and responsibilities that require better
coordination. This resulted in the unsustainable cost of water, despite the abundance of water in the
reservoirs and untimely response of institutions to the emerging needs, which results in a continuous
state of emergency. They also admitted that the ND worked as a catalyst for improving dialogue with
policy makers. Representatives of the environmental NGOs, including the Italian League for Bird
Protection (LIPU), underlined the relevance of the wetland ecosystems and the need for a balance
between agriculture and natural resource use. The 3A dairy cooperative representative presented
a more systemic perception of water dynamics involving quality, quantity, and global and local costs.
In keeping with the traditional La Rasgioni scheme, the testimonies were reported in the form of
a debate, enlivened by the questions of some members of the jury (Rasgiunanti).
After the Alligadori’s and witnesses’ statements, the representatives of the regional Environmental
Agency complained about the way different EU directives treat water and how they often do not
match the national laws, thus generating a lot of confusion. They also complained about a lack of
monitoring networks at the local scale and the need for removing bureaucratic constraints to improve
the efficacy of the weather forecasting services. As far as pollution and agricultural water management
are concerned, they blamed farmers for using too much water, thus increasing nutrient leaching and
runoff and underlined the need to address water quality issues by involving all stakeholders. However,
the introduction of the ND was also recognized to be effective by some local experts from the university,
who suggested investing in new technology.
By contrast, the entrepreneurs identified bureaucracy and inappropriate governance praxis
as more constraining than the “environmental crisis”: even during the driest years (e.g., 2003),
the scarcity of water availability derived from a mismanagement of the dam, which in turn depended
on bureaucratic constraints. This caused multiple damage, in particular to rice growers. From previous
records, it is clear that farmers made good use of irrigation water despite the fact that they pay by crop
and area instead of by quantity consumed.
Finally, the entrepreneurs agreed with institutional representatives about the need to
preserve the beauty of the local landscape and adopt more sustainable milk production practices.
The representatives of the farmers’ cooperative were proud of how they were managing the land
assigned to their grandparents (who transformed a wetland into some of the most productive land on
the island).
At the end of the testimonies, the two Alligadori made closing statements.
“The normative system for water governance in Sardinia is consistent with regulations and norms.
We think that new regulations or assets are not needed. Instead, we need better coordination of actions
and of the relationships amongst the institutions, and stronger coordination between producers and
institutions. We share a main goal—improving competitiveness of the production systems—while
respecting the rules. Some complaints coming from producers are not consistent with reality; there is a
Water 2017, 9, 297
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lack of knowledge or prejudice about the role and practices of the institutions. Institutions are guided
by professional engineers, accounting for the world of producers” (Institutions’ Alligadori).
“The words we heard are proportional to the complications of the bureaucracy. More space is
needed for entrepreneurs in water governance. Entrepreneurs produce quality food, but also civil
society services, as they showed when livestock farmers proved to be much more efficient than civil
protection in helping the neighbor communities affected by the flood in November 2013. New spaces
for dialogue should to be created; we want to work in the best possible way” (Enterprises and
environmental movements’ Alligadori).
After the conclusive remarks of the Alligadori, Omu di mezzu declared the hearing phase closed,
and invited everyone to the dinner. After dinner, Omu di mezzu publicly announced the deziza,
the verdict:
“We thank the witnesses for sharing their knowledge and experiences with us, and we compliment
the farmers on the quality of their products, which we enjoyed at dinner. We also compliment the
institutions on their efforts to manage and improve the water system in Arborea. We see the role of the
jury as not to apportion blame, but rather to make recommendations for the future. We recognize that
there are some scientific and technical issues, but we see the real problem is related to people, and in
particular, the need for developing effective communication, and spaces for collectively learning the
way forward.
To this end, we recommend: the development of a shared vision for improving and transforming
water governance; the establishment of partnerships at catchment scale; and exploring the different
aims that people have for water and the catchment now and in the future. We feel that the situation can
be progressed by providing opportunities to see the world through another person’s eyes, and ‘living
in their shoes’. This evening, we have already heard that people can collaborate on flooding and
drilling crises. This gives us confidence that you already have nascent skills and capacity for addressing
complex and challenging situations. However, we recognize that there is a lack of ownership of the
issues, and it is unclear exactly what the situation is. We suggest that the Mayor is well placed to
convene and provide leadership, but the dialogue needs to incorporate a wider range of perspectives,
such as bird-watchers, fishermen, environmental NGOs. Tonight has opened up the opportunity
for you to work together, drawing on experiences from elsewhere in Sardinia and internationally”
(Rasgiunanti verdict).
