HURIA
Journal of The Open University of Tanzania
Volume 18 November, 2014 ISSN 0856 6739
Please Note: COVER SKETCH TO BE
REPLACED ON PRINTING
Special Issue: Edited Proceedings of the Third DEATA (Distance Education
Association of Tanzania) Conference Held at Moshi University College of
Cooperative and Business Studies (MUCCOBS), Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
on 22nd to 23rd August 2013
The Open University of Tanzania
P. O. Box 23409
DAR ES SALAAM
TANZANIA
Fax (255) 022-2668759
Website http://www.out.ac.tz
Back Cover… outside
In this issue
Enhancing Environmental Friendliness through Mobile Phone Learning
Maureen N. Chukwu
Convergence of Distance Education and Conventional Learning:
Developments at the Open University of Tanzania
Dr. Neville Z. Reuben
Innovations and
The Contribution of Solar Power Funding for Online Content Accessibility and
Sustainability of Blended Learning in Rural Africa: The Tanzania Perspective
D. Ikwaba Paul1, James Uhomoibhi2 and Fatma Ubwa1
Innovation and Development in Blended Learning Mode in Higher Learning Institutions:
Interactive Experiences from OUT’s Postgraduate Students and Instructors
Mariana Makuu and Deus Ngaruko
Prospects and Challenges in the Deliverance of Executive Masters Degree Programmes
William A. Pallangyo and Felician Mutasa
Making a Case for E - learning: Experiences in E-learning at Langston University Langston,
Oklahoma, USA
Patricia Chogugudza
Challenges of Implementing Quality Assurance Systems in Blended Learning in Uganda:
The Need For An Assessment Framework
Nambale Moses Geoffrey
Challenges Faced by Adult Learners Enrolled in Blended Distance Learning
Programmes: A Case Study of the Institute of Adult Education
Bernadetha Kapinga and Mugabe Mtani
Assessing Students Perceptions on Intensive Face-to-Face in Open and Distance Education:
A Case of The Open University of Tanzania
Martha Jacob Kabate
Students’ Perception on the Quality of Open and Distance Learning Programmes in
Tanzania
Innocent Nasson Messo
Building Competitive Advantage in Academic Programmes in Open and Distance Learning
(ODL) Institutions: Case of The Open University of Tanzania
Deus D.Ngaruko1, Leonard L.W.T Fweja2, Fauzia M. Mohammed3
HURIA
Journal of The Open University of Tanzania
Volume 18 November, 2014 ISSN 0856 6739
The Open University of Tanzania
P. O. Box 23409
DAR ES SALAAM
TANZANIA
Fax (255) 022-2668759
Website http://www.out.ac.tz
Editorial Board
Dr. Emmanuel Kigadye
Chief Editor,
Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental Studies, The
Open University of Tanzania
Dr. Angaza Gimbi
Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental Studies, The
Open University of Tanzania
Dr. Josephine Yambi
Faculty of Education, The Open University of Tanzania
Dr. Peter P. Lipembe
Faculty of Arts and Social Science, The Open University of
Tanzania
Mr. Neville Reuben
Institute of Continuing Education, The Open University of Tanzania
Dr. Salim Mohamed
Faculty of Business Management, The Open University of Tanzania
Dr. Clarence Mgina
University of Dar es Salaam
Prof. B. Lembariti
Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Administration)
Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences
Mr. Justin U.J. Kimaro
Publications Editor, Copy Editor/Technical Services, The Open
University of Tanzania
Editorial Office
Ms. Josephine Temu
The Open University of Tanzania,
Kawawa Road, Kinondoni Municipality,
P. O. Box 23409,
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Tel: (255) 022-2668835, 022-2668820
Fax: (255) 022-2668759
E-mail: [email protected]
Website:http://www.out.ac.tz
В© The Open University of Tanzania 2014
All rights reserved.
NOTE
Opinions expressed in this journal are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the
publishers – The Open University of Tanzania.
iii
Contents
Editorial v
Enhancing Environmental Friendliness through Mobile Phone Learning
Maureen N. Chukwu. 02
Convergence of Distance Education and Conventional Learning: Innovations and
Developments at the Open University of Tanzania
Neville Z. Reuben 11
The Contribution of Solar Power Funding for Online Content Accessibility and
Sustainability of Blended Learning in Rural Africa: The Tanzania Perspective
Ikwaba Paul1, James Uhomoibhi2 and Fatma Ubwa1 24
Innovation and Development in Blended Learning Mode in Higher Learning
Institutions: Interactive Experiences from OUT’s Postgraduate Students and
Instructors
Mariana Makuu1 Deus Ngaruko2 42
Prospects and Challenges in the Deliverance of Executive Masters Degree
Programmes
William A. Pallangyo1 and Felician Mutasa2 58
Making a Case for E - learning: Experiences in E-learning at Langston University
Langston, Oklahoma, USA
Patricia Chogugudza 70
Challenges of Implementing Quality Assurance Systems in Blended Learning in
Uganda: The Need For An Assessment Framework
Nambale Moses Geoffrey 86
Challenges Faced by Adult Learners Enrolled in Blended Distance Learning
Programmes: A Case Study of the Institute of Adult Education
Bernadetha Kapinga and Mugabe Mtani 99
Assessing Students Perceptions on Intensive Face-to-Face in Open and Distance
Education: A Case of The Open University of Tanzania
Martha Jacob Kabate 105
Students’ Perception on the Quality of Open and Distance Learning Programmes in
Tanzania
Innocent Nasson Messo 117
Building Competitive Advantage in Academic Programmes in Open and Distance
Learning (ODL) Institutions: Case of The Open University of Tanzania
Deus D.Ngaruko1, Leonard L.W.T Fweja2, Fauzia M. Mohammed3 133
Guide to Authors 153
iv
Editorial
Huria Journal Volume 18 is a special issue of the Journal. This volume exclusively
contains selected papers which were presented at the 3rd DEATA (Distance
Education Association of Tanzania) conference which was held at Moshi University
College of Cooperative and Business Studies (MUCCOBS), Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
on 22nd to 23rd August 2013. This third DEATA conference brought forward some
very interesting ideas, thus proving that, the idea of having such conferences is very
important for developing Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in Tanzania and
Africa in general.
Altogether 42 papers were presented at the conference. The papers were peer
reviewed and only those which were found to be of good quality and which
conformed to the Huria Journal Format were accepted for Publication in Huria
Journal Volume 18. The DEATA mandated Huria Journal to peer review and
publish the proceedings. The Editorial Board wishes to thank DEATA for entrusting
this job to Huria Journal.
The main theme of the conference was “Blended Learning: Convergences of
Distance Education and Conventional Learning through Open and Distance
Learning (ODL)”. In this volume papers are arranged according to two subthemes
as follows.
1. Innovations and Developments in blended learning: E-learning,
teleconferencing, online learning, video conferencing, mobile phone,
parallel programme, evening programmes, executive programmes etc.
(Paper 1-6)
Under this subtheme, there are six papers which were accepted for publication. The
authors presented the use of mobile phones to increase students’ use of mobile
learning technology and to enhance environmental friendliness. Convergence of
Distance Education and Conventional Learning. The use of solar power for Online
Content Accessibility and Sustainability. Interactive experience as the best and
effective processes for the blended learning environment, how innovations in the
provision of Executive Masters Degree Programmes may expand the impact of the
higher learning institutions in the communities and labor markets and how elearning can provide a horde of educational opportunities ranging from creating
exciting and meaningful learning experiences for students to reinforcing
understanding, increasing student interaction and engagement, stimulating self
directed learning, to providing resources and supportive collaboration from a
distance.
2. Quality Assurance systems in blended learning (Paper 7-11)
The subtheme focused on Quality Assurance challenges faced in the convergences
of Distance Education and Conventional Learning through Open and Distance
Learning (ODL). Five papers were accepted for publication under the subtheme.
Papers are on the need for an assessment framework for Blended Learning delivery
v
mode. Challenges faced by Adult learners enrolled in blended learning. Student
perception on intensive face to face sessions. Student perception on the quality of
distance learning and Building Competitive Advantage in Academic Programmes in
Open and Distance Learning (ODL) Institutions.
Prof. Emmanuel S.P. Kigadye
Editor-In-Chief
Huria Journal
vi
Sub-theme One:
Innovations and Developments in blended learning: E-learning,
teleconferencing, online learning, video conferencing, mobile phone,
parallel programme, evening programmes, executive programmes etc.
Enhancing Environmental Friendliness through Mobile Phone Learning
Maureen N. Chukwu,
National Open University of Nigeria
Convergence of Distance Education and Conventional Learning: Innovations and
Developments at the Open University of Tanzania
Neville Z. Reuben,
The Open University of Tanzania
The Contribution of Solar Power Funding for Online Content Accessibility and
Sustainability of Blended Learning in Rural Africa: The Tanzania Perspective
Ikwaba Paul1, James Uhomoibhi2 and Fatma Ubwa1
The Open University of Tanzania, 2University of Ulster, UK.
Innovation and Development in Blended Learning Mode in Higher Learning
Institutions: Interactive Experiences from OUT’s Postgraduate Students and
Instructors
1
Mariana Makuu 1Deus Ngaruko
The Open University of Tanzania
Prospects and Challenges in the Deliverance of Executive Masters Degree
Programmes
1
William A. Pallangyo and 1Felician Mutasa
The Open University of Tanzania
Making a Case for E - learning: Experiences in E-learning at Langston University
Langston, Oklahoma, USA.
Patricia Chogugudza,
The Open University of Tanzania
1
Enhancing Environmental Friendliness through
Mobile Phone Learning
Maureen N. Chukwu
School of Science and Technology
National Open University of Nigeria
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Mobile learning is any sort of learning that occurs when a learner is not
at a fixed location or learning that takes place when the learner utilizes some
learning opportunities offered by mobile technologies. M-learning technologies
include handheld computers, MP3 players, notebooks and mobile phones. Mobile
phone learning is a branch of mobile learning and is a relatively new concept which
has attracted the interest of educators, researchers and developers of learning
systems and instructional materials. Environmental friendly or eco-friendly refers to
products or processes that are not harmful to the environment and people who want
to protect the environment greens. The study investigated the use of mobile phones
to increase students’ use of mobile learning technology and to enhance
environmental friendliness. Data was collected using “usefulness of mobile phone
learning” questionnaire from a sample consisting of 30 male automobile
apprentices and 30 female hair dressing apprentices in Iwaya community in Lagos,
Nigeria. The students voluntarily participated in a four weeks programme using
mobile phones to send SMS and jingles warning against environmental pollution, to
transmit and exchange photographs of local environmental degradation. The
participants learnt various ways to maintain clean environments which increased
their awareness on environmental friendliness. Responses on the questionnaire
differ significantly between genders.
Key words: mobile phone, m-learning, environmental degradation, environmental
friendliness and gender.
INTRODUCTION
The term mobile learning or "m-learning" has different meanings for different
communities. It refers to a subset of e-learning, educational technology and distance
education that focuses on learning across contexts and learning with mobile devices.
Mobile learning has developed over several years resulting in several research
projects (Moura and Carvalho, 2008; Sharples et al., 2007). M-learning technologies
include handheld computers, MP3 players, notebooks, tablets and mobile phones.
Mobile phone learning is a branch of mobile learning and is a relatively new
concept which has attracted the interest of educators, researchers and developers of
learning systems and instructional materials. This technology provides the potential
for collaborative interaction and learning opportunity for geographically dispersed
persons and groups (Bristom, 2005).
2
In a knowledge society, mobility and ubiquitous learning (learning anytime,
anywhere), the emerging paradigm of m-learning seems to meet the needs of the
contemporary society (Edwards et al., 2002). Modern technologies, especially
mobile phones have become an integral part of modern life around the world,
increasingly powerful, with more and more features and services; providing access
to content anywhere, anytime (Prensky, 2004). The preference of these
technological devices lies in the fact that they are in the learners’ hands and can,
therefore, give a greater contribution to the education system. Mobile technologies
potentially promote, facilitate and enhance learners’ collaboration and interaction
processes that serve as a means of accessing, discovering, discussing and sharing
environmental concerns via multimedia messaging services (MMS), SMS,
electronic mail or MSN messenger. Learners can converse with each other,
question each other and share opinions about environmental concerns (Waycott,
2004).
Mobile phones have become one of the fastest growing communication
technologies; today the majority of them have the capacity of a PC of the nineties
(Campbell, 2006). The common use of mobile phones for messaging facilitates
friendships and socialization, hence the role of mobile phones as a means of
collaborative learning (Bauman, 2003; Taylor and Harper 2002). Mobile telephones
with cameras permit learners to photograph environmental problems, and serve as a
means for sharing concerns with friends. Learners can thus pose questions related to
the environment, collaborate with colleagues, learn new knowledge and formulate
plans to solve environmental problems (Usunbolu et al., 2009).
ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLINESS
The natural environment provides the infrastructure on which human societies are
built. However, human actions are now affecting these foundations in quite
unprecedented ways. Environmental friendly or eco-friendly refers to products or
processes that are not harmful to the environment and people who want to protect
the environment greens.
The role of education in understanding, protecting and solving environmental
problems had long been recognized. Since 2000, researchers have considered the
use of environmental education in schools, colleges and universities (Shin, 2000). In
Iwaya community both the automobile and hair dressing apprentices are also
involved in various kinds of environmental pollution.
Wastes from automobile workshops include worn out vehicle parts, broken glasses,
used carbide, used engine oil and rubber wastes. The automobile apprentices usually
drop the worn out vehicle parts and broken glasses by the road side thus obstructing
the movement of vehicles and pedestrians. The broken glasses do puncture the tyres
of vehicles and are also harmful to man and animals. Carbides and engine oil are
being disposed into water bodies and drainages where they pollute the water.
The presence of engine oil in the water deprives aquatic animals of air which can
cost them their lives and deprive man and other land animals of drinking water and
3
aquatic livestock. Carbide is a flammable and reactive chemical and a dangerous fire
and explosion hazard. It blocks drainages, increasing mosquito breeding. When
breathed in carbide can irritate the lungs causing coughing and/or shortness of
breath. Higher exposures may cause a build-up of fluid in the lungs (pulmonary
edema), a medical emergency, with severe shortness of breath. Contact can severely
irritate and burn the eyes and skin causing permanent eye damage and ulcers on the
skin. Exposure can severely irritate the mouth, nose and throat causing sores, cough
and wheezing. The rubber and other wastes are burn in the open which pollutes the
surrounding air.
Wastes from hair dressing saloons include empty containers of hair products such as
relaxers, shampoos, pink oil and conditioners. Chemicals from the hair products,
threads, attachments, used weavons, used cutest bottles, used artificial nails, dirty
water and rubbers. The hair dressing apprentices either throw away the empty
containers out along the road or into gutters blocking the drainages and causing
environmental blight. The chemical wash outs from the hair products and dirty
water are poured into water bodies and drainages endangering aquatic lives (Childs,
2000).
The various means of waste disposal by the two sets of apprentices are detrimental
to the environment and need to be checked hence the researcher intend to use this
project to educate them on how to be environmentally friendly.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The study investigated the use of mobile phones to increase the apprentices’
knowledge of mobile learning, enhance environmental friendliness and prevent
damaging of the natural foundations of our society while striving for our living.
Specific Objectives
(i)
To ascertain the usefulness of mobile phone in increasing the apprentices’
knowledge of mobile learning.
(ii) To access the use of mobile phone learning in enhancing environmental
friendliness.
(iii) To prevent the damage of the natural foundation of our society
(iv) To determine the role of gender in mobile phone learning and environmental
friendliness.