4.2. Outcomes of the Learning Event
Multiple perspectives emerged during the interviews and the La Rasgioni event, not only with
regard to the kinds of discourses formulated by institutions on one side and entrepreneurs on the
other, but even within the institutional and entrepreneurial domains. In terms of water governance,
there were many key issues where all participants agreed: “there is great confusion in terms of
water governance and responsibilities. Currently, there is a water supply system that involves the
responsibility of six to seven institutions, planners, and authorities”. The institutions themselves
were aware of systemic inefficiency and admitted that further work needs to be done, although
improvements are clearly visible. As a matter of fact, in recent years all actors have experienced an
increased dialogue between institutions and entrepreneurs, particularly agricultural ones. A mediating
object for this intensified relationship has partly been the ND implementation, as the entrepreneurs in
Arborea were enforced to conform to regulatory limits. On the entrepreneur side, they were particularly
concerned about damage to the reputation of their community business based on the production of
high-quality milk, which would have had implications on the marketing side and, consequently, for the
local economic system.
While the ND implementation played the role of a mediating object to extend the farmers’ system
of interest to water resources quality, the general stand towards the directive was rather ambivalent.
On the one hand, it was considered fundamental to regulate surplus nitrogen disposal; on the other
Water 2017, 9, 297
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hand, the directive was perceived as a top-down and partially ineffective process wherein local needs
and contextual situations were not accounted for, resulting in a paradox of inequality.
The different perspectives emerging from the various stakeholders who played a role in the
local water dilemma were summarized and framed according to the CADWAGO pillars (Table 2).
Each stakeholder, representing a public or private institution, portrayed his/her own outlook on
the current situation with regard to water governance, highlighting the positive traits as well as
the weaknesses in the system, and providing their view on what was needed to improve the
current situation.
When discussing water governance, some themes recurred in the stakeholders’ discourses.
One point on which both the representatives of the institutions and farmers agreed was the current
situation with regard to nitrate pollution of groundwater. It is acknowledged that since the ND was
enforced in Arborea, the emergency status has subsided. It is generally recognized that local actors
have not only taken action to prevent further environmental impact, but also have gained awareness
of the impacts that undisciplined manure management may have on the environment and, as a result,
on the health, livelihood, and economy of the whole local community. However, both groups of
stakeholders admitted that the way the Nitrate Directive has been implemented was inadequate as
it did not allow for sufficient flexibility and the local contextualization and feasibility of the actions
required. In this sense, what clearly emerged was the need to revise the directive, particularly from the
entrepreneurs’ point of view and that of the institutions working most closely with land management
issues (e.g., LAORE, the Regional Advisory Agency in Agriculture).
Institutions and entrepreneurs also appeared to agree on the general inefficiency of the governance
system. Among the most discussed issues were infrastructural problems, bureaucratic hindrances,
high water prices associated with inefficient and ineffective services, and a complicated institutional
framework that generated confusion in the attribution of roles and responsibilities on water
management. What emerged from this complicated picture is that there was a general lack of
coordination and dialogue among the institutions sharing responsibility on water management
and between these institutions and the ultimate users of water, in this case mainly represented
by entrepreneurs, both farmers and fishermen, but also, indirectly, environmental NGOs.
5. Discussion
The issues that emerged throughout La Rasgioni are relevant for the Arborea context, but can at
the same time serve as a lesson for other situations involving water dilemmas and governance-related
controversies in general.
The conceptual framework outlined in CADWAGO helped us to synthesize the lessons learned
through La Rasgioni and understand the potential and limitations of this process, including in relation to
what lessons could be used to design a similar event in other contexts facing similar types of dilemmas.
We now use the four CADWAGO research lenses, mentioned in the introduction, to demonstrate
how the adoption of the La Rasgioni scheme facilitated the emergence of a large number of issues and
insights associated with ecological, social, and institutional factors, governance practices, and learning.
We also discuss here the potential significance of these issues and insights for water governance more
widely. Finally, we discuss the lessons learned by the implementation of La Rasgioni and the wider
implications and limitations of its application to similar dilemmas in other contexts.
5.1. Insights from Using CADWAGO’s Research Pillars
5.1.1. Ecological Components of Ecosystems
La Rasgioni created favorable conditions for stakeholders to compare their different perspectives
on ecological processes, and to identify related barriers and opportunities of relevance to governance.
In this sense, contrasting perceptions, such as in the case of existing dams and water reservoirs, clearly
emerged. Even though the local community perceived the inefficiency of these infrastructures to be a
Water 2017, 9, 297
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limitation to their activity, their capacity to autonomously manage the effects of extreme weather events
(and support other neighboring communities), such as for example flooding, showed the high resilience
of the local system. This finding is consistent with the work of Baird et al. [47], who considered five
case studies in Europe, Canada, and Australia as part of their CADWAGO work on stakeholder
perceptions of ecosystems in flood-prone areas. They found a general shift towards resilience in
thinking about flooding. La Rasgioni’s role in sharing perceptions extends beyond an ecological focus
but understanding of science (e.g., in relation to nitrates) has certainly played a significant part in
learning about water-related issues in Arborea. For example, the situation created by the event was
able to help participants deconstruct the asymmetric perceptions of the water management issues
(particularly at the dam level). It helped change the understandings of the various institutional actors
who played a role in managing the water from the dam to the farm border, which was a prerequisite
for removing crystallized prejudices of downstream vs. upstream actors.
Almost none of the representatives of entrepreneurs expressed concern about water availability
in the future, despite climate change threats and diffused water quality issues. This is consistent with
the findings of Nguyen et al. [42], which evidenced the need for further investment in well-designed
learning spaces for farmers and entrepreneurs to promote anticipated virtuous and voluntary behaviors
to improve water use efficiency and facilitate their understanding of climate change expectations in
the future. In fact, the director of the dairy cooperative, which is pumping out 1400 m3 water day−1 of
groundwater with higher (but steady) salinity than in the recent past, recognized that the cooperative
members were not prepared for a possible deterioration in their well water quality.
5.1.2. Climate Change Adaptability in Water Governance Institutions and Organizations
Participants in La Rasgioni expressed a need for changes in the management of water to enable
systemic and adaptive responses to climate change. Despite differences in attributing responsibilities
and perceiving the implications of certain actions, both institutions and entrepreneurs agreed about the
existing confusion around water legislation (in particular in the implementation of EU directives at the
local level), the inefficiency of the current water management systems, and the lack of infrastructure
and maintenance. In particular, an excessive fragmentation of the management process, and the
consequent need for structural simplification, was perceived by both parties as one of the main
constraints to improving the water governance system.
The concepts of “governance” and “participation” are a subject of controversy: “ . . . members
state water bureaucracies, perception of water management, as well as how they formulate water
policy, mostly depend upon what sort of political culture and under what historical foundations
their bureaucracies operate. More importantly, it depends upon what sort of reaction they get from
society and the public regarding their water management practices” [48]. Hence, “there is often a large
gap between participatory rhetoric (including theoretical discourse) and participatory practice” [49].
Often participatory procedures only provide legitimacy to well-intentioned and already pre-packaged
policies. This is particularly worrying in the overall present-day perception of the European Union by
its citizens, who, on the one hand, admit some important benefits (peace, human rights, and health
security), but on the other hand notice important governance shortcomings: political weakness,
democratic deficit, erosion of national sovereignty, and ineffective agricultural policies [50]. Our results
are consistent with those of Huitema et al. [51], who highlight that public participation can improve
the quality of decisions, the legitimacy of management, and its reflexivity. However, much depends on
the ability and willingness of stakeholders to participate and of policy makers to create the conditions
for participation.
From this perspective, the public arena provided by La Rasgioni not only created conditions for
interaction between interdependent stakeholders polarized into two “opposite” parties (institutions
and entrepreneurs), but also within the multiplicity of institutions that work in water management
and do not have in their daily professional life many opportunities to communicate each other.
Water 2017, 9, 297
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Enabling such interaction is strongly related to the social and institutional components of what can
be seen as the socio-ecological system of water governance. In fact, throughout La Rasgioni the idea that
both institutions and local communities play a primary role in tackling water-related issues became
central. It was also clear that the institutional framework upon which local bodies depend to improve
their adaptive capacity to change is important as well. Understanding how and where improvements
can take place in the context of water governance is the most challenging matter, not only because of
management issues but also because of the systemic complexity related to environmental problems.
Fischer et al. [52] refer to two particular challenges associated with this complexity: difficulties in
framing environmental problems in law and in ascribing responsibility for environmental problems.
The discussions raised during La Rasgioni highlighted that the institutional framework should ideally
result from a systematic dialogue process, not only between the water users and the decision levels,
but also among the constellation of institutions that manage water resources. In fact, as emerged
during the event, there is a need to improve both communication and coordination among institutional
bodies, rather than completely reform the system. Smith et al. [0], in their CADWAGO’s work
package associated with the same research lens, identified a need to take a holistic and systemic
approach to assessing the capacity of institutions and organizations to respond to water governance
challenges such as climate change. The findings from La Rasgioni suggest that this kind of dialogical
process has the potential to help increase institutional and organizational capacity to respond to
water governance challenges, although further research and dialogue would be needed in order to
understand the strengths and limitations of La Rasgioni’s contribution as a conducive modality for
boosting the participation and engagement of relevant stakeholders.