Research Questions
(i)
What is the usefulness of mobile phone in increasing the apprentices’
knowledge of mobile learning?
(ii) What is the usefulness of mobile phone learning in enhancing environmental
friendliness?
(iii) What should we do to prevent the damage of the natural foundation of our
society?
(iv) What role does gender play in mobile phone learning and environmental
friendliness?
4
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The volunteer sample in this study consisted of 30 male automobile apprentices and
30 female hair dressing apprentices from automobile workshops and hair dressing
saloons in Iwaya community in Lagos, Nigeria. The age of the participants ranged
from 20 - 27 years. Each participant completed a pre-project and post-project
questionnaire. The four-week project and study - not part of their regular training,
was completed during April-May, 2013.
Instrument of the study
A questionnaire titled “The usefulness of mobile phone learning” (UMPL), adapted
by Motiwala (2007) was used to collect data. New items were added for use in this
study to measure the apperntices’ satisfaction with mobile phone learning. The 20
item Likert scale questionnaire focused on the usefulness of mobile phones for
enhancing apprentices’ environmental friendliness. This includes functions aimed to
indicate: (SD), Strongly Disagree; (D), Disagree; (U), Undecided; (A), Agree; (SA),
Strongly Agree. The respondents were personally approached and briefed about the
purpose as well as the significance of the study by the researcher. Those who were
chanced filled in the questionnaires and returned immediately while the researcher
visited the next day to collect from the others.
Validation and Reliability of Instrument
The instrument for the data collection was validated by experts in educational
technology. They canceled irrelevant items from the questions and suggested areas
of modifications. Selected items were revised based on their comments and
recommendations to improve the quality and content validity of the instrument
before administration. The test-reset reliability scale yielded reliability coefficient of
0.92. The instrument is thus considered valid and reliable to be used for enhancing
environmental friendliness through mobile phone learning.
Procedure
The researcher through the union executives of both automobiles and hair dressers
in Iwaya community, Yaba – Lagos, announced the need for apprentices to
volunteer to participate in the study using mobile phones to enhance environmental
friendliness. After deliberation on this project by both unions, the researcher was
given a positive feedback to go ahead with their full consent on participation. The
researcher later met with the interested apprentices and enrolled them. The purpose
and expectation of the study were explained to the potential participants. During this
preliminary stage, the group discussed the environment and its related concerns. The
researcher explained that the apprentices did not rate the environment as high as
supposed to be. Data were collected as per the brand and the models of the
apprentices’ mobile phones.
During the four weeks that followed, the researcher used a mobile phone to take
photographs of local environmental degraded areas. Each week, the researcher
forwarded a minimum of five photographs to the participants via MMS and
electronic mails. The photographs were sent to the participants with environmental
5
friendly massages. The participants used their mobile phones to connect to their
electronic mail boxes to view the photographs after which they sent their comments
to the researcher through SMS or electronic mails. The participants reviewed the
photographs and suggested ways of solving environmental problems. At the end of
the project the apprentices completed the questionnaire a second time. The
participants met for discussion every week during which they reviewed the
photographs and suggested possible ways for overcoming the environmental
problems with the help of the researcher.
Analysis of Data
The questionnaire (UMPTL) was used to access learners’ attitudes towards mobile
phone learning and their awareness of environmental degradation problems. A
paired t-test was used to compare pre-project and post-project means while an
independent t-test sample was used to compare pre-project and post-project means
between males and females. Turkey’s HSD test was used to identify the source of
significance difference at 0.05 level of confidence.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mobile phone learning and environmental friendliness
The pre-project mean of 52.4 (SD = 22.56) and a post-project mean of 94.7 (SD =
11.48) was recorded on the UMPL. The mean difference was 42.3 (Table 1). The
results from the paired sample comparison of the means differed significantly (t60 =
1.67, p = 0.05). Generally, the apprentices’ knowledge of mobile phone learning
increased significantly.
Table 1: Paired T Test for Pre-Project and Post-Project Means on the
UMPTL
UMPL
Mean N SD
Mean difference
t
Significance
(two-tailed)
Pre-project
52.4
60 22.56
Post-project
94.7
60 11.48
- 42.3
1.67
0.05
*significant at 0.05 level of significance; SD = Standard Deviation
Table 2 shows the pre-project-post-project means and standard deviations for each
UMPL items. On the post-project survey, a mean of 4 or above is obtained for items
2, 4, 9 and 18. Before the commencement of the project, the participants did not
associate the use of mobile phone with environmental friendliness. At the end of the
project, mobile phone learning increased their knowledge of environmental
friendliness. The participants observed the environment more carefully with the use
of mobile technologies (SMS, MMS and electronic mail) and this increased their
awareness of environmental degradation. Item 9; “MPL is useful for enhancing
environmental friendliness” before the project commenced, the participants did not
relate the use of mobile technologies with environmental friendliness (M = 1.40).
6
Figure 1: Environmental degradation in the area
At the end of the project, their attitude changed such that they became more
conscious of environmental degradation by observing the environment carefully (M
= 4.21). Item 2; “MPL adds values to e-learning environmental friendliness” the
post-project mean (M = 4.36) was significantly higher than the pre-project mean (M
= 1.85).
The participants are now highly regarding the benefits the mobile technologies and
their use for considering environmental issues. Item 4; ”MPL allows converting idle
time into productive in respect to environmental issues” the participants evaluated
the use of free time and its use to address environmental problem giving a postproject mean of 4.08. Item 18; “MPL can be used as a supplemental tool for any
proposed project”. At the end of the project, the participants appreciated the
potential use of mobile technologies for undertaking any research work.
Participants expressed satisfaction with using mobile phones to enhance
environmental friendliness. This is in agreement with the findings of Van’t Hooft
and Swan (2004). The majority of the sample of 217 students liked using mobile
devices, regarding ML as fun and a vulnerable learning tool.
7
Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for UMPL Items
S/N
Items
Preproject
Post- project
M SD
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
MPL is an effective learning aid for learners
with regard to environmental issues.
MPL adds values to e-learning environmental
friendliness.
MBL is an effective method of providing
information concerning environmental
friendliness.
MPL allows converting idle time into
productive in respect to environmental issues.
MPL allows convenient time for discussions
related to environmental friendliness
anywhere and at any time.
Information sent by MPL via message is very
effective.
MPL has the potential to become a good
learning tool with respect to environmental
issues.
MPL allows instant access to environmental
issues regardless of your location.
MPL is useful for enhancing environmental
friendliness.
MPL is a good discussion tool for enhancing
environmental friendliness.
MPL is an easy way for enhancing
environmental friendliness.
MPL made is easier to understand
environmental friendliness.
MPL makes a good forum for interaction.
MPL makes it easier to discuss environmental
issues with colleagues.
MPL makes it easier to discuss environmental
issues with the researcher.
MPL is a good platform to access information
about the environment.
Overall satisfaction with MPL with regards to
environmental friendliness is encouraging.
MPL can be used as a supplemental tool for
any proposed project.
Mean
Differenc
e
M SD
1.67
0.85
3.76
0.68
2.09
1.85
0.96
4.35
0.73
2.5
2.22
1.33
3.89
0.98
1.67
1.76
1.04
4.08
0.84
2.32
1.98
1.27
3.21
1.06
1.23
1.72
1.20
3.44
1.01
1.72
2.15
0.98
3.88
0.85
1.73
2.18
0.90
3,92
0.78
1.74
1.40
1.32
4.21
1.08
2.81
1.89
1.05
3.74
0.94
1.85
1.93
1.29
3.90
1.04
1.97
2.31
1.40
3.80
0.09
1.49
2.29
2.44
1.37
0.99
3.73
3.86
1.02
9.87
1.44
1.42
2.69
1.36
3.99
1.10
1.30
1.59
1.07
3.69
0.92
2.10
1.64
1.06
3.81
0.91
2.17
1.93
1.09
4.13
0.92
2.20
Gender
The descriptive statistics collected from the UMPL regarding gender are shown in
Table 3. From the sample t-test of the independent sample, the mean post-project
score for females was 95.25 compared to 90.88 for males. There is no significant
difference between genders (P = 0.05). The pre-project difference between the
genders was however significant (P = 0.05). This is in line with the findings of Rees
and Noyes (2007) who found that females and males used mobile phone differently,
males using voice callings more than females, but females using SMS more than
males. It was found that females approach environmental issues more sensitively
while males use mobile technologies such as SMS, MMS and electronic mails more
8
than females. Several researchers had also found that a greater percentage of
females than males are more concerned about environmental degradation (Gardos &
Dodd, 1995).
Table 3: Pre-Project –Post-Project Scores on UMPL Gender
Gender
N
Pre-project
M
SD
Post-project
M
SD
Male
30
56.80
18.46
90.88
7.98
Female
30
42.15
16.98
95.25
9.66
CONCLUSION
Mobile phone was used in this study to increase apprentices’ knowledge on mobile
learning and to enhance environmental friendliness. The project allowed participants
to observe the deteriorated environment and to comment on them. At the end of the
project, their environmental friendliness and attitude towards maintaining clean
environments devoid of pollution increased. Mobile phone provided the means to
engage males and females to be environmentally friendly. The participants
expressed satisfaction with their capability of using mobile phone learning
anywhere, any place and any time. They were satisfied with the technology used and
it is hoped that similar projects will be carried out by other researchers.
RECOMMENDATIONS
From the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:
(i)
The use of mobile phone as a means of enhancing environmental friendliness
should be encouraged.
(ii) The participants should be provided the opportunities to engage in other
activities that involve mobile learning.
(iii)
Mobile phones providers should sponsor educational projects.
(iv)
More research work should be carried out in mobile learning to increase its
knowledge.
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10
Convergence of Distance Education and Conventional
Learning: Innovations and Developments at the Open
University of Tanzania
Dr. Neville Z. Reuben
The Open University of Tanzania
[email protected]
Abstract: The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) undertakes instructional delivery
using various blended learning media including print, ICTs, electronic platforms,
enhanced face to face, special seminars and contact programmes. Initially, it was
envisioned that the University will use a low resource teaching package, consisting
of offline media. Admittedly, the blending of offline and online learning enhances
significantly pedagogical effectiveness of the instructional methodology. Thus, in
pursuing its Vision and fulfilling its Mission, a conventional learning institution like
the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) subscribes to application of ICTs in the
enhancement of academic delivery and management. Meanwhile, the Vision and
Mission of both UDSM and OUT bear striking similarities, implying a convergence
of distance and conventional learning. Employing desktop and descriptive research
methods, the study explores innovations and developments at the OUT in the last
two decades, with a view to demonstrating the salient trends of the phenomenon of
the convergence, within the context of the three dimensions underlying the process
of mainstreaming of distance education. They include the achievement of parity of
esteem between conventional and distance education; the convergence of the means
of instructional delivery, student groups, and types of institutions and the
incorporation of distance education's constituent elements, particularly its
philosophy of outreach, into the mainstream education system. The findings of the
study show that concerted efforts have been made by both the OUT and UDSM to
integrate online media in their instructional methodologies in the last two decades.
In the specific case of the OUT, as a result of such innovations, print has been
dislodged as the lead medium in distance education delivery. However, in spite of
the convergence in instructional delivery, achievement of parity of esteem between
conventional and distance education and the integration of distance education's
constituent elements into the main education system are still out of sight. The study
stresses that while indiscriminate adoption and employment of online learning will
eventually undermine the vision and mission of distance education as well as
conventional education institutions, careful selection and systematic application of
the same will yield better results to both institutions.
Key Words: Blended Learning, Open and Distance Learning, Mainstreaming
Distance Education, Lead Medium
11
INTRODUCTION
This study explores innovations and developments at the OUT in the last two
decades, with a view to demonstrating the salient trends of the phenomenon of
convergence between distance education and conventional education. This will be
done within the context of the three dimensions underlying the process of
mainstreaming of distance education. They include the achievement of parity of
esteem between conventional and distance education; the convergence of the means
of instructional delivery, student groups, and types of institutions and the
incorporation of distance education's constituent elements, particularly its
philosophy of outreach, into the mainstream education system (Irele, 2005). We
start by exploring the concept of blended learning as the basis of the convergence.
MEANING OF BLENDED LEARNING
Blended learning has been defined as the combination of offline and online learning.
Like any other blend, blended learning works because it combines two things in a
way that makes each better than they are on their own. In this case, teachers’ talent
and technology tools. Blended learning allows teachers to work directly and closely
with individual students and small groups, by harnessing the adaptive power and
precision of technology (Warner, 2013). Within this context, teachers symbolize
conventional education while technology tools represent ODL mode of instructional
delivery.
However, this perspective is both an unacceptable oversimplification of the nature
of each of these instructional delivery methodologies. For example, besides teachers
and lecturers physically present in classrooms, language and science laboratories,
lecture rooms and theatres, conventional delivery of education is often
supplemented by audio – visual technologies and materials. On the other hand, since
the rise of the United Kingdom Open University (UKOU) as the World’s pioneer
Open University in 1969, “three way teaching” consisting of correspondence
education, face to face contact sessions facilitated by teachers and lecturers
physically present in classrooms, language and science laboratories, lecture rooms
and theatres and instructional delivery through electronic media, has been adopted
as the basic structure of instructional delivery in distance education. It can,
therefore, be argued that “blended learning”, is neither a recent phenomenon nor a
novel experience. In fact, it is a structural component of both conventional and ODL
delivery modes.
As a result of developments in ICTs - particularly from 1991, second generation
technologies (traditional ICTs like the telephone, Radio, TV, Audio and Video
Cassettes), have been enriched by wider use of Web and Online technologies
(modern ICTs). These developments have resulted in greater interactivity and much
higher level of personalization through technology mediation and learning objects
like desktop computers, laptops, ipads, mobile phones, etc (Kanwar, 2013).
However, even with this enrichment, “blended learning” cannot be regarded as the
basis of the convergence of these instructional delivery modes. On the contrary,
available literature traces the basis of the convergence in the phenomenon of
mainstreaming.
MAINSTREAMING
12
Among other sectors, the term “mainstreaming” is often used to capture distance
education repositioning within traditional universities (Irele, op.cit). Repositioning
has been pursued because the relationship between distance education and
conventional education has always been ambiguous. Initially, distance education
was put outside conventional education (Daniel, 1996). Later on, it was described as
being on the fringe of education, hence, second rate (Holmberg, 1986; McIsaac,
1996; Jevons, 1987; Tait, 1999). Lately, based on its growing use in traditional
universities, distance education is described by practitioners in conventional
education as being “mainstreamed” into the mainstream education system
(Thompson, 1999; Allen and Seaman, 2003). As a result of “mainstreaming”
distance education in traditional universities, it has been noted that these “ivory
towers” are being transformed into “brick and click” institutions (Materu, 2006).
Viewed within this perspective, the convergence of distance education and
conventional education means the phasing out of the former. Thus, blended learning
is defined as “a formal education programme in which a student learns - at least in
part, through the online delivery of content and instruction, with some element of
student control over time, place, path and/or pace and at least in part at a supervised
brick – and – mortar location away from home” (Bailey, et al., 2013). However,
there are major issues that militate against the mainstreaming of distance education
into all relevant areas of the traditional university system as well as educational
mainstream. Peters (2002) provides instructive insight into the tensions that arise
when distance education systems are introduced within traditional universities. He
notes:
They have to deal and come to terms with fixed academic structures and
conventions which are normally resistant to change and restrict
flexibility. They have to assert themselves when trying to innovate and
modernize not only the learning-teaching system, but also the mission
and the sense of direction of the institution in order to adapt it to the
requirements of a rapidly changing society (Ibid:146).