5.1.3. Systemic Governance Practices
CADWAGO’s systemic governance practices work package focused on existing and potential
interconnections among practices and aimed to critically assess how history, facilitation, stake-holding,
and reflexivity contributed to water governance under climate change [17]. La Rasgioni helped
produce many insights in terms of actual and potential systemic governance practices. All participants
recognized that some steps have been taken towards the establishment of a dialogue process intended
as a consolidated praxis (theory-informed practice). All parties see the benefits deriving from the
interaction between the top and bottom levels, in particular in terms of producing “proactive”
behaviors. This is the case, for example, with the Nitrate Directive implementation: after an initial
generalized dissatisfaction (due to the lack of dialogue between the top and the bottom levels),
the creation of a dialogue platform (thanks to a number of public initiatives in which both parties
participated) contributed to increasing entrepreneurs’ environmental awareness. At the same time,
institutions had the opportunity to understand what kind of policies were needed to reinforce local
resilience, for example through the implementation of new regional measures. This means that local
entrepreneurs started to consider the positive effects of the Nitrate Directive in terms of environmental
benefits, and institutions began to accommodate the normative framework to meet local needs.
La Rasgioni highlighted many interconnections among practices. It was found that new
entrepreneurs started to be concerned about climate change, water governance, and environmental
care. However, their worries were directly connected to their economic activities. This means
that environmental threats are also increasingly perceived as economic threats. Not only do they
perceive an inefficient water management as a barrier to their business, but also their environmentally
friendly production strongly depends on consumer orientation. Therefore, the acceptance of new
praxis and processes seems to depend on potential positive economic outcomes. Both parties agreed
on the fact that protecting the environment and natural resources (such as water) is fundamental,
as well as preserving local social and economic assets. In fact, the sustainability of their system
of interest depends on environmental, cultural, social, and economic co-occurring factors. Hence,
the evidence that emerged in the context of La Rasgioni framework shows how a constructive dialogue
between institutions and entrepreneurs could be simultaneously based on these factors. On the one
Water 2017, 9, 297
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hand, adopting the entrepreneurs’ perspective, institutions should seek to engage in dialogue in
order to facilitate the introduction of innovative practices, which can produce benefits in economic
(and simultaneously environmental and social) terms; on the other hand, adopting the institutions’
perspective, entrepreneurs should adopt a more proactive attitude instead of a “complaining” one.
5.1.4. Governance Learning
La Rasgioni is strongly connected to the governance learning component of the CADWAGO
framework. Because of its public nature, La Rasgioni offered the opportunity to open up spaces
of mutual learning that sensitized all participants, included the jury and the audience, to existing
interdependencies, uncertainties, and latent conflicts between institutions and different organizations
of stakeholders connected by a net of complex water-governance-related issues. In this sense,
the creation of an event such as La Rasgioni provided a context that, despite its “ad hoc constructed”
character, facilitated interaction between actors who otherwise hardly ever have the chance or perhaps
the willingness to communicate. Even though the environmental awareness of some local actors
belonging to the cooperatives might have already been influenced the existing collaboration with
researchers (in relation to the long-term research conducted in the area), La Rasgioni represented the
first occasion for entrepreneurs and institutions to compare and discuss their different perspectives and
environmental values. Moreover, the location of La Rasgioni, a theatrical stage, provided participants
with a democratic setting where everyone was equal, part of one group (institutions or non-institutions),
and under the control of a “external judge” (Omu di mezzu) and an “external jury.” In this sense,
participants’ roles and hierarchies were not emphasized and instead each actor could feel part of a
larger group. At the same time, the participation of a rather large number of actors who previously
never had the chance to meet and discuss water dilemmas enabled the sharing of varied and often
conflicting perspectives existing within each group, particularly the institutional one. In this sense,
the La Rasgioni event achieved unprecedented results, as it provided both participants and observers
with a comprehensive picture of the water dilemma and, most importantly, because it created a space
for dialogue and confrontation among actors who perceived this as one of the main gaps within the
water governance system. A range of theories of social and experiential learning influenced the design
of the La Rasgioni process, alongside the various practitioners’ experiences of social processes and
working with the community [42–48]. Closer scrutiny of what occurred during La Rasgioni using
some of these theories may help to illuminate and also provide a structure for how to move from
deliberation to collective action to address some of the water governance issues of Arborea. Theories
of experiential learning focus on knowledge produced through transformation of experience via a
process that involves reflection [54–57]. Other theories suggest some ways forward for the La Rasgioni
process; for instance, Kolb and Fry’s experiential learning cycle [54] includes times of conceptualization
and testing in addition to experiencing, observing, and reflecting; Schön [56] distinguishes between
reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action, which is particularly relevant to the nature of spaces for
learning; and Mesirow [57] emphasized the need for critical reflection in order to change meaning,
structures, and perspectives [58]. All three areas of theory provide principles for guiding the facilitation
of dialogue. In moving towards action, theories of social learning can help to explain what and how
social interactions contribute to both individual and collective learning. For example, Wenger [59]
and his colleagues work with communities of practice and complex “landscapes” of practice [60] to
draw out distinctions of practices, community, and identity alongside experiences and focus on the
dynamics and boundaries of practice. In the La Rasgioni process in Arborea, these theories have the
potential to help draw out and make multiple perspectives and interactions more apparent and to
facilitate them by contributing to a design for learning [12].