This comment underscores the structural differences between the two systems that
are potentially problematic for the integration of distance education into the
mainstream education system (Irele, op.cit). Meanwhile, early views of distance
education as a distinct and separate form of education has largely been replaced by
the more acceptable explanation that it is simply "a component of the wider
enterprise of education and training" (Daniel, 1996:59). The core distance education
characteristics have been identified as the separation of teacher and learner, the use
of technology to bridge communication and the presence of an institution (Keegan,
1996). Moore and Kearsley (1996) have re–packaged and re-presented these
characteristics from a systems' perspective by emphasizing the role of the
institution. Taking the cue from the systems’ perspective, distance education system
is not a series of separate entities, such as course content, and course design and
development, but a system of interrelated components that function together under
the auspices of “organizational and administrative arrangements” (Moore and
Kearsley, op.cit: 2). But what is mainstreaming? OED Online (1989) defines
mainstreaming as the incorporation of a phenomenon into the mainstream activity.
In distance education, mainstreaming is said to reflect the process of integrating
13
distance education into conventional education (American Council on Education,
1996).
A review of the literature reveals three dimensions to the mainstreaming of distance
education or convergence with conventional education. The first covers the
achievement of parity of esteem between conventional and distance education
(Jevons, op.cit; Lewis et al, 1999). The second addresses the convergence of the
means of instructional delivery, student groups and types of institutions (Miller,
1990; Hall, 1994; Keegan, 2000). The third is the incorporation (or integration) of
distance education constituent elements, namely its philosophy of outreach, use of
technologies and its teaching strategies, into the mainstream education system
(Kearsley, 1998) and into existing institutional policy frameworks (Innovations in
Distance Education Symposium, 1998). Mainstreaming (convergence of distance
education and conventional education) ought then to be measured by the extent to
which all the three dimensions are demonstrated.
INNOVATIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS AT THE OUT
As way back as 1979, provisions were made for a Distance Teaching Institute at the
University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) which would employ a low – technology
resource package consisting of assignments, Long Vacation School and Radio
Programmes in its instructional delivery mode. The Institute was to develop in
phases to become eventually a separate distance learning based University, using a
multi – media package with local support through a Regional Network (British
Council: 51 – 52; Mmari, 1996). Although the OUT did not evolve along this
trajectory (Reuben, 2012), in its first decade of existence, its instructional delivery
mode was based on a low – technology resource package. For example, the OUT
started by using printed study materials from the University of Nairobi. More
materials were acquired from IGNOU, Abuja and later on ZOU. Later on, OUT
full–time and part–time staff (many of whom were recruited from UDSM and SUA)
developed course outlines and study materials for students.
Efforts to integrate ICTs in its operations can be traced back to 2004 when the
university formulated comprehensive structures such as ICT Policy, ICT Master
Plan and E-Learning Implementation Strategy (OUT, 2009 abc). The ICT Policy
stipulates clearly that the university aims to (i) enhance the use of ICT as a main
interaction platform between students and lecturers and (ii) transform all study
materials developed henceforth into an interactive format consistent with Moodle
Learning Management System (ICT Policy, 2009). Since then, sustained efforts are
going on to install computer laboratories for students in all Regional Centres.
Meanwhile, in order to improve students’ access to digital services, OUTSO
leadership has been supported by the OUT Mangement to negotiate with a private
company for the supply of laptops from China at USD 270 each piece. This
arrangement will enable every student to get a laptop at an affordable price.
As a result of these deliberate efforts, unlike in the first decade, ICT infrastructure
and access at the OUT, have improved significantly in the second decade (Mbwette
(2009). For example, a total of 4 Student Computer Laboratories have been
14
established in Dar es Salaam (at the OUT Headquarters and in each of the three
Regional Centres at Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke). Furthermore, 12 Community
Computer Laboratories and 18 Student Computer Laboratories have been
established in Regional Centres. Academic, Administrative and Technical Staff have
been provided with desktop computers and laptops with both online and wireless
internet connectivity. In this way, it has been possible to deliver study materials to
students, interact and provide feedback to them online (Mbwette, 2008 & 2009;
Nihuka, 2011; Kissassi, 2012).To enhance the process of integrating ICTs in
teaching and learning, a Heavy CD burner has been installed in the Office of the
DVC (LT & RS). This has facilitated mass production of CDs containing study
materials and course outlines. These are provided to registered students in every
programme in all the Regional Centres each academic year. In short, the era of
printing, photocopying and freighting study materials in hard copies, is now coming
to an end as the OUT is being transformed into a “click/paperless university”. An
OUT member of staff has noted:
The ICTs are complex in nature and serve a rich array of
functions. They have highlighted the enormous information of
human interaction in teaching/learning process. Continuous
interaction between students and faculty and among students is
the most attractive idea enabled by the new technologies. It is
playing a major role in addressing the challenges faced by the
OUT in rescuing isolated students from their loneliness by
providing interaction with tutors and other learners; easy access to
library and other online information resources, and in facilitating
completion of research by postgraduate students and lecturers
(Ahmad, 2013).
Presently, a significant portion of the Main Library collections is online. So are the
filing tracking and record keeping systems. Taken to its logical extreme, the “click
only” institution is transformed into a Virtual Institution, similar to the Nairobi
based and World Bank funded African Virtual University (AVU). In spite of its
special merits, a virtual institution is quite costly as in practice, it substitutes print
with online media as the lead media in instructional delivery. Viewed within the
context of the goals of ODL to massify educational access, participation, completion
and graduation rates on the basis of quality, equality and equity, it is quite
contradictory to dislodge print as the lead medium in ODL instructional delivery.
Distance education delivery is far less costly than e – learning delivery. While the
former enjoys economies of scale, the latter does not. With a literacy rate of more
than 80% and almost 100% Radio and TV reception, print and traditional ICTs are
not only accessible but familiar and more user – friendly to the majority of ODL
learners particularly in the rural areas. This is the context within which the Client
Service Charter provides for flexibility in instructional delivery, by creating room
for the use of blended learning:
As regards commitments to quality service delivery, the OUT is
committed to deliver affordable quality service in academics
(through) well maintained libraries, lecture theatres, laboratories,
offices and other facilities to enhance provision of open, distance
15
and blended learning using modern technologies as well as access
to print media in recognition of the diversity of Tanzania and
Tanzanians ( OUT, 2010: para 6.1 – 6.1.1) (our emphasis).
Besides application of ICTs in instructional methodology, administration, record
keeping and even assessment (ODEX), in this decade the OUT has substituted
tutorials in face to face sessions with Student Portifolio Assessment (SPA). Similar
to seminar sessions in traditional universities, face to face sessions provided
opportunities to OUT students to discuss issues raised in study materials with
facilitators and fellow students. On the contrary, under the SPA, each student meets
a Lecturer to present in writing the objectives, learning outcomes, difficult areas,
suggestions for improvement and references used in studying courses of each
Semester. Students with satisfactory level of comprehension are granted visas to
proceed with preparations for formative and summative evaluation. Those with
unsatisfactory level of comprehension are advised to continue studying the courses.
Previously, the OUT was operating as a single mode distance teaching institution
sensu strictu. Presently, besides continuing to offer most of its non–degree and
undergraduate programmes in this mode, it has started to offer some of its
postgraduate programmes under dual and mixed modes as well as under the
conventional education mode. While courses offered under the Executive/Evening
mode fall under conventional education delivery, those offered under the course
work (offered conventionally) and dissertation (completed at a distance), fall under
the mixed mode. Within this context, OUT qualifies as a dual mode institution as
the same programmes are also offered at a distance (MBA, MA (Ed), MA (Social
Work), MA (Sociology), etc). It should be stressed that in no way do these
innovations deviate the OUT from its ODL trajectory. They only show how the
Institution is addressing public demands for higher education by using opportunities
offered by the flexibility of its instructional delivery mode. The same context
accounts for the innovation of providing sitting facilities (Vimbwettes) at the OUT
Headquarters and in Regional Centres, in order to allow students to study on campus
as in residential institutions. The Vision and Mission of the OUT bear witness to this
thrust.
Vision
To be a leading World – class University in the delivery of affordable quality
education through open, distance, blended learning, dynamic knowledge generation
and application.
Mission
To continuously provide affordable quality open and distance education, research
and public services for sustainable and equitable socio – economic development of
Tanzania in particular and the rest of the World.
Source: www.out.ac.tz
Incidentally, comparison with UDSM (see below), reveals striking similarities. The
only notable and significant difference lies in the listing of institutional core
16
functions. For OUT, the first core function is education or knowledge dissemination.
On the contrary, for UDSM, it is research or knowledge creation.
Vision
To become a reputable World – class University that is responsive to national,
regional and global development needs through engagement in dynamic knowledge
creation and application.
Mission
The unrelenting pursuit of scholarly and strategic research, education, training and
public service directed at the attainment of equitable and sustainable socio –
economic development of Tanzania and the rest of Africa.
Source: www.udsm.ac.tz
Towards achieving its Vision and fulfilling its Mission, the UDSM subscribes to . . .
application of ICTs in the enhancement of academic delivery and management
(Ibid). Elsewhere, we have explored reasons which have compelled UDSM to
embark on a “brick and click” trajectory (Kolimba, et al., 2011). Recently, it has
been noted:
In many cases, traditional institutions rush to provide technology –
enhanced learning or ODL, which is in contrast with their initial
goals and strategies, in an effort to stay competitive in the field or
for financial reasons. Financial reasons are usually the wrong
reasons for implementing ODL or technologically – advanced
learning. The costs are initially high, and with ever – changing
technology, it could end up costing more than face – to – face
teaching (Mnnaar, 2013).
It should, however, be stressed that both ODL and conventional education
institutions are bound to jeopardize their respective goals and strategies through
indiscriminate adoption and employment of online learning. While we cannot afford
to ignore online media, it is essential to blend them with offline media, hence,
blended learning, in order to reap better results. The following section explores
further this contention, within the context of the status of internet services in our
country.
THE STATUS OF INTERNET SERVICES IN TANZANIA
Modern ICTs rely heavily on electrical power and internet connectivity (besides
expensive hardwares and softwares which are often vulnerable to viruses). Reliable
electricity supply is available to only 14% of the entire population, mostly in urban
areas. Access in rural areas where almost 80% of the people live, is about 3%
(Gaddis, 2012).
Internet connectivity is through the National Optic Fibre Network or
satellite/wireless connectivity from Mobile Phone Companies like VODACOM,
AIRTEL, TIGO, ZANTEL, TTCL, BENSON and SASATEL. By the end of June
2012, there were 28,024,611 phone subscribers in all mobile and wired networks as
detailed in Table 1 below.
17
Table 1: The Number of Phone Subscribers in Tanzania
Company
Subscribers
VODACOM,
12,317,029
AIRTEL,
7,504,511
TIGO,
5,613,330
ZANTEL,
2,356,457
TTCL,
227,424
SASATEL
4,810
BENSON
1,050
Total
28,024,611
Source: TCRA Report (April – June 2012) in Hudson Katunza, “Tanzania
phone users up to 28m” in www.biztechafrica.com
Presently, more than 50% of the entire population is accessible via mobile and wired
networks. By 2016, 38,000,000 people will be accessible representing about 70% of
the total population. However, infographic data as in Table 1, may not represent
correctly head counts as a result of most subscribers owning two and more
SIMCARDS. This may also be the case with the comparative infographic data on
Kenya and Tanzania given below.
Table 2: A Comparison of Infographic Data Between Kenya and Tanzania
Data
Kenya
Tanzania
Population
44,037,656
48,261,942
Mobile Subscribers
30,429,351 (69%)
27,395,650 (57%)
Internet Users
16,236,583 (41%)
5,308,814 (11%)
Source: iHub Research in Whiteafrican.com/tag/tanzania (2013)
Data in Table 2 show that Kenya has a higher number of both mobile subscribers
and internet users than her more populous neighbour. While more than 50% of
Tanzanians can be accessed by phone, only 11% are accessible online. This is
certainly a significant challenge which ODL institutions need to address in order to
massify access, participation, completion and graduation rates in education and
training through online learning.
Internet services have been available since 1995 but there was no fiber connectivity
available until 2009. The construction of the fiber optic project implemented from
2009 – 2010 (National Information and Communication Technology Broadband
Backbone (NICTBB), has improved internet connectivity in terms of lower latency
and cost. This resulted in a surge in internet speeds, with download speeds
increasing over 8 times. Before 2009, only larger businesses could afford access to
broadband connectivity in the form of dedicated fixed lines costing between US $
5,000 to US $ 10,000 a month. With SEACOM connectivity, Tanzanians are paying
as little as US $ 15 a month for high speed access, leading to transformative effects
on entrepreneurship, social life and education in the country (Bremmen, 2012).
However, although the Government of Tanzania spent over 250 billion in
investment of the national fiber optic, the NICTBB is not being fully utilized to its
18
full potential. The backbone is currently operating at less than 10% of its installed
capacity and even lower at its design capacity. Among Institutions which can
enhance the exploitation of this potential are educational institutions, both ODL and
conventional (Kowero, 2012). In our opinion, ODL institutions have a greater onus
to exploit this potential due to the following four reasons.
First, there is an exploding demand for higher education within the context of
massification, diversification, globalization, rising costs and ICTs (Kanwar, op.cit).
In 2007, there were 150,600,000 tertiary students globally. In 2012, the number rose
to 165,000,000. It is expected to reach 263,000,000 in 2025. To meet the demand, 4
new universities to cater to 30,000 needed each week to accommodate children who
will reach enrolment age by 2025. This does not include the needs of adults for new
skills and lifelong learning opportunities. Conventional education simply cannot
meet the demand. Presently, access to higher education is about 40% - 50% in
OECD countries, 25% in the Caribbean, 15% in South Asia and 10% in Sub –
Saharan Africa. East Africa is lowest at 8% (Ibid). Secondly, there is a direct
correlation between access to higher education and development. In the case of
Tanzania where it is still less than 1%, ODL provides the most cost – effective
means of raising it. In this context, ODL provides the surest path to Big Results
Now (BRN) in the education sector.
Thirdly, features of the fourth generation distance education include accessing and
using Open Educational Resources (OERs), Massive Open Online Courses
(MOOCs) as well as resources from Open Educational Resources Universities
(OERUs), in instructional delivery. The availability and use of these resources
enable ODL institutions to develop instructional materials at a fraction of the costs
they were incurring under previous generations. It has, therefore, been noted “. .
these trends hold great potential in African countries, where finances are generally
scarce and openly licensed resources offer the possibility of providing cheaper
access to high quality educational and research materials for use in both schools and
universities” (Butcher, 2013). While “branded” OERS, MOOCs and OERUs can
only be accessed online, ODL institutions can easily download and repackage the
“generics” in offline media for dissemination to students. It is only ODL institutions
which can avail to students appropriate support services to students, for using these
resources in the current Information Age. Short of that, they will be misused under
the existing and dominant educational paradigms which were developed more than
two hundred and fifty years ago, to meet the needs of societies in the aftermath of
the Industrial Revolution (Ibid). Fourthly, the reputation of Open Universities and
hence, ODL, can be traced to the revolution of breaking the “Iron Triangle” of
education and the high quality of their study materials. Both achievements can be
enhanced and sustained through the adoption of fourth generation distance
education media.
VIEWS ON CONVERGENCE BETWEEN ODL AND CONVENTIONAL
EDUCATION
In an ongoing longitudinal survey involving random samples of staff and students in
an ODL and a conventional education institution, respondents were requested to
provide their views using an open–ended questionnaire (Annex 1), on ODL and
19
conventional education in Tanzania. The specific areas surveyed included the most
suitable instructional methodology; trends in convergence; parity in esteem;
attainment of the ODL goals, and relevance of the same to conventional education.
Regarding the most suitable instructional methodology, all the respondents among
ODL staff and conventional students, rated conventional education as the most
suitable instructional methodology.
Among the ODL students, 66% rated ODL as the most suitable instructional
methodology, while 34% rated conventional education as the most suitable
instructional methodology. Regarding trends in convergence, majority of the ODL
staff and students (70%), acknowledged their existence, while 30% denied the same.
The trends noted by staff included some typical ODL institutions like OUT which
conduct some of their courses in conventional mode; ODL institutions are offering
face to face courses and conventional institutions are offering distance courses.
ODL students identified the trends in the forms of common educational aims/goals;
common curriculum and products. All the respondents (100%) among conventional
students, acknowledged convergence as all modes use a common curriculum and
grant the same certificates.
Regarding parity in esteem, all the respondents among ODL staff and students,
observed that there was no parity. For example, staff noted conventional delivery is
dominating over ODL; it is a new instructional mode while conventional mode is
traditional. On the other hand, the students remarked Tanzanians have a negative
perception towards ODL. It is generally taken as a poor alternative. Similarly,
majority of the conventional students (80%) noted that there was no parity between
the two instructional modes as ODL learners look inferior and the system is not
common in Tanzania. Regarding the attainment of ODL goals, majority of the
respondents among ODL staff (95%) and conventional students (75%), noted that it
was not possible to attain them due to low completion and graduation rates; most
students are not able to access study materials, and lack of appropriate technology
and infrastructure. On the contrary, all the ODL students found the goals attainable.
Regarding the relevance of the same to conventional education, all the respondents
among ODL staff and majority of the students (80%) noted that they were both
unrealistic and unachievable as the institutional mission and goals differ. However,
majority of the conventional students (70%) found the ODL goals relevant to
conventional education.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The study has explored innovations and developments at the OUT in the last two
decades, with a view to demonstrating the salient trends of the phenomenon of
convergence between distance education and conventional education. This has been
done within the context of the three dimensions underlying the process of
mainstreaming of distance education i.e. the achievement of parity of esteem
between conventional and distance education; the convergence of the means of
instructional delivery, student groups, and types of institutions and the incorporation
of distance education's constituent elements, particularly its philosophy of outreach,
into the mainstream education system.
20
It has been shown that in spite of the innovations and developments documented,
convergence is yet to take place within the context of any of the three dimensions of
distance education mainstreaming. While acknowledging the positive impact of
online learning in enhancing the efficacy of both conventional education and
distance education, it has been cautioned that underdeveloped infrastructure and
resource constraints tend to undermine its effectiveness in developing countries. It
needs, therefore, to be supported with blended learning, particularly offline media
like print, poodle and traditional ICTs in the forms of broadcast and recorded media.
Finally, preliminary findings from an ongoing survey, tend to indicate that
convergence between distance education and conventional education is still elusive
within the context the three dimensions of distance education mainstreaming.
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Mbwette, T. S. A. (2008), “Statement to New and Continuing Students of the Open
University of Tanzania on Orientation Day”in www.out.ac.tz/administration/
vc.html.
Mbwette, T. S. A. (2009), “A Decade of Delivery of Open and Distance Education
by the Open University of Tanzania in Africa and Beyond”. Paper Presented
in an International Forum on A Decade of Distance Education in the
Commonwealth Achievements and Challenges, Abuja-Nigeria. in Ibid.
McIsaac, S. M., & Gunawardena, C. (1996), “Distance Education” in D. H.
Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and
Technology, New York, Simon and Schuster Macmillan.
Mmari, G.R.V.(1996), “An Idea Takes Shape: The Open University of Tanzania
Early Days”, in Huria, Vol.I, No. 1, 1996.
Mnnaar, A.(2013), “Challenges for Successful Planning of Open and Distance
Learning (ODL): A Template Analysis” in The International Review of
Research in Open and Distance Learning, July 2013.
Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (1996), Distance Education: A systems View,
Belmont, Wadsworth Pub. Co.
Nihuka, K. A. (2011), “Collaborative course Design to Support Implementation of
E-learning by Instructors”, PhD Thesis, University of Twente, EnschedeNetherlands.
OED Online, (1998), The Oxford English Dictionary (as cited in Irele, op.cit).
OUT (2009a), Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Policy Plan for
2009/10 – 2013/14, OUT, Dar es Salaam.
OUT (2009b), Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Master Plan for
2009/10-2013/14, OUT, Dar es Salaam.
OUT (2009c), E-learning Implementation Strategy for 2009/10-2013/14, OUT, Dar
es Salaam.
OUT (2010), Client Service Charter, OUT, Dar es Salaam.
22
Peters, O. (2002), Distance Education in Transition: New Trends and Challenges,
Oldenburg, Library and Information Systems of the University of Oldenburg.
Reuben, N. Z., “The Genesis and Development of Distance Education in Tanzania”
in OUT (2012), Reflection of 20 Years of Bridging the Educational Gap in
Tanzania and Beyond, OUT, Dar es Salaam.
Tait, A. (1999), “The Convergence of Distance and Conventional Education: Some
Implications for Policy” in A. Tait & R. Mills (Eds.), The Convergence of
Distance and Conventional Education: Patterns of Flexibility for the
Individual Learner, London, Routledge.
Thompson, D. (1999), “From Marginal to Mainstream: Critical Issues in the
Adoption of Information Technologies for Tertiary Teaching and Learning”
in A. Tait & R. Mills (Eds.), Ibid.
Warner, Amanda, “What is blended learning?” at http://educationelements.com/ourservices/what-is-blended-learning visited on 21st July 2013.
23
The Contribution of Solar Power Funding for Online
Content Accessibility and Sustainability of Blended
Learning in Rural Africa: The Tanzania Perspective
Ikwaba Paul1, James Uhomoibhi2 and Fatma Ubwa1
1
The Open University of Tanzania, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental
Studies, P.O.Box 23409, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
Emails: Ikwaba Paul: [email protected], Fatma Ubwa: [email protected]
2
Faculty of Computing and Engineering, University of Ulster
Co. Antrim BT37 0QB, UK
[email protected]
Abstract: Access to quality higher education is currently considered as an important
vehicle for poverty alleviation in most African countries, including Tanzania.
However, due to limited number of on-campus universities and lack of trained tutors
in rural areas, only a tiny proportion of Tanzanian population have access to higher
education and most of these are from urban areas. Blended learning, which
combines and aligns learning undertaken in face-to-face sessions with learning
opportunities created online, has proved to be an effective tool to impart higher
education knowledge to people living in remote and rural areas. However, blended
learning remains of little significance to rural areas in Tanzania due to lack of
reliable and sustainable electricity which prevents learners from maximising the
potentials of using Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to enhance
their learning. With the current problems facing the grid-power sector in Tanzania,
having reliable and sustainable electricity in rural areas remains one of the key
problems to overcome before the impact of blended learning can be seen. Solar
electricity is of major interest for the rural energy sector in Tanzania because it
offers the possibility of generating renewable electricity using sunlight. Despite
these appealing features, penetration of solar electricity in remote and rural areas
in Tanzania is limited by high initial cost of building a stand-alone solar system.
This study reviewed eight solar power funding models (cash sales, donor-driven,
layaway, dealer credit, end-user credit, hire-purchase, M-Kopa-pay-as-go and feefor-service models) that are available in different developing countries, including
Tanzania and recommended strongly the end-user credit model. This study has also
illustrated how the identified solar power funding model can contribute to the
acquisition of solar systems in rural areas in Tanzania thought the use of SACCOs,
VICOBA and ROSCAs groups.
Key words: Blended learning, ICT, online content accessibility, solar electricity,
solar power funding models, rural areas
INTRODUCTION
Higher Education and Poverty Alleviation in Africa
Access to quality higher education is currently considered as an important vehicle
for poverty alleviation in most African countries, including Tanzania. For long time,
24
Economists have stressed that higher education has a significant role to play in
poverty reduction. For example, Khan and Williams (2006) pointed out that higher
education can directly reduce poverty through the contribution that productivity
enhancement makes to economic growth; and indirectly in the way it helps to
alleviate poverty through its positive spill-over effects on society. Furthermore, it
has been observed that sustainable development in most developing countries,
including Africa, will depend on individual and collective capacity to understand
development challenges and to find effective solutions (Maguire and Zhang, 2007).
It has been emphasised that the sustainability of economic growth and
improvements in human well-being will depend on knowledge; and lack of
knowledge is what separates rich countries from poor countries (World Bank, 1999).
In spite of this fact, the status of higher education in Africa lags behind other
regions of the world (UNDP, 2008) as reflected in economic decline, energy crisis,
insufficient capital resources, poor transportation systems, lack of investment in
technology, insufficient food supplies and health problems such as HIV/AIDS.
Like other African countries, Tanzania recognises the importance of higher
education in poverty alleviation and it is one of the priority sectors specified in the
Tanzania Development Vision 2025 and the National Strategy for Growth and
Poverty Reduction (URT, National Development Vision 2025). According to
Tanzania Development Vision 2025, by 2025, Tanzania should be a nation with
high quality of education at all levels; a nation which produces the quantity and
quality of educated people sufficiently equipped with the requisite knowledge to
solve the society’s problems, meet the challenges of development and attain
competitiveness at regional and global levels. However, the current situation does
not indicate a significant progress towards achieving the stated objective before the
end of 2025. The slow progress is due to several challenges facing higher education
in Tanzania, one of them being unequally enrolment between rural and urban
population (URT, 1999). For example, in 2012, it was reported that, although about
74% of the Tanzanian population was living in rural areas (BTI, 2012), only a tiny
proportion of these population had access to higher education. For poverty
alleviation in Tanzania, higher education should be accessible by majority of people
in remote and rural areas.
Blended learning (which combines and aligns learning undertaken in face-to-face
sessions with online learning) is an effective and viable learning mode and rural
households can attain post-secondary education through this mode. For the purposes
of this paper, blended learning consists of an initial face-to-face meeting, weekly
online assessments and synchronous chat, asynchronous discussions, email, a final
face-to-face and a supervised final examination (Martyn, 2003; Rovai and Jordan;
2004). The face-to-face component can be either on the main university campus or
the Lecturer/Professor can travel to rural areas to meet with students. Online
learning means the use of electronic media and information and communication
technologies (ICTs) in education. It is sometimes called technology-enhanced
learning or virtual learning and it includes all forms of educational technology in
learning such as world wide web (www), Video (YouTube, Skype or webcams),
extranet, internet, whiteboards, Screencasting, satellite TV, Learning Management
Systems, Computers, tablets and mobile devices, blogs and email (Dror, 2008;
25
Moore et al., 2011; Anand et al., 2012). The importance of using these technologies
for education purposes have been widely documented (Iskander, 2002; Jhurree,
2005; Robinson, 2008; Hechter et al., 2012).
The Purpose of the Study
In Tanzania, the significance of blended learning in remote and rural areas are yet to
be seen due to lack of electrical energy which prevents learners from maximising
the potentials of using ICTs to access various online information. It should be noted
that all ICT devices require regular supply of electrical energy for online content
accessibility. Therefore, having reliable, affordable, sustainable and clean electrical
energy sources in rural areas remains one of the key problems to overcome if
blended learning has to make a significant impact to the rural communities.
Solar electricity is clearly one of the most promising prospects since it is renewable,
cost-effective and the resource (sunrays) is available everywhere in Tanzania.
Despite of these appealing features, solar electricity is not accessible by the majority
of people in rural areas due to high initial cost of building a stand-alone solar system
(Paul, 2009; Paul and Uhomoibhi, 2013). One way to overcome this problem is
through the use of avoidable funding models to mobilise the required capital.
The aim of this study, therefore, was to systematically document the existing solar
power funding models in developing countries, including Tanzania, and illustrate
how the recommended funding model can contribute to the acquisition of solar
systems in rural areas in Tanzania.
Objectives
The overall object of this article was to systematically document the existing solar
power funding models in different developing countries, including Tanzania, and
illustrate how the best recommended funding model can contribute to the acquisition
of solar systems in rural areas in Tanzania. It is anticipate that the availability of
solar electricity in rural areas will facilitate online information accessibility and
sustainability of blended learning in rural areas in Tanzania. Specifically, the study
had the following objectives:
В· To illustrate the significance of sustainable electrical energy availability for
online content accessibility and sustainability of blended learning in rural areas
in Tanzania;
В· To review the existing solar power funding models in different developing
countries, including Tanzania;
В· To recommend the affordable solar power funding model for rural households
in Tanzania;
В· To illustrate how the identified solar power funding model can contribute to the
acquisition of solar systems in rural areas in Tanzania.
Hypotheses
This study was guided by three hypotheses:
В· The availability of solar electricity in rural areas in Tanzania will enhance
online content accessibility and sustainability of blended learning;
26
В·
В·
There are different solar power funding models in different developing countries
and the suitability of each model varies from one country to another, depending
on the nature of the financing institutions;
The availability of affordable solar power funding model in rural areas in
Tanzania will facilitate the acquisitions of solar electricity.
ONLINE CONTENT ACCESSIBILITY AND SUSTAINABILITY OF BLENDED
LEARNING: THE ROLE OF SOLAR ELECTRICITY
Tanzania has been blessed by enormous non-renewable energy resources such as
petroleum, natural gas, coal and uranium as well as renewable energy resources
such as solar energy, wind energy, geothermal and hydropower (Kusekwa, 2011).
However, the status of electricity in both urban and rural areas in Tanzania does not
reflect these huge energy resources. For example, in 2013, only 14% of the whole
population in Tanzania (44.8 millions) had access to grid electricity (FAO, 2013).
Of this, about 2% and 39% of rural and urban population, respectively, have access
to grid electricity (FAO, 2013). For urban areas, inadequate electrical energy is
associate with worn out infrastructure both for production and distribution,
shortages in electricity production due to lack of reservoir, inability of the
government to fund expansion of power sector, lack of maintenance of existing
facilities due to inadequate finance/technical, inadequate revenue collection
mechanisms and too much dependence on hydro-production which is subject to
weather variations (CTI, 2011).
Nevertheless, for remote and rural areas, lack of electricity is due to high capital for
infrastructure development, low capacity utilisation rates, high electricity line losses
and sparse population (Mwahiva and Mbise, 2003). To address the challenges facing
the electrical energy sector in rural areas, it is important that renewable energy
sources such as solar electricity must be given high priorities.
Solar electricity is the electrical energy which is obtained through stand-alone solar
system (Roberts, 1991). A stand-alone solar system is a small autonomous energy
station, powered by a solar module that provides electricity for basic services such
as lighting, radio, television, computer, internet facilities and operation of small
appliances (Scheutzlich et al., 2001; Paul, 2009). It consists of a solar module which
converts the sunrays into electricity; rechargeable battery which stores the generated
energy for use at night and during cloudy days; charge controller which controls the
charging of the battery; an alternative current (AC) inverter which covert direct
current (DC) to AC current, switches, interconnecting wires and solar panel
mounting rack (Roberts, 1991; Setter et al., 2012). It can also include electric
generator as power back-up during extended heavy rainfall days. For a household or
building with grid electricity, solar electricity acts as back-up electricity. An
example of a stand-alone solar system for rural secondary school is shown in figure
1. The cost of such a solar system is governed by the type of a solar panel (figure 2)
as well as the size and quality of the other components.