5.2. Wider Implications and Applications—Beyond Arborea and beyond Water
The restaging of La Rasgioni for the mediation of conflicts was successful in providing conducive
learning spaces and facilitating the active and open participation of stakeholders in complex water
Water 2017, 9, 297
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governance issues in a sensitive context. Possibly, similar outcomes to those obtained through La
Rasgioni could have been achieved with different modalities of stakeholder engagement, but the
format of La Rasgioni proved to be quite efficient in terms of resources and time invested and enabled
all participants to gain a high level of engagement and mutual understanding. In half an evening,
including the consecutive Italian–English translation to the jury, all participants engaged, with a
positive attitude, in a constructive discussion. The design of this stakeholder engagement modality
was nurtured in two ways. One was the trust of key stakeholders, gained by the local research team
across some eight years of agro-ecological action co-researching in the Arborea district. Second is the
close collaboration between theatre professionals and the interdisciplinary and international team of
scientists that informed the design of the process with social learning theories.
The format of the event was designed to enable the jury, composed of experts who encountered
the Arborea case study for the first time, to gain sufficient insight into the core aspects of the complexity
of the situation and provide advice for improvement. At the same time, stakeholders were given a rare
chance to reflect on their own role and practice beyond the boundaries of their business (entrepreneurs)
or daily life in an institutional office (institutional representatives). All participants appreciated
the diversity of perspectives around water governance in the region, and both parties shifted from
a polarized complaining/defensive attitude to a convergent motivated/pro-active attitude.
Key ingredients for creating the right atmosphere to defuse potential tensions and conflicts
included: the transformation of the dispute to a theatrical performance (including the song); the venue
in the theatre of Arborea; the role of the Omu di mezzu and the Alligadori in mediating and leaving
sufficient time to all witnesses to tell their story; the foreign guests put in the position of listening to
and questioning the witnesses; and the informal modality of the dinner before the dezisa. The process
also generated motivation and openness in revealing genuine witnesses’ experience. Such modalities
are often ignored in the format of the meetings among experts and practitioners or scientists.
The process of using a theatrical performance or traditional practices to enhance communication,
raise awareness, and mediate conflict is well known in some areas of scholarship and practice, e.g.,
in participatory development, environmental education and interpretation, and health education.
Examples range from the use of puppetry to promote sustainable development in Japan [61]
and role-play and performance in health education (e.g., in the context of Ebola outbreaks and
HIV/AIDS [62]) to the use of drama and theatre as a social intervention in conflict and post-conflict
situations [63–67]. Some of those working in theatre and drama who have made the link with
politics, social justice, and learning have been particularly influential in this field, e.g., Augusto Boal’s
work [68,69] in legislative and forum theatre, which involves the audience in dialogue; and cognitive
psychologist Jerome Bruner’s reflections on the role of storytelling, including in law (both referred to
in Box 1) [70]. One specific example that the La Rasgioni performance in Arborea inspired is provided
by Professor Michael Wilson, one of the participants in the CADWAGO’s governance learning event
that included La Rasgioni (see Box 3).
There is evidence that the restaging of La Rasgioni already inspired other similar successful
initiatives to address water governance dilemmas in different contexts [71]. In doing so, it is important
to be aware of some of the limitations of such a process. One important point is that La Rasgioni as
a “one-off event” can open up new spaces for dialogue starting from a situation of lack of dialogue,
in particular within institutional stakeholders belonging to different (or the same) public bodies
and/or between institutional representatives and entrepreneurs. While this process has the potential
for becoming a breakthrough process, it would require further resources and commitment for the
follow-up to achieve actual change and/or to unblock intransigent situations. At Arborea, some
of the institutional representatives who could be considered problem “owners” (Checkland [72]),
such as those administrators able to influence the re-design of the domain and role of the different
administrations in water governance, did not want to participate. Yet others agreed either to show the
video of their interview (e.g., the politician at the head of the Regional Water Government Body) or to
join the event (e.g., Regional Councilor for Agriculture). Most of the participants from public water and
Water 2017, 9, 297
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environmental agencies were those who do the everyday office work, which is also important. On the
other hand, the most powerful entrepreneurs “joined the game,” while the weak ones participated in
the event only by watching the video of the interviews.