27
Figure 1: The basic stand-alone solar system components, adapted from Setter
et al., (2012)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 2: Types of common solar panels in stand-alone solar systems (a) monocrystalline silicon, (b) poly-crystalline silicon, (c) thin film and (d) amorphous,
adapted from Chow (2010).
It is a well know fact that all devices for internet accessibility, requires regular
supply of electrical energy. It is therefore, anticipated that the availability of solar
electricity in rural areas in Tanzania will bridge the current digital divide by
facilitating the accessibility of online course content and regular communication
between learners and course instructors. Furthermore, since solar energy is
renewable, solar electricity will facilitate sustainability of blended learning.
Moreover, the availability of solar electricity will not only facilitate online content
accessibility and sustainability of blended learning, but also will open windows for
other online information about on-campus universities, distance learning and
HIV/AIDS as well as education for girls and women. Such information possibly will
include:
В· Online information about different Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in
Tanzania;
28
В· Online information about degree programmes offered by HEIs in Tanzania;
В· Online information regarding fee structure for different HEIs and mode of
payments;
В· Online information on application and commencement of academic year in each
institution;
В· Online information about different scholarships, including Tanzania Higher
Education Loan Board;
В· Online information about the effect and prevent of HIV/AIDS, telemedicine and
market prices for various crop products.
Despite of these appealing features, solar electricity is still very expensive to most
people in rural areas in Tanzania. For example, in 2009, a 50 Wp1 stand-alone solar
system, consisting of a solar module, a charge controller and a battery bank, was
sold at an average price of US$ 600 (Felten, 2010). From a rural economic
perspective, such amount represents a significant fraction of the annual income of an
ordinary rural farmer. The main problem is that building a stand-alone solar system
requires relatively high up-front cash. The local banks or financial institutes are
generally not interested in financing solar home systems due to the fact that it takes
too long to recover the investment (MEM, 2002; Ishengoma, 2011). Therefore, an
important requirement for expanding solar electricity in rural areas is the need to
mobilise enough money for the acquisition of solar system. Without having access
to an affordable solar power funding model, rural community will hardly be in a
position to purchase a small solar system.
METHODS
This study was entirely based on secondary information collected from different
sources like journal articles, conference proceedings, books and various reports.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Solar Electricity Funding Models in Different Developing Countries
In the literature, there are eight formal solar funding models through which rural
communities in developing countries can acquire solar electricity. These include
cash sales, donor-driven, layaway, dealer credit, end-user credit, hire-purchase, MKopa-pay-as-go and fee-for-service models. In this section an overview of each
model and countries which have practised each funding model are given. It should
be noted that, under each funding model, the countries given are by no means
exhaustive (i.e., many countries that have not been included in this review).
Cash Sales Model
This refers to a system whereby the end-user purchase the solar items;
himself/herself either in cash or in piecemeal (Nieuwenhout et al., 2000; 2001;
MEM, 2002; Kolk and Van den Buuse, 2012; Lysen, 2013). It is the most
commonly model practised in all countries where solar electricity is used. In this
model, the end-user has a flexibility of choosing the size and type of the solar
system depending on the available fund. However, the main disadvantage of this
1
Wp stands for Watt-peak-power (the power generated under certain test conditions).
29
model is the initial investment, which results in a small number of rural customers
being able to purchase stand-alone solar systems. In addition, due to lack of
qualified solar engineers/technicians at village level and low purchasing capacity
(Paul, 2009; Paul and Uhomoibhi, 2013), the end-user tendency to purchase an
undersized system to save the little available money. Furthermore, the system
installation is not properly done as the end-users do not prefer to hire a solar
engineer/technician. Moreover, replacement is not done on time, and if it is done, it
is often done with cheap and non-compatible components which severely undermine
the performance of the system and jeopardize the solar electricity technology
acceptance.
For example, in 1984, 270 stand-alone solar systems were purchased and installed
under cash sale model in Kiribiti, Kenya (Nieuwenhout et al., 2001). However, a
survey in 1992 showed that about 90% of the systems were marginally operational.
The main reasons given were that the end-users purchased undersized solar system
and the systems were not installed as per given instructions.
Donor-Driven Model
This is a type of solar funding whereby developed countries or international donor
provides the hardware for free to developing countries on a project basis and the
government organizations are fully in charge of all aspects related to the project
(Nieuwenhout et al., 2000; 2001; Martinot, 2001; MEM, 2002; Umree and Harris,
2006; ARE, 2008; Kolk and Van den Buuse, 2012). The main advantages of this
model are zero initial costs for the end-user, the potential for cost reduction through
economies of scale and rapid dissemination. However, in this model, the end-users
are generally less involved and feel less responsibility to the system. In addition, the
end-users have no choice on the size and type of the solar system. Furthermore,
most donor-driven projects provide the hardware only, often neglecting the
maintenance and services. As a result, some donor-driven projects do not sustain.
For example, in Tunisia, solar systems were given free to the end-users and they
were asked to pay an operating cost of US$ 5.20 per month, but they refused to pay
(Nieuwenhout et al., 2000). This was not caused by an inability to pay, since some
time later; the same end-users could afford US$ 208 for a grid connection
(Nieuwenhout et al., 2000). Another example is from Guatemala, where an
international Non-Governmental Organisation installed 124 stand-alone solar
systems for free and each end-user was given a task of maintaining his/her solar
system (Nieuwenhout et al., 2000). However, a survey carried out after 5 years
revealed that 45% of the systems were not working mainly due to minor
maintenance related problems (Nieuwenhout et al., 2000).
On the other hand, there is a substantial literature demonstrating that some donordriven projects achieved the intended objectives. Such projects are shown in Table
1.
Layaway Model
Layaway solar electricity financing model is an agreement whereby a solar company
sell solar items (such as solar panels, batteries, charge controller or inverters) to
individuals on regular monthly payments agreement (Hankins and Van der Pla,
2000; UNDP/World Bank, 2000; Lysen, 2013). The solar company keeps the
30
purchased solar item(s) until the accumulated deposits equal the agreed purchase
price. There is sometimes a fee associated in this model since the solar company
must �lay’ the item
Table 1: Examples of successful donor-driven projects in selected countries
Name of the Donor
Project Name
Reference
Global Environment Facility
Togo off-grid
Martinot et al.,
(GEF)/World Bank
electrification, Togo
(2001)
Benin off-grid
Martinot et al.,
GEF/World Bank
electrification, Benin
(2001)
Keyela school and computer
Solar Electric Light Fund
solar electricity project in South
SELF (2011)
(SEF)
Africa
Solar electrification project
U.S Department of Energy
for three villages in Jigawa SELF (2011)
State, Nigeria
KalalГ© District farmers
SELF and International Crops
solar water pumping and
Research Institute for the
SELF (2011)
drip irrigation solar
Semi-Arid Tropics
systems, Benin
Solar energy projects for
Clinton Foundation and
rural health centers,
SELF (2011)
Partners
Rwanda
�away’ in storage until the payments are completed. If the transaction is not
completed as agreed, the item is returned to stock and the money of the customer is
returned minus a fee. The main advantage of this model is that no interest is charged
and the item price is fixed during the period of re-payment. However, such
arrangement favours only those with regular income such as teachers, technicians,
doctors, nurses, small business dealers, etc. Farmers with seasonal income and
individuals who are not known to the solar companies’ administrators find
themselves outside the layaway model equation. This is not a common model in
developing countries.
M-Kopa-Pay-as-you-go Model
M-Kopa2-Pay-as-you-go model is type of financing mechanism whereby solar items
such as solar phone-charger, solar panels, batteries and inverters are purchased on a
pay-as-you-go basis, with payments accepted only through M-PESA3 (Sullivan and
Omwansa, 2013). In the literature, this type of solar funding mechanism is only
found in Kenya (Sullivan and Omwansa, 2013). The target groups for this type of
funding were rural customers with irregular incomes who are not connected to the
grid electricity. This model operates as follows: the consumer makes an informal
price agreement with the solar supplier and pays instalments through M-PESA
according to the agreement. After a 15 – 20% down payment, a customer can take
the solar item home. The client takes up to a year to pay off the remaining amount;
2
3
�M’ stands for mobile and �Kopa’ means borrow.
PESA is a Swahili name for �money’, thus M-PESA is money payment through mobile phone.
31
at a minimum rate of approximately 0.40 KES4 per day. This minimum payment
rate was determined based on the amount a typical kerosene user spends per day in
rural areas in Kenya. The M-Kopa-Pay-as-you-go Model was launched in 2012 and
by 2013; more than 8,000 solar systems had been sold (Sullivan and Omwansa,
2013). Many of these items have been fully paid and few end-users failed to pay and
their solar items were taken back.
Whether this kind of arrangement will be widely implemented in Kenya or any other
developing country will depends on two things: the willingness of the solar
companies to participate in this business and the number of end-users who are able
to repay the loan within the specified period. In our view, the M-Kopa-pay-as-yougo business model presents a huge potential for solar system acquisitions in rural
areas in Tanzania, but the repayment period (of one year) is too short.
Dealer Credit Model
According to MEM (2002) and IEA (2003), this is a type funding whereby a solar
company has a consumer credit or installment payment agreement. In this model the
end-user pay the agreed solar system price in monthly or income cycles
installments. The ownership of the solar system is transferred either when the down
payment is paid or when the credit is repaid. The end-user is responsible for
installation and maintenance of the system, although in some cases it can be carried
out by the solar company in a separate agreement. In this model, the solar company
does not have the working capital required to offer credit to the end-user. Therefore,
end-users approach a funding source or credit provider to access credit. For the enduser, the main advantage of this model is that the main barrier of the high initial
investment is lowered. However, this model is characterized by relatively short
terms (mostly between 6 months and one year), high down payments (up to 50%)
and high interest rates (rates of 20% to 25%) IEA, 2003). Furthermore, solar
companies are typically not experienced and not capable of administering a credit
scheme, as this requires an extra person and it is time consuming. Reported
examples are from Zimbabwe and Sri Lanka (IEA, 2003).
End-User Credit Model
In this model, the solar company sells the solar system to the end-user, who obtains
consumer credit from a third party credit institution, preferably one with rural
outlets and experience with rural credit - that lends directly to the end-users
(Nieuwenhout et al., 2000; UNDP/World Bank, 2000; MEM, 2002; IEA, 2003;
Kolk and Van den Buuse, 2012). The solar company remains responsible for the
sales, distribution and installation of the solar items. The end-user usually pays a
down-payment (either directly to the company or to the credit institution), and the
remaining payments are collected by the credit institution. The credit institution
usually takes responsibility for the loan and pays the complete price to the solar
company. The end-user is the owner of the system and responsible for maintenance
and repair, although most credit institutes will state in their credit terms that they
remain owner till the last payment is made. For a solar company, the main
advantage of this model is that the company does not need to allocate budget to run
4
1 US$ = 85.81 KES, as per 30th June 2013 exchange rate.
32
the credit scheme; it is like a cash sale. In rural area, this model is restricted to endusers that the credit institution deems creditworthy (those with regular incomes such
as teachers, technicians, health workers, small business dealers, etc).
Solar systems sale by end-user credit model is being practised in countries like
Zimbabwe (Marawanyika, 1996), Kenya (Hankins and Van der Pla, 2000; Kabutha
et al., 2007; Kariuki et al., 2010), Morroco (IEA, 2003) and Uganda (Kariuki et al.,
2010).
Hire-Purchase Model
In this model, the solar company or an intermediate financial institution offers the
solar system on a hire-purchase basis (Nieuwenhout et al., 2000; MEM, 2002; IEA,
2003; Ishengoma, 2011; Kolk and Van den Buuse, 2012). The end-user pays a
regular monthly fee for a limited period to solar company or an intermediate
financial institution. The solar company remains the owner of the solar system
during the rental period and at the end of the term, the ownership is transferred to
the end-user. The installation and after-sales service is carried out by the solar
company. For the solar company, the main barrier of this model is the high initial
investment required. One of the disadvantages of this model is that the end-users
may not treat the systems with care, as initially the maintenance and ownership do
not lie with them.
There have been a large numbers of stand-alone solar systems installed under this
model in countries like Indonesia (Miller and Hope, 2000), Bangladesh (IEA, 2003),
Sri Lanka, India and Vietnam (SELCO, 2005).
Fee-for-Service Model
In the fee-for-service model, a solar company installs a stand-alone solar system on
individual houses and starts selling electricity at affordable fee (MEM, 2002; IEA,
2003; FEF, 2006; Ishengoma, 2011). The solar company remains the owner of the
hardware and is responsible for installation, maintenance, repair and replacement of
the solar system and, in some cases, its components. The end-user pays a connection
fee and a regular fee (usually monthly) as long as the electricity is available and
never becomes the owner of the system. The end-user owns only the wiring, lamps
and appliances, which are covered by the connection fee. This type of funding
requires a solar company to have a substantial capital because by selling electricity
at a price which is affordable by the target group, it may takes between 5 and 10
years before the initial investment is recovered. Although this model is
geographically restricted because of the extensive infrastructure needed for the
collection of the payments and the maintenance of the systems, it is an attractive
model for increasing accessibility of solar electricity in remote and rural areas.
For example, in Honduras, Soluz Honduras Company sells Solar Home Systems
(SHSs) through fee-for-service model. The company maintains the ownership of the
system but the end-user purchase the battery. The company sells electricity at an
affordable monthly fee, ranging from US$ 10 to 20 per month. This amount is
equivalent to that paid for kerosene, dry cell batteries and the re-charging of car
batteries for TV uses. Research indicates that although Soluz Honduras Company
33
sells solar systems through cash and credit models; it is the fee-for-service model
that attracts more customers (IEA, 2003). Other examples of fee-for-service models
are found in Morocco (IEA, 2003), Bangladesh (RERIC, 2005), Zambia (Ellegard et
al., 2004), Argentina, Benin, Togo, the Dominican Republic and Cape Verde
(Martinot et al., 2001).
Solar Power Funding Models in Tanzania: Discussions and Recommendations
This section presents the findings of the existing solar electricity funding models (in
urban and rural areas) in Tanzania. For each funding model, recommendation
whether it is relevant or not has been given.
Cash Sales Model
This is the most commonly model found in both urban and rural areas in Tanzania
(MEM, 2002; Paul, 2009; Kariuki et al., 2010; Riddick, 2010). Like any developing
countries, the size and type of stand-alone solar systems in Tanzania varies from
smaller (10 – 20 Wp) to larger (50 – 100 Wp), depending of the locality. Due to
low-income of rural households in Tanzania, this type of solar power funding is not
recommended.
Hire-Purchase Model
In Tanzania, there are few formal solar hire-purchased models operating in the
urban areas. Examples are Tunakopesha Limited and FINCA – in cooperation with
Umeme-Jua5 Limited (FEF, 2006, Ishengoma, 2011). The FINCA leasing project
was unsuccessful due to limited financial capacity and its absence in rural areas. On
the other hand, Tunakopesha Limited hire-purchase is generally expensive (over
twice the normal retail cash price) because of the high cost of the loans. Since hirepurchase model requires solar companies that have high-working-capital, it is
unlikely that solar companies in Tanzania are willing to invest in a risky business
with long period of investment recovery (usually about 5 – 10 years). This model is
not recommended for rural communities in Tanzania.
Layaway Model
To best of our knowledge, currently there is no formal layaway solar electricity
funding reported in Tanzania. However, there are few informal cases which have
been reported (MEM, 2002; Parpia, 2007). Due to its disadvantages, this type of
funding is not recommended to rural households in Tanzania.