Box 3. Inspired by La Rasgioni—beyond the local water dilemma.
In October 2015, I was fortunate enough to be invited by CADWAGO to witness a restaging of La Rasgioni,
a traditional Sardinian form of conflict resolution that existed until the 1960s, as a way of resolving disputes
at a community level and collectively exploring dilemmas around the deployment of shared resources. I use
the word “restaging” deliberately here and with some caution, as the event primarily spoke to me as a theatre
scholar. What I witnessed was a piece of theatre, a forum for collective community storytelling, and I was
reminded of Augusto Boal’s Forum Theatre, . . . Jerome Bruner’s work on storytelling and justice, and many
other things besides. Most of all, though, it struck me as a way to bring together narrative, technical, scientific,
and technical epistemologies into a single performative event that created space for a new way of thinking about
issues. It was both a judicial and a social event—using perceived dilemmas and divisions to find collective
solutions and enhance community cohesion and a sense of joint enterprise. Never had policymaking seemed so
much fun.
The question I left with was how I might take this inspirational experience and use it to inform the work
we were doing on . . . [our] . . . project. Clearly, there would need to be some changes—a traditional Sardinian
cultural practice is what it is—tied to a specific place, community and its culture. So we brought into play some
of our expertise in storytelling, theatre and British traditional practices and created our own unique version
of La Rasgioni . . . . It was inevitably very different from the event in Sardinia, but also instantly recognizable.
We are now planning a second version . . . , to be held in Peterborough . . . and it continues to evolve.
In reporting on a decade of social learning inquiry in the context of water management
internationally [73], some of the authors of this paper made a case for investing in local systemic
innovation through social-learning praxis design [74]. The range of insights into the different aspects
of water governance provided by La Rasgioni and its ability to inspire similar activity in other contexts
suggest that it could provide an example of the kind of systemic innovation that could be worthy of
further investment in co-designing pathways for sustainable development at the community level.
6. Conclusions
The adoption of the La Rasgioni model was successful in terms of both stimulating the emergence
of latent conflicts (and their potential viable options), and exploring new dialogical tools for actively
engaging stakeholders in a learning circle aimed at mediating these conflicts. The combination of the
four CADWAGO pillars, translated into a tool (La Rasgioni) for mediating local disputes, enhanced
governance learning by creating dialogical spaces for collectively identifying barriers and opportunities
represented by the ecological components of the ecosystem, by the “adaptation capacity” of the
system, and by the systemic and potential new governance practices. All participants—researchers
included—were actively involved in a co-learning experience about different perspectives, concerns,
and interests. Participants were motivated to identify convergent win-win solutions, which either
reconcile different systems of interest or allow them to co-exist. In this sense, the public and
theatrical nature of La Rasgioni created spaces of social learning about interdependencies, uncertainties,
and conflicts between institutions and local organizations.
La Rasgioni proved to be a useful tool for creating conditions conducive for stakeholders to
share different perspectives on ecological processes, and to jointly identify barriers and opportunities
to systemic and adaptive governance. In fact, although individual interviews helped researchers
understand and report (as mediators of knowledge) the diverse positions that emerged about specific
issues, the adoption of a public arena was useful for motivating actors with different perspectives to
directly interact and identify common solutions or, at least, share understanding of water-related issues.
One of the main outcomes from La Rasgioni is that the current institutional arrangement in Sardinia
is critical in addressing effective and efficient water management in a climate change context. Such a
situation generates unbalanced power relationships among interdependent stakeholders and would
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require a more holistic and systemic approach to address the water-related crisis, considering that only a
few stakeholders from both parties perceived the concrete risks associated with climate change. In order
to deal with this imbalance, participants identified common ground/vision/interests that combine
the preservation of both social and economic assets. The increased awareness of the interconnection
between practices at different levels in the catchment revealed the potential for more public–private
synergies in developing effective systemic governance practices, providing that institutions do not
constrain the adoption of innovative practices and entrepreneurs adopt a proactive attitude.
The unprecedented public learning space on water governance issues opened up by La Rasgioni at
Arborea could not be so effective if it was not informed by sound social learning theories that shaped
the design and implementation of the “theatrical” scheme, which gave participants the opportunity to
discuss key issues in an informal way. This approach overcame the difficulties that usually emerge in
the context of participatory practices, where some actors might not feel comfortable to reveal what they
thought publicly [71–73]. In this context, instead, the presence of a “lawyer” facilitated stakeholders
in expressing and moving towards converging opinions on the nature of the issues and actions to
take. The La Rasgioni event gave institutional representatives the chance to understand what kind of
improvements are needed to support systemic and adaptive water governance, the entrepreneurs to be
listened to by institutions, and researchers to facilitate this dialogue and collect more comprehensive
data. Ultimately, the process helped all participants to understand that there are different normative
systems and institutions besides the formal national and supranational ones [74–76]. These systems,
developed at the local level, do not necessarily consist of written norms; however, stakeholders might
consider them reliable instruments that help them to deal with existing conflicts of interest.
The external jury, which did not impose any specific solution but invited participants to reflect
on what an independent point of view perceives as the weaknesses and strengths of the system,
was considered useful by stakeholders after the conclusion of the event.
There are a number of open questions worth addressing further in future developments of this
kind of process. For instance, one of the participants fed back the following comment on some of the
limitations of adopting La Rasgioni to mediate controversies on water governance: “The form of the
court was potentially confrontational, in that by dividing diverse stakeholders into two groups you
were introducing a polarizing dynamic which otherwise would have been much weaker if present at
all. For example, what would it have been like to design a stakeholder dialogue in which participants
were allocated to eight rather than two stakeholder groups, and then during the dialogue had to work
in mixed as well as separate stakeholder combinations?”
In conclusion, the adoption of the La Rasgioni format in the context of managing conflicts related
to local natural resources might enhance public participation and give voice to weak stakeholders
by using the “trial” as a mediating object for social learning. Its public, “theatrical” nature might
inspire local government practitioners to develop alternative and more effective ways to address water
governance dilemmas, in particular where the existing normative framework is perceived by local
actors as inappropriate for developing resilient and adaptive governance systems.
Acknowledgments: We gratefully acknowledge funding for this work, as part of the Climate Change Adaptation
and Water Governance (CADWAGO) project, from Riksbankens Jubileumsfond, the Volkswagen Stiftung,
and Compagnia di San Paolo through the Europe and Global Challenges program. We also gratefully
acknowledge the contributions of all participants in CADWAGO’s governance learning activities. Much of
the long-term background research prior to the event was conducted in the context of the Agroscenari
(D.M. 8608/7303/2008—www.agroscenari.it) and MACSUR (D.M. 2660/7303/2012—www.macsur.eu) projects,
both funded by the Italian Ministry of Agricultural Food and Forestry Policies. The authors acknowledge the
contribution of all active participants to the La Rasgioni event in Arborea on 15 October 2015, in particular the
Cooperativa Produttori Arborea and the “3A” dairy cooperative for kindly providing concrete support for the
initiative. We also acknowledge the logistical support of the research team of the Desertification Research Centre,
University of Sassari (in particular: Alessandra Paulotto, Laura Mula, Roberto Lai, and Antonio Pulina) and the
staff of the communication and press office of the University of Sassari. We also wish to thank John Colvin for
sending us useful feedbacks following participation in La Rasgioni. We are grateful to Michael Wilson and his staff
at Loughborough University, UK, for enhancing the value of the original idea by adapting it to an English context.
Water 2017, 9, 297
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Author Contributions: Sante Maurizi directed the event and conceived the idea with the direct involvement of Pier
Paolo Roggero and Simone Sassu, the latter acting as the Omu di mezzu during the performance. Olga Zuin recorded
the event and provided an anthropological perspective to the analysis; Giovanna Seddaiu and Pier Paolo Roggero
provided an agro-ecological perspective of agricultural water management and performed the role of Alligadori
during the event; Maria Laura Ruiu, Pier Paolo Roggero, and Giovanna Seddaiu contributed to the organization
of the event. Chris Blackmore contributed to the theoretical framing of the analysis. Pier Paolo Roggero was the
scientific coordinator of the local research team. All authors contributed to writing and editing the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A. La Rasgioni Script
Participating were: Simone Sassu (Omu di mezzu), Giovanna Seddaiu (Alligadori of institutions’
representatives), Pier Paolo Roggero (Alligadori of entrepreneurs), Daniela Cossiga (singer),
some 30 researchers from the CADWAGO project (jury), and stakeholders (witnesses). Produced
by Sante Maurizi, Cinearena.
Arborea Song (http://bit.ly/arboreasong)
Introduction: Researcher/artistic director
-
Why are we here?
What are we going to build together?
The meeting aims to provide an informal space for reflection, not an exhaustive process.