Fee-for-Service Model
Fee-for-service model has been reported in Tanzania, the Uzi project (Kihedu et al.,
2006; Ishegoma, 2011). However, the Uzi project has a slightly modification
characteristics from a model described in section 4.1.8. The solar panels for Uzi
Island solar project (Zanzibar) were purchased by the fund from German-Tanzania
Partnership while Tanzania Solar Energy Association and Zanzibar Solar Energy
Association offered solar technical expertise. The households purchased the
batteries and are paying a monthly fee in the region of US$ 1.6 to 2.4. This is an
attractive solar power funding model for rural households in Tanzania in the view
5
Umeme-Jua is a Swahili word which means electricity from the sun.
34
that the monthly fee is below the monthly expenditure on kerosene and dry cells.
However, due to lack of enough capital, none of the local solar companies are
interested in supporting such a business.
Dealer Credit and M-Kopa-Pay-as-you-go Models
These models have not been reported in Tanzania. Dealer credit model is not
recommended due to its disadvantages. On the other hand, the suitability of the MKopa-pay-as-you-go model is yet to be established as it is in the experimental stage.
Donor-Driven Model
Several donor-driven solar electricity projects have been reported in Tanzania.
These projects were either funded by government, international donors or jointly
funded. Table 2 presents some of the donor-funded solar projects in Tanzania.
Although some studies (Nieuwenhout et al., 2000; MEM, 2002) have stated clearly
that they do not recommend donor-driven funding model, in this paper we
recommend it as one of viable alternative to assist rural households to acquire solar
systems. However, for this model to succeed, the following must be observed:
В· Strict monitoring during and after the project;
В· End-users involvement: before, during and after the project;
В· In each household, one person should be trained on how to maintain the solar
system after the project;
В· Clearly defined roles and responsibilities between donors and recipients,
especially after project period expiration.
Table 2: Examples of solar electricity projects implemented under donordriven model in Tanzania
Name of the Donor
Kalwande African Mission
Project Name
Solar systems installations in
Mwanza, Shinyanga and Karagwe
MEM (2002)
UNDP/Tanzania-MEM
UNDP/MEM Mwanza Solar PV
Project 2004-2009
FEF (2006)
Ministry of Foreign and
Economic
Affairs,
the
Netherlands
Umeme-Jua - Providing access to
electricity for rural households in
Tanzania through solar Photovoltaic
(PV)
UNDP/UNESCO
3kW Umbuji Village solar
electricity
Solar Electric Light Fund
Masai people solar-power telephones and
FM radios
SELF (2011)
Clinton Foundation
Partners
solar energy projects for rural health
centers
and
End-User Credit Model
35
Reference
FEF(2006)
UN (2001)
SELF (2011)
End-user credit model is the second most commonly model found in Tanzania,
besides cash sales model. Table 3 illustrates few examples of solar systems
implemented under end-user credit model.
Although there have been few cases reported under end-user credit model in
comparison with the total number of solar systems installed, this is the suitable
model for increasing acquisition of stand-alone solar systems for poor people in
rural areas. The presence of teachers, police workers, heath workers, small business
persons and farmers (both food and cash crops), with access to SACCOs6 and
VICOBA7, make these people, perfect end-user credit clients.
Table 3: Examples of solar power implemented under end-user model
Financier’s Name
Financier
Reference
В· Borrowers, mostly from low
end income earners in the rural
Kariuki et al. (2010)
FINCA Tanzania
areas without adequate assets
Ishengoma (2011)
to pledge
В· Individuals with salaries
В· Individuals with salaries
В· Individuals loans to those with
CRDB Bank
productive businesses and Kariuki et al. (2010)
adequate collateral
В· Well run profitable SACCOs
В· Individuals with salaries
Tujijenge MicroKariuki et al. (2010)
В· Individual with business
finance
Ishengoma (2011)
В· Well run profitable groups
В· Well organised groups
Kariuki et al. (2010)
Tujijenge Tanzania
Ishengoma (2011)
В· SACCOs
Promotion of
Renewable Energy(PRET, funded by
SACCOs groups
Kariuki et al. (2010)
Tanzania Ministry of
Minerals and Energy,
MEM)
The Contribution of End-User Funding Model in Acquisition of Solar Systems
in Rural Areas in Tanzania
In the absence of other financial institutions, the locals are pushed to join into
formal and informal small groups to mobilized resources from members. In
Tanzania such groups include SACCOs (formal), VICOBA (informal) and Rotating
Savings and Credit Associations, ROSCAs (informal) (Millinga, 2013). These
groups (SACCOs, VICOBA and ROSCAs) get funds for lending to members from
internally mobilized savings and loans from Commercial banks, Community Banks
and Government programs such as Small Enterprise Loan Facility (Millinga, 2013).
6
7
SACCOS means Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies
VICOBA means Village Community Bank.
36
Since there are many members in rural areas with access to either SACCOs,
VICOBA or ROSCAs, they should use the end-user model to acquire loan for
purchasing solar systems.
However, the following challenges have to be addressed for the success of this
model:
В· Lack of qualified local solar engineers/technicians at village level to provide
technical support;
В· Availability of fake solar items in the market;
В· Lack of awareness of solar electricity and end-user credit knowledge among
SACCOs, VICOBA and ROSCAs members.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the importance of quality higher education for poverty alleviation in
Africa and Tanzania in particular, has been presented. Blended learning, which
combines and aligns learning undertaken in face-to-face sessions with technologyenhanced learning, was found to be a suitable learning approach for rural
communities to acquire post-secondary education. However, the significance of
blended learning in remote and rural areas in Tanzania is limited by lack of
electricity. Solar energy was indentified as the cost-effective and viable source of
electrical energy. Despite of many advantages including cost effective and
renewability, the penetration of solar electricity in remote and rural areas in
Tanzania was found to be constrained by high initial cost of building a stand-alone
solar system. This study reviewed eight solar power funding options (cash sales,
donor-driven, layaway, dealer credit, end-user credit, hire-purchase, M-Kopa-payas-go and fee-for-service models) that are available in different developing
countries, including Tanzania and recommended strongly the end-user credit model.
The study has also illustrated the contribution of the end-user funding model in
acquisition of solar systems in rural areas in Tanzania through the use of SACCOs,
VICOBA and ROSCAs groups.
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41
Innovation and Development in Blended Learning
Mode in Higher Learning Institutions: Interactive
Experiences from OUT’s Postgraduate Students and
Instructors
Mariana Makuu8
[email protected]
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, The Open University of Tanzania
Deus Ngaruko
[email protected]
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, The Open University of Tanzania
Abstract: Although blended learning mode of delivery has been found to be an
effective and inexpensive way to enhance learning, there is still need to examine
how students and tutors perceive it in the presence of the traditional modes. The
purpose of the present study was to examine views and perception of both
instructors and students on attributes related to processes of BLM implementation
and interactions. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire administered
to38 postgraduate students and 14 instructors from The Open University of
Tanzania. Data were analyzed using descriptive. Crosstabs were used to describe
the association between BLM processes and interactions of BLM by both instructors
and students. The results revealed that students’ and instructors’ views on BLM
processes, such as ease of use of the web environment, evaluation, face to face
environment etc., are varied significantly with perceived BLM interactions. Unlike
the relatively younger students, the older generations were found to value more of
the BLM interactions than of the BLM implementation processes. This paper will
help to inform learning institutions intending to go BLM of the best and effective
processes for the blended learning environment.
Keywords; Blended Learning Mode (BLM), blended learning interactions, BLM
implementation processes, Open University of Tanzania
INTRODUCTION
Innovation and development of the blended learning mode has marked the
realization of enhancing education opportunity to many people from different
backgrounds. The blended characteristic features allow for meeting requirements of
heterogeneous groups of learners at affordable cost and time. As noted by Zapata
and Sagall (2007), “A combination of face-to face class time and self-study with
online workbook is an effective and inexpensive way to enhance learning”. Reasons
for using blended instruction include: improved pedagogy, easy access to
knowledge, more interaction among learners, personal presence, cost effectiveness,
and ease of revision of learning content (Singh and Reed, 2001).
8
Corresponding author [email protected]
42
To meet high education demands in Tanzania, OUT established the blended learning
mode which cuts across various social science disciplines. This process was mostly
facilitated by OUT Management efforts to invest in Moodle which is an online
learning platform. Apart from the blended learning, OUT runs various postgraduate
courses based on traditional learning mode (evening programmes and executive
programmes). OUT’s current focus is to ensure that all postgraduate programmes
utilize this new innovative approach to meet the needs and demands of stakeholders
inside and outside the country.
Much has been written concerning the contribution of the blended mode to higher
education. However, little is known about perception of course instructors and
students on blended learning mode as regards interactive experiences; and whether
generational differences exist especially in Tanzania. According to the researchers’
observation, perception of course instructors and students on the efficiency and
effectiveness of blended mode interactive experiences; and the generational
perceived differences, are the important factors which affect preference to enroll to
the progamme. This means that perception of the course instructors and students on
the blended learning mode interactive experiences will help to realize best practices
for the blended learning.
Muthiah (2013), indicates that one of the benefits of a blended learning platform is
preventing the �lone–learner syndrome’. This can best be facilitated by engaging
learners - with different backgrounds and generational differences, in interaction
during the learning process. Interaction will help individuals to share their
experiences, challenge and establish ways for a friendly leaning environment.
According to the existing literature, the involvement of students in the blended
learning environment is key to their success in the learning process. Anderson
(2006) talks about the possibilities of collaborative, interactive, media-rich and
personalized learning bring to blended learning. Attention is needed in the learning
process to meet students’ and instructor’s engagement, challenges and connectivity,
refining teaching approaches, focusing on high learning experiences and address
issues which can interfere learning environment.
In both online and face-to-face instruction, the learners and instructors interact,
share ideas and generally try to support one another throughout the learning cycle
(Boyle, 2005). Other levels of interactions which are very crucial are: student to
student interaction, student to community, student to materials, and student to
technology – all of which are the interest of this study. As noted by Ocker and
Yaverbaum (2002), the learners are better able to assimilate new information and
solve problems when working in collaboration with others.
The main purpose of this paper is to explore innovation and development of the
blended learning mode in higher learning institutions based on the interactive
experiences and perceptions of OUT’s postgraduate instructors and students.
Specific objectives of the paper was:
(i) To investigate overall perception of course instructors and students on blended
learning implementation processes and interactive experiences.
43
(ii) To examine whether generational differences exist in perception of course
instructors and students.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Two theories provided the theoretical framework of this study. The learner-centered
theory adopted from �Person–Centered Learning’ developed by the American
psychologist Carl Rogers (1951) as a method in counseling psychology; and adult
learner theory by Malcolm Knowles (1984). The learner-centered theory
acknowledges the fact that learning should encompass the whole person by ensuring
that learner is the central focus in learning process. The implication is that, planning
of the course, curriculum development, mode of delivery, etc. has to consider
learners views. Person-centered education, also known as the learner-centered
model of instruction, “focuses on developing real-life skills, such as collaboration,
higher-order thinking, and problem-solving skills, and better meets the complex
needs of the information age (Yun-Jo, and Reigeluth. 2011-2012).”
Person-centered education is characterized by personalized and customized learning,
social and emotional support, self-regulation, collaborative and authentic learning
experiences, and assessment for learning (ibid). As noted by Motschnig-Pitrik and
Santos (2006), to ignore the whole person in the process of education is to lose a
golden opportunity to fulfill the true meaning of education, which is to enrich
people’s lives.
Malcolm developed a field of adult learning termed andragogy after
studying adult learners for 35 years (Kisamore et al., 2008). Texts and
teachers play new and secondary. roles in adult education. Knowles’s
andragogical model is based on several assumptions: (a) the need to know,
(b) the learner’s self-concept, (c) role of the learner’s experiences, (d)
readiness to learn, (e) orientation to learning, and (f) motivation. Adult
learners are surrounded by various challenges which make their engagement
in learning unique. They have many responsibilities to accomplish at the
same time such as work, recreation, family life and community life. Adult
learners find ways to intervene these situations when needed.
Several definitions have been used to describe adult learners. Malcolm
Knowles’s definition of the adult learner is that - one has arrived at a selfconcept of being responsible for one’s own life, of being self-directed
(Kisamore et al., 2008). Some simply look at the age of the learner and
define adult learners as anyone over the age of 20, and some feel that the
setting defines the adult learner. In other words, if learners are in
community college, university, or work setting, they are adult learners. As
the population ages and life expectancy lengthens, educators can expect
more adult learners (Kisamore et al., 2008).
A generation is shaped by highly significant events during the coming-ofage experiences between youth and adulthood (Strauss, 2005). These events
define a generation and determine the traits and attitudes that distinguish
one generation from another. Because of their shared experiences,
44
generations often share values and behaviors as well as bring common
approaches and ideas to the workplace and classroom (Lancaster and
Stillman, 2002). Andragogy ties in with generational differences as
increasingly generations collide in the classrooms of academia (Howe and
Strauss, 2000). The present study will adopt andragogy ties because distinct
and different generations are blending in the programmes under study.
EMPIRICALLITERATURE
Blended learning and Higher Learning
Blended learning has been implemented from the past using various approaches
such as physical class formats like lectures, labs, books and handouts. In the
contemporary society, globalization has improved blended learning through the
development of information and technology. Currently blended learning in some
higher learning institutions combine face to face classroom methods with the online
learning. For example at OUT experience on some postgraduate programmes like
Master of Social Work; the blended learning to a traditional approach might mean
that class meets for one week at the end of each course (eight weeks) instead of the
usual two sessions per week. This allows students to engage in online discussion
forums with course facilitators and fellow students. The main goal of the blended
learning approach is to mix the traditional approach and online instruction for the
aim of enhancing the learning process.
The concept of blended learning is rooted in the idea that learning is not just a onetime event — learning is a continuous process. Blending provides various benefits
over using any single learning delivery medium alone (Harvey, 2003). Garrison and
Vaughan (2008) define blended learning as “the organic integration of thoughtfully
selected and complementary face-to-face and online approaches and technologies”.
According to this definition and using George Siemens’ concept of innovation,
which states that: “Innovation is about being new...doing existing things in a new
way, or doing something new in response to changes. Innovation is part evolution
and part adaptation (and occasionally, part revolution),” clearly blended learning is
an innovation; it involves teaching and learning in a new way, while still adhering to
the tenets of higher education9.
Blended Learning and the Global Trends
Pannekoek (2008) regards the distance, open, and technology enabled learning
movement as one of a few movements that show a convergence of interests and
knowledge that might be capable of meeting these challenges. Evidence of
increasing internationalization is generally manifested in a significant increase in the
cross-border activities of higher education institutions. Cross-border higher
education is fueled - in part, by the growing worldwide demand for higher education
and is characterized by increased mobility of students, courses and programs and
increased mobility of institutions across national borders. As stated by UNESCO,
cross-border higher education encompasses a wide range of modalities from face-to9
www.cohere.ca. (assessed on 20.07.2013)
45
face instruction (such as students travelling abroad and campuses abroad) to
distance learning (through a range of technologies and including e-learning), (ICDE,
2009).
Existing literature shows that there had been a paradigm shift in higher learning
education offered by the higher education institutions in the 20th C due to the
emergence of the electronic learning (e-learning) globally. Consequently, the
adoption of e-learning technologies has impacted the planning, learning design,
management and administration of the learning process and delivery of learning
content to the students (Namahn, 2010) thereby promoting blended learning. Britain
and Liber (2003) point out that over 80% of HEIs in the developed world are
actively engaging in the use of e-learning systems for supporting their teaching and
learning, with 97% of universities reported to be using one or more forms of Virtual
Lerning Environment (VLE).
The situation is different in the developing world due to various social, economic,
political and cultural challenges on technological development. As noted by
UNESCO (2006), “education in Sub-Saharan Africa are grappling with the
continuing economic downturn, high demand for higher education in emerging
knowledge-driven economies as well as inadequate availability of experienced and
skilled teachers. Universities in Sub-Saharan Africa are also still facing numerous
challenges such as high volume of students, limited ICT infrastructure, high
illiteracy levels, ineffective computer system maintenance and poor ICT support
relative to the implementation of e-learning (Ssekakubo et al., 2011; Andersson,
2008). This calls for the government attention if African countries are to realize
sustainable development.
ICTs and the blended learning
Blended learning is realized in teaching and learning environments where there is an
effective integration of different modes of delivery, models of teaching and styles of
learning as a result of adopting a strategic and systematic approach to the use of
technology combined with the best features of face-to-face interaction (Krause,
2007). According to Bath and John (2010), blended learning is about effectively
integrating ICTs into course design to enhance the teaching and learning
experiences for students and teachers by enabling them to engage in ways that
would not normally be available or effective in their usual environment, whether it
is primarily face-to-face or distance mode.
The innovation and development of the blended learning has been greatly influenced
by the integration of the information computer technologies in various programmes.
This means that the course facilitators and students have to be well equipped in
terms of ICT skills and knowledge. This is because course facilitators will be
responsible for preparing online courses and upload extra reading materials online
so that respective students can access and proceed with learning as expected. Course
facilitators have to participate on the online discussion forums with their students to
make the online learning visible throughout. According to (Clark 2003), “adding
creative and innovative uses of technology to improve teaching practices have
generated new opportunities for learning”. This is supported by (Bath and John,
46
2010) who argue that, “Advances in technology provide new opportunities for
teachers to design and deliver their courses in ways that support and enhance the
teachers’ role, the students’ individual cognitive experiences, as well as the social
environment; three key elements in successful learning and teaching.” Blended
learning technologies can:
В· Broaden the spaces and opportunities available for learning;
В· Support course management activities (e.g., communication, assessment
submission, marking and feedback);
В· Support the provision of information and resources to students;
В· Engage and motivate students through interactivity and collaboration.
Bath and John added that, it is not just about using technology because it is
available; blended learning is about finding better ways of supporting students in
achieving the learning objectives and providing them with the best possible learning
and teaching experiences, as well as supporting teachers in their role (including the
management and administration of courses).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study involved a cross-sectional survey research design where data were
collected using a structured questionnaire administered to purposefully selected 50
postgraduate students and 20 instructors. The survey instrument used a 5-point
Likert Scale with choices of strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, strongly
disagree; very relevant, relevant, don’t know, somehow not relevant, very irrelevant;
highest level, high level, don’t know, low level, lowest level. The survey offers
participants specific choices and directions to choose the one that best fits them
which help to measure the degree to which the assessment consistently measure the
attribute (Hinkle et al., 2003).
A total of 52 (74.3%) of the mailed questionnaires were returned dully filled of
which 38 were postgraduate students and 14 instructors from The Open University
of Tanzania. A purposeful sampling technique was the most ideal because of the
respondents’ appropriateness and willingness to provide more in-depth
understanding of the topic being researched. For this study, instructors who teach
face-to-face and teach or have taught at least one academic course online in any
department at OUT were selected to participate.
Only postgraduate students enrolled in the blended mode were selected for the
purpose of this study. Data on perceptions were arranged in frequency tables. Cross
tabulation was done to examine association between BLM processes and
interactions of BLM by both instructors and students. Crosstab was also used to
assess whether generational differences were related to the respondent’s perception
on BLM core attributes.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Description of the sampled respondents
Demographic information was requested at the beginning of the survey instrument.
Information obtained from those who chose to respond revealed that 57.7% were
male and 42.3 were female. The demographic profile for students and instructors
47
participating in the study is represented in Table 1. Students enrolled in postgraduate
studies offered through blended mode represent 75.1% and course instructors
participating in blended learning mode 26.9% of the study population. Generational
difference was based on age below 40 years (57.7%) and age above 40 years
(42.3%).
Table 1: Demographic description of respondents
Variable
Respondent’s
sex
Respondent’s
status
Respondent’s
age
Categories
Male
Female
Total
student
Course
instructor
Total
below 40
years
above 40
years
Total
Frequency
Percent
30
22
52
38
14
57.7
42.3
100.0
73.1
26.9
Valid
Percent
57.7
42.3
100.0
73.1
26.9
Cumulative
Percent
57.7
100.0
52
30
100.0
57.7
100.0
57.7
57.7
22
42.3
42.3
100.0
52
100.0
100.0
73.1
100.0
Perception on blended learning implementation processes and interactive
experiences
To reveal instructors’ and students’ overall perception on blended learning
implementation processes and interactive experiences (the first research); the study
established various questions based on expectations of BLM benefits; perception on
BML limitations; perception on the implementation processes of the BLM; and
anticipated forms of interactions of the BLM. This is clearly indicated in tables
presented as appendices 1- 4. The outcome shows that students and instructors
favour blended learning and their interactive experience with blended learning is
relatively good. From the findings respondents have indicated that they have enough
skills necessary for blended learning and they seem comfortable with the structure
of the blended learning mode. As far as the respondents’ perception on BLM
limitation is concerned the findings show that this does not hinder the leaning
process because it seems lecturers and students have necessary skills and they
manage to access internet. The blended learning implementation processes
according to survey participants is good and meets their expectations. The findings
revealed that students’ and instructors perception on anticipated forms of students’
interaction of BLM is of the high level. A student manages to interact with fellow
students, course instructors, community, reading material and information
technology.
Relationship between Generational differences and respondents perception on
selected attributes
The second research objective sought to understand whether generational
differences existed in affected perceptions of instructors and students. To answer
this question various attributes related to blended learning implementation processes
48
and interactive experiences were established based on 5-point Likert scale analysis
as indicated in Table 6 to Table 12. The following attributes were established:
perception on BML limitations by age; perception of relevance of various attributes
of BLM by respondent’s age; perception of interactions expected of BLM by
respondent’s age group; perception on benefits expected of BLM by respondent’s
age.
Perception on BLM limitations and age generational differences
Table 2 shows that generational differences exist based on respondents’ perception
reflected on different BLM attributes. Findings further indicated that respondents
who were above 40 years lacked some necessary computer skills (i.e. lack of
keyboarding/typing skills 66.7% and lack of internet browsing skills 87.5%)
relevant for the blended learning mode as compared to those who are under 40years
(i.e. lack of keyboarding/typing skills 33.3% and lack of internet browsing skills
12.5%). The respondents over 40 years seem to have little concern on the blended
learning workload. Only 33.3% indicate that there was too much reading materials
and 41.7% agreed that there was too much writing on blended learning mode). As
compared to participants below 40,66.7% indicated that there was too much reading
whereas 58.3 showed that there was too much writing in the blended learning
mode). About 66.7% of respondents aged under 40 years showed that there was
inaccessibility of internet connectivity, whereas only 33.3% of the respondents
above 40 years indicated that internet connectivity was a problem.
Table 2: Perception on BLM limitations by age
I lacked
keyboarding/typing skills
There was too much
reading materials
There was too much
writing required
I lacked internet browsing
skills
Inaccessibility of internet
connectivity
Respondent's age
below 40 years
above 40 years
33.3%
66.7%
60.0%
40.0%
47.8%
52.2%
71.4%
28.6%
66.7%
33.3%
78.6%
21.4%
46.2%
53.8%
40.0%
60.0%
100.0%
58.3%
41.7%
57.1%
42.9%
44.4%
55.6%
100.0%
12.5%
87.5%
65.0%
35.0%
63.6%
36.4%
66.7%
33.3%
40.0%
60.0%
71.4%
28.6%
50.0%
50.0%
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Perception on relevance of various attributes of BLM by respondent’s age
Perception on relevance of various attributes on BLM was examined based on
respondent’s age to explore whether or not generational differences exist. The
findings in Table 3 show that various attributes of the BLM are perceived to be very
49
relevant/relevant by the two generations. Some differences are noted among the two
generations in some attributes. The results indicate that 69.1% of respondents below
40 years perceive use of web and internet sources environment as relevant whereas
only 39.1% of respondents above 40 years show same perception. The findings
show that 65% of respondents below 40 years perceive online forum discussions as
very relevant as compared to 35% of respondents above 40 years. 62.1% of
respondents below 40years perceive content of the subject matter in a course as
relevant and only 37.9% of the respondents above 40% showed same perception.
Face-to-Face sessions are perceived as being very relevant by 60.7% of respondents
below 40% as compared to 39.3% of respondents over 40 years. There is no
significant difference on the relevance of blended learning method and relevance of
access to the library print reading materials as results show that 51.7% of
respondents below 40 years perceived these as relevant as compared to 48.3% of
respondents above 40 years.
Table 3: Perception on relevance of various attributes of BLM by respondent’s
age
Relevance of ease of use
of web and internet
sources environment
Relevance of online
forum discussions
Relevance of content of
the subject matter in a
course
Relevance of Face-toFace sessions
Relevance of blended
learning method
Relevance of access to the
library print reading
materials
Respondent’s age
below 40
Above 40
years
years
53.8%
46.2%
60.9%
39.1%
100.0%
Very relevant
Relevant
Somehow not
relevant
very relevant
Relevant
Somehow not
relevant
Very relevant
relevant
Don’t know
very relevant
Relevant
Somehow
irrelevant
very relevant
Relevant
Somehow not
relevant
Very relevant
Relevant
Don’t know
Somehow not
relevant
Respondent’
s age
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
65.0%
50.0%
100.0%
35.0%
50.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
55.6%
62.1%
66.7%
60.7%
52.4%
100.0%
44.4%
37.9%
33.3%
39.3%
47.6%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
55.6%
51.7%
100.0%
44.4%
48.3%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
75.0%
40.9%
55.6%
66.7%
25.0%
59.1%
44.4%
33.3%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Perception on level of interactions expected of BLM by respondent’s age group
Examining perception on level of interactions expected of BLM by respondents
based on age groups was important as far as generational difference is concerned.
Table 4 shows that some important differences exist across generations. 66.7% of
participants below 40 years show that there was highest level student-to-student
interaction as compared to only 33.3% of respondents above 40 years. 90.9% of
50
respondents below 40 years indicate highest interaction of student-to-instructors
whereas only 9.1% of respondents above 40 years show similar perception. 88.9%
of respondents below 40 years show that student-to-community interaction was
experienced at the highest level and only 11.1% of respondents above 40 years show
similar perception. Student-to-reading material interaction was perceived by 64.3%
of participants below 40 years to be of the highest level as compared to 35.7% of
participants above 40 years. The findings have revealed that 80% of participants
below 40 years perceive student-to-information technology interaction as of the
highest level as compared to 20% of participants above 40 years.
Table 4: Perception on level of interactions expected of BLM by respondent’s
age group
Student-to-student
interaction
Student-to-instructor
interaction
Student-to-community
interaction
Student-to-reading
material interaction
Student-to-information
technology interaction
Highest level
High level
low level
Highest level
High level
Don’t know
Low level
Highest level
High level
Low level
Lowest level
Highest level
High level
Don’t know
Low level
Highest level
High level
Low level
Respondent's age
below 40 years
above 40 years
66.7%
33.3%
54.8%
45.2%
50.0%
50.0%
90.9%
9.1%
44.8%
55.2%
50.0%
50.0%
60.0%
40.0%
88.9%
11.1%
42.1%
57.9%
75.0%
25.0%
100.0%
64.3%
35.7%
57.6%
42.4%
50.0%
50.0%
33.3%
66.7%
80.0%
20.0%
54.3%
45.7%
40.0%
60.0%
Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
To enhance the purpose of this study perception on benefits expected of BLM by
respondent’s age was examined. Table 5 shows that 63.3% of participants below 40
years agree that there was a friendliness of Moodle platform, instructors and
students as compared to 36.7% of participants above 40 years. 71.4% of respondents
below 40 years indicated that they strongly agree that they do not like sitting in a
class for long due to their positions in society as compared to 28.6% of respondents
above 40 years. 71.4% of respondents below 40 years strongly agree that they had
an opportunity to air out their points with ease during forum discussions whereas
only 28.6% of respondents above 40 years showed similar perception. 83.3% of
respondents below 40 years strongly agree that time fits well with their employment
obligations unlike other learning mode as compared to 16.7% of respondents above
40 years. 85% of respondents below 40 years strongly agree that time fits well with
their family and social commitments whereas 15% of respondents above 40 years
had similar perception. The findings show that 71.4% strongly agree that they I can
learn from anywhere and anytime of the day as compared to 28.6% of respondents
above 40 years.
51
Table 5: Perception on benefits expected of BLM by respondent’s age
Friendliness of moodle
platform, instructors and
students
I don’t like sitting in a class for
long due to my position in
society
I had opportunity to air out my
points with ease during forum
discussions
Time fits well with my
employment obligations unlike
other learning modes
Time fits well with my family
and social commitments
I can learn from anywhere and
anytime of the day
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Respondent's age
below 40
above 40
years
years
50.0%
50.0%
63.3%
36.7%
33.3%
66.7%
100.0%
71.4%
28.6%
57.9%
42.1%
58.3%
41.7%
44.4%
55.6%
71.4%
28.6%
41.9%
58.1%
100.0%
83.3%
16.7%
50.0%
50.0%
25.0%
75.0%
100.0%
85.0%
15.0%
48.0%
52.0%
100.0%
71.4%
28.6%
42.1%
57.9%
100.0%
100.0%
Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
CONCLUSION
The current study has come up with some interesting findings to inform developers
of academic programmes that involve blended mode of learning. The findings
imply that in order to make the students to highly engage in their own learning and
take the time to be better students, it is necessary to shift into a different paradigm of
learning. It is important to create an educational setting that allows students to
explore and engage in multiple levels of learning. The perceptions by students at
OUT has indicated that though BLM could be the best to fit their time both at work
and at home, still face to face sessions are important. This implies that conventional
physical integrations between instructors and students need to complement the
online modes of learning. To create this type of student engagement in the online
world, students should have five very highly interactive experiences; student-tostudent, student-to-teacher, student-to-community, student-to- material, and studentto-technology. If an online program/class is able to build this type of learning
environment, the students will have one of the most exciting and memorable
encounters of their educational experience.
Combining the real-world resources, activities, and online experiences are some of
the most valuable lessons students can do. All students, whether high achieving or
low level, old or young can master key interactive fundamentals if given the chance.
This study has indicated that the generational differences were not that diverse
between old and young students. Access to the print materials library is also crucial
in complementing BLM because the print material library environment (Vs digital
library) is an important part of interactive, distance education to ask students to do
52
real-world activities to more fully master the content. When students must mentally,
emotionally, and physically touch the reading material, they learn the authentic
skills they will be able to use as they advance into their academic and real-world
future. If students must use all of the academic disciplines to do their work and
produce a product that has to be viewed, reviewed, and restructured, they are forced
to learn a wide variety of skills they will use later in their lives. This calls for
instructors in BLM to create more interactive hands on assignments to improve on
students’ interaction with the community, which was perceived low by majority.
Various studies related to the blended learning have been conducted for the
purposes of enhancing efficiency and effectiveness. For faculty members, blended
learning has to be seen as providing more opportunities for teacher –student
interaction, increased student engagement in learning, added flexibility in the
teaching and learning environment, and opportunities for continuous improvement.