Omu Di Mezzu
-
Moderator of the meeting
Introduction of the parties and roles
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Some interviewees are not here in person
Witnesses of entrepreneurs
Witnesses of institutions
Omu di mezzu (the middle man)
Alligadori (two researchers from the University of Sassari on behalf of entrepreneurs
and institutions)
Rasgiunanti (the international jury)
Audience: involved by writing their questions on Post-it notes (collected by the Omu di mezzu at
the end of the trial).
◦
◦
The two Alligadori illustrate the positions of the parties and introduce the witnesses.
The Alligadori for the institutions, a researcher from the University of Sassari, says:
The implementation of the European, national, and regional rules on water management in this area has
been delegated to organizations and institutions (EU Water Framework Directive and Nitrates Directive have
been implemented at the national level according to national and regional laws).
Some members belonging to the main competent institutions in charge of water governance are here.
Introduction of the witnesses to the institutions’ representatives:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Major of Arborea
Vice-president of the Governing Board of the European Initiative “Joint Program Initiative “Food
Agriculture and Climate Change” JPI FACCE and Consultant for the Ministry of Agriculture
Regional Councilor for Agriculture (Autonomous Region of Sardinia)
President of the Regional Water Boards Authority and Major of Sassari
Representatives of Regional Multisectoral Water Management Board
Agrometeorologist at ARPAS “Weather and Climate Department”
Agronomist of “Water User Association Oristanese district”
Representative of LAORE—Regional Advisory Agency in Agriculture
Water 2017, 9, 297
◦
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Additional testimonies from people who live and work in the Sardinian River Basin
District—Distretto idrografico” and the province of Oristano
Statement: We are in a nitrate-vulnerable zone which is subject to a certain number of constraints and
aims at improving the water quality of surface water and groundwater.
The Alligadori of entrepreneurs and local organizations, a researcher from the University of
Sassari, says:
The inhabitants of Arborea have transformed a swamp and infertile area into one of the most
agriculturally productive and economically developed area of Sardinia, rich in valuable habitats of
community interest that attract tourists from around the world.
Introduction of the witnesses:
-
Director of Arborea Producers’ Cooperative
President of Arborea Producers’ Cooperative
Director of 3A Cooperative
Professor and member of the Management Board of the 3A Cooperative
President of 3A Cooperative
Maria Rita Saba (responsible for quality and food safety), Nieddittas, Fishermen Cooperative of
Arborea (in the video)
Representative of LIPU (Italian League for Bird Protection), Oristano section
Technician at Arborea Producers’ Cooperative
Statement: Business activities carried out in the plain of Arborea generate employment, welfare and
economy and are a priority for this area. They take place in a context of market uncertainty and threats associated
with natural disasters and climate change. Water is essential for the development of this area. In order to improve
water governance in this area, it is necessary to invest in productive activities to combine economic development
and conservation of environmental resources.
Short video with interviews (10 min) (http://bit.ly/interviewslarasgioni)
The Omu di mezzu hands over the floor to the Alligadori.
Alligadori for the Institutions
The Alligadori briefly discusses the video interviews, asking Omu di mezzu to hear the witnesses
who have not granted video interviews by asking them a precise question that requires a succinct reply
(translated into English for the jury).
The Omu di mezzu hands over the floor to the witnesses from the institutions who want to answer
the Alligadori’s question, giving priority to the following (who were not interviewed):
◦
◦
◦
◦
Representative of ARPAS
Representatives of ENAS—Regional Multisectoral Water Management Board
Expert, Italian Ministry of Agriculture
Mayor of Arborea
The Omu di mezzu hands over the floor to the Alligadori for the Entrepreneurs.
The Alligadori briefly discusses the video interviews, asking the Omu di mezzu to hear the witnesses
who have not granted video interviews by asking them a precise question that requires a succinct reply
(translated into English for the jury).
The Omu di mezzu hands over the floor to the witnesses from the institutions who want to answer
the Alligadori’s question, giving priority to the following:
◦
Expert and Professor of animal nutrition, University of Sassari
The Omu di mezzu invites first the Rasgiunanti and then the audience to pose short questions to
the witnesses, who can reply with a maximum of three sentences.
Rasgiunanti (the jury)
Water 2017, 9, 297
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At least one question for each CADWAGO pillar
Ecological components of ecosystems
Climate change adaptability in water governance institutions and organizations
Systemic governance practices
Governance learning
Collection of Post-its with questions asked by the public. The Omu di mezzu calls on people one
by one.
Arborea Song
Dinner
Omu di mezzu reports to the audience li Rasgiunanti’s decision:
Detzisa or Arrangiu
End
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