The area of student perceptions of online and blended learning environments as also
noted by Shaw (2010) and Wu et al. (2008) is often overlooked. It is important not
to forget that students are the ones embracing or “fleeing” from these methods of
delivery (El Mansour and Mupinga, 2007). What students perceive about the
learning environment remains important for implementing new methods of delivery
in the academic and training and development areas.
Institutions which adopt BLM should note that students spend considerable time and
money, as well as exerting substantial effort in obtaining a quality education and
should perceive educational experiences as being of high value (Knox, Lindsay, &
Kolb, 1993). Many factors which influence students’ perception on various areas
such as instructor, technology, interactivity, interest, course management and
instruction have to be monitored in the learning process. Student learning style,
course structure, expectations, communication, and collaboration are the variables in
the BLM hence instructors must address in an effort to increase students’
satisfaction levels. Comprehending these essential variables can provide great
management insights into developing effective strategies that will allow universities
going BLM to create new opportunities and value for their students and instructors.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Respondent’s general experience of their use of BLM (N = 52, figures in
%)
53.8
Not
sure
15.4
0.0
Strongly
Disagree
1.9
17.7
73.1
17.3
0.0
0.0
I learn better if I listen to a
lecture online than if I read a
textbook on my own
Sometimes I need help to
understand reading digital
materials.
I have strong time-management
skills.
30.8
36.5
13.5
7.7
7.7
42.0
38.5
3.8
10.0
4.0
9.6
55.8
30.8
1.9
1.9
I need to be reminded about
upcoming assignments and due
dates
I usually complete the textbook
reading assignments
The blended course component
was designed to help me be an
active learner.
I understood what was expected
of me
28.0
36.0
4.0
26.0
6.0
10.9
43.5
4.0
26.0
6.0
54.0
36.0
8.0
0.0
2.0
28.0
62.0
10.0
0.0
0.0
I experienced intellectual
growth in the course of learning
I consider myself in a group of
the best 5 highest performers in
our cohort
46.0
52.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
38.1
26.2
33.3
2.4
0.0
I can easily understand new
information by reading it on my
own
I consider myself to be highly
organized
Strongly
Agree
28.8
Agree
Disagree
Appendix 2: Respondent’s perception on BML limitations (N = 52, figures in %)
I lacked the keyboarding/typing skills
There was too much reading
materials
There was too much writing required
I got behind and could not catch up
The course was too unstructured for
me
I experienced difficulty with
Blackboard
I lacked internet browsing skills
Inaccessibility of internet
connectivity
Strongly
Agree
5.8
17.3
9.6
26.3
Not
sure
0.0
11.5
3.9
0.0
2.0
23.5
7.7
5.9
13.7
11.5
5.9
41.2
57.7
51.0
17.6
23.1
35.3
5.8
5.8
7.7
50.0
30.8
1.9
17.3
15.4
28.8
1.9
1.9
38.5
40.4
42.3
11.5
56
Agree
Disagre
e
44.2
25.0
Strongly
Disagree
40.4
19.2
Appendix 3: Respondent’s perception on the implementation processes of the BLM (N
= 52, figures in %)
Very
Relevant
relevant
Don’t
know
Somehow not
relevant
Very
irrelevant
Ease of use of Web and
internet sources Environment
Online forum discussions
50.0
44.2
3.8
1.9
0.0
30.5
46.2
9.6
5.8
0.0
Content of the subject matter
in a course
Face-to-face sessions
35.3
56.9
5.9
2.0
0.0
53.8
40.4
1.9
5.9
0.0
Course Evaluation by student
34.6
51.9
13.5
0.0
0.0
Blended Learning Method
34.6
55.8
5.8
7.8
0.0
Course assessment (tests and
exams)
Readability of
electronic/digital materials
Access to the library print
reading materials
35.3
51.0
5.9
7.8
0.0
25.0
67.3
1.9
5.8
0.0
15.4
42.3
17.3
17.3
7.7
Appendix 4: Respondent’s perception on the anticipated forms of student interactions
of BLM (N = 52, figures in %)
Highes High Don’t Low level Lowest
t level
level
know
level
28.8
59.6
0.0
11.5
0.0
Student-to-student interaction
Student-to-Instructor interaction
21.2
55.8
3.8
19.2
0.0
Student-to-Community interaction
17.3
36.5
28.8
15.4
1.9
Student-to-Reading Material
interaction
Student-to-Information
Technology interaction
26.9
63.5
3.8
5.8
0.0
19.2
67.3
3.8
9.6
0.0
57
Prospects and Challenges in the Deliverance of
Executive Masters Degree Programmes
William A. Pallangyo10and Felician Mutasa11
The Open University of Tanzania
Abstract:In the recent decade Executive Masters degree programmes have become
very popular deliverance in the Tanzanian higher learning institutions. Such shift of
paradigm may have occurred due to public budgetary cuts, employment and socio
economic conditions that do not favour full time courses attendance and recent
higher learning marketing processes. Using The Open University of Tanzania as a
case study, this article will focus on two programmes, namely; Executive Masters in
Business Administration (EMBA) and Masters in Community Economic
Development (MCED) to analyze its deliverance prospects and challenges. Data
collection tools included questionnaire, interviews and documentary analysis. We
are arguing that the Executive Master’s Degree programmes can be made more
effective by being more practical, learner-centered and adoption of blended
learning approach. These changes in the provision of Executive Masters degree
programmes may expand the impact of the higher learning institutions in the
communities and labor markets
Keywords: Executive Programme, Prospects, Challenges, Blended learning
INTRODUCTION
There is a great paradigm shift in the Tanzanian higher learning institutions in the
recent years. Such paradigm shift may have occurred due to public budgetary cuts,
employment and socio economic conditions that do not favour full time courses
attendance and recent higher learning marketing processes. For instance, the
financing of public higher education in Tanzania has adopted the cost sharing
policy. Ideally, there is sharing of responsibility between different stakeholders and
beneficiaries of higher education products (Ishengoma, 2008).
On the other hand, executive education is changing. As we move into the 21st
century, numerous forces are causing a transformation in not only its delivery but
also its purpose. The employment and socio economic conditions have acted as
pushing factors that has lead into choice of Open and Distance Learning, evening
classes and executive education as alternative to full time provision of studies. There
are also some cases were students were not able to join residential and full time
programmes due to family commitments, employment and working conditions.
A previous study by Conger and Xin (2000) pointed out that executive education is
more directly geared to learning needs, learning content, pedagogy, instructors,
participant mixes, and organizational integrating mechanisms. The authors also feel
10
Lecturer in Public Administration, The Open University of Tanzania, e-mail:
[email protected]
11
Lecturer in Economics, The open University of Tanzania, e-mail: [email protected]
58
that the mentioned outcomes can be considered in terms of the transformation of
executive education in the 21st century. This article therefore intends to explore
further on the provision of executive education in the Tanzanian higher learning
institutions.
Background of the problem
While the number of Executive Masters programmes being delivered by higher
institutions in Tanzania is increasing rapidly, our knowledge of what makes these
courses effective learning experiences for students is still limited. This study,
therefore, was conducted to examine the prospect and challenges experienced by
executive masters students at The Open University of Tanzania. The provision of
Executive Master Programmes is The Open University of Tanzania education
approach designed specifically for working business professionals to complete their
course with minimal work interruption. The study further analyses the effects of
technological, pedagogical, and student characteristics on student learning in
Masters in Economic Development (MCED) and Executive Masters in Business
Administration (EMBA) programmes at the Open University of Tanzania.
Masters in Community Development (MCED)
Masters in Community Economic Development (MCED) is among many
programmes offered through executive module at The Open University of Tanzania.
The programme started in 2008. Community Economic Development concept is a
participatory process by which communities initiate and generate their own
solutions to economic problems leading to positive concrete changes in
communities through the creation of employment, stabilization of local economies,
reducing poverty, contributing to the health of the natural environment, building
local resources and capacities and increasing community control (OUT, 2008). The
MCED promotes a holistic approach to practical issues and recognizes the complex,
long term nature of individual and collective empowerment processes. MCED is an
eighteen months course divided into three modules. Three courses are accomplished
in each module lasting for two weeks.
There is a two months break between modules. In total students undertake 9 courses
in total (6 core courses and 3 electives). Students are assessed in each course by a
combination of course work, term paper and a project/dissertation. The course work
component is made up of student’s group presentation (50%), while the term paper
carries 50%. Students are required to choose a community based organization to
work with in order to practically create an impact in the respective community as
part of dissertation requirements. The programme is offered in five regional centers,
namely, Arusha, Dodoma, Dar es Salaam, Mbeya and Mwanza. Since 2013, the
programme has been extended to one centre outside the country, namely, Kibungo,
Rwanda (OUT, 2013).
Executive Masters in Business Administration (EMBA)
The Executive masters in Business administration (EMBA) programmes is designed
to develop managerial competence in a wide variety of business situations
appropriate to diverse national and international backgrounds. The main educational
aim of the programme is to prepare and equip graduates with general training in
59
cross-organizational functions of business and specialized training in career-oriented
management professions such as Marketing, Leadership and Governance, Transport
and Logistics, Human Resources Management and Finance (OUT, 2006).The
programme is offered in three modules with a two months break between modules.
Three courses are taught in each module and each course is covered in five days.
Course work and dissertations are expected to be accomplished in eighteen months.
EMBA is offered in five centers, namely: Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Mbeya, Mwanza
and Zanzibar in the country and Kibungo centre in Rwanda. The first two modules
are conducted in the students’ respective regional centers, while the third module
(specialization) is done in Kinondoni Regional Centre, Dar es Salaam. The
programme consists of 6 core courses and three electives. Students are assessed in
each course by a combination of course work, final examination and dissertation.
The course work component comprises of timed test (30%) and final examination
carries (70%) (OUT, 2013).
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR EXECUTIVE MASTERS PROGRAMMES
The executive Masters Degree programmes are unique due to their businessacademic partnership (Carrel and Schoenbachler, 2001). The partnership between
Executive Masters Degree programmes and supporting organizations and
communities is critical as most graduates are expected to show impacts in the duties
with immediate effect. However, the existing literature points out that in some cases
the organizations pay the tuition fees and other costs, while other executive students
pay these costs through private sponsorship.
Executive Education Concepts
Executive education is commonly referred to academic programmes at graduatelevel business schools worldwide for executives, business leaders and functional
managers. Executive education is reported as being distinctive from most content
focused education (Lockhart, 2013). Usually, these programmes are generally noncredit and non-degree-granting, but sometimes lead to provision of certificates.
Recently, the universities and other higher learning institutions have adopted this
mode of education whereby senior Managers and Executives are revisiting the
campuses for executive education. Some of the goals of these executive learning
programmes are to provide government and corporate executives with realistic
training. The public and private organizations worldwide believe that they can help
broaden the mental horizons of their employees by sponsoring such executive
educational programmes.
The Executive Education Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for describing the key features of provision of Executive
Masters programmes was drawn from the theoretical perspectives of the reflective
practitioner (Schön, 1983); the reflective executive (Roglio, 2006; Roglio, Light, &
Coelho, 2006); and reflective executive development (Gosling & Mintzberg, 2003).
The development of the reflective executive concept was linked with the study and
description of the reflective thinking process, investigated by Argy-ris and Schön
(1974). Schön (1983) developed the idea of reflective practice and presented the
reflective practitioner concept. Reflective practice is essential to the development of
professional artistry—the ability to make sense of uncertain, unique, or conflicted
60
situations of professional practice—and is based on the concepts of knowing-inaction, reflection-in-action, and reflection-on-action.
Knowing-in-action is a spontaneous and usual action that draws on daily practices. It
can be identified when practitioners learn how to do something and are able to
execute smooth sequences of activity, recognition, decision, and adjustment without
having to expend conscious energy thinking about it. However, professional practice
often surprises practitioners with unusual experiences that occur when something
fails to meet their expectations. In an attempt to preserve the constancy of their
usual patterns of knowing-in-action, practitioners may (1) respond to a surprise by
brushing it aside, selectively ignoring the signals received; or (2) respond to it
through reflection (see Figure 1). According to Schön (1983), this reflection occurs
in one of two ways:
В· Practitioners may reflect-in-action in the midst of an action, without suspending
it. They reshape what is being done while doing it. In this case, “we respond to
the unusual or anomalous by restructuring some of our strategies of action,
theories of phenomena, or ways of framing the problem; and we invent on-thespot experiments to put our new understandings to the test” (Schön, 1983: 26).
В· Practitioners may reflect-on-action, thinking back on what they have done in
order to discover how their knowing-in-action may have contributed to an
unexpected outcome or they may pause in the midst of an action to reflect.
Raelin (2002) defines this process as “thinking about thinking” (2002: 66).
Figure 1: Knowing-in-action approach
Source: Schön (1983)
61
Executive education programmes have three quite different goals: providing
students with focused business understanding and knowledge, helping students
solve pressing business problems, and improving students' on-the-job performance
and prospects. With few exceptions, executive programmes specialize by discipline,
topic, industry, skill, or the role, level, and career stage of participants (Gavin,
2007).
The normal university training programmes aims are to develop students’
knowledge and the skills needed to solve problems and conduct rigorous analysis.
However, the Executive training typically comes to programmes with particular
business problems in mind. They are less motivated by broad intellectual concerns
than by pressing practical dilemmas (Gavin, 2007).
The study by Gavin (2007) also pointed out that while other Masters students were
in a formative and developmental stage of life, the executives masters programmes
were in a more pragmatic and instrumental stage of life. Executive teaching
therefore demands far more attention to explicit information and knowledge transfer
and far less emphasis on basic skill development than teaching.
A similar study by Newman and Stoner (1989) indicated that normal MBA students
are typically in their mid-to-late 20s, with 3 to 5 years of business experience. Most
of that work experience has been in relatively low-level positions, such as analyst,
associate or individual contributor roles. However, the same study confirmed that
most Executive MBA students were typically in their 30s, 40s, and 50s, with
extensive business experience.
Many hold mid- and senior-level executive positions; often, they have worked for
several different companies and held a variety of jobs. They were usually savvy and
well informed about the realities of organizations and management practice; for this
reason, “they resent being told the �facts of life'” (Newman & Stoner, 1989: 133).
What they frequently lack is a larger context: a means of viewing their own
experiences from afar and assessing or organizing them around a larger framework
or theory.
IMPLICATIONS FOR EXECUTIVE MASTERS PROGRAMME TEACHING
The study by Gavin (2007) indicated that Executive trainers need to be far more
attentive to the parallels between cases and the work experiences and industry
backgrounds of their students. In executive classes instructors need to develop
teaching plans that explicitly ask for and draw out their students' experiences. The
trainers are expected to help executives use what is already inside them.
To do so effectively, however, requires that students first be given the opportunity to
give voice to their experiences; they must then be encouraged to abstract from them
and draw broader, more general lessons. The preparation of executive students, on
the other hand, is often uneven. At times, this reflects language problems, since
executive education students are less likely than ordinary students to have been
screened for language proficiency due to many years of staying away from books.
62
PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING IN EXECUTIVE CLASSES
The process of experiential learning proposed by Kolb (1984) is represented in a
cycle composed by four “adaptive learning modes” namely: concrete experience,
reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation
Learning is defined as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984: 38). The concept of experiential
learning implies that all learning is relearning: Nobody enters a learning situation
without some experience or ideas about the topic at hand. As such, it is essential for
educators to relate these ideas to the learning process. “If the education process
begins by bringing out the learner's beliefs and theories, examining and testing
them, and then integrating the new, more refined ideas into the person's belief
systems, the learning process will be facilitated (Kolb, 1984: 28).’’
CONSIDERATION FOR STUDENTS TO JOIN EXECUTIVE PROGRAMME
The considerations students use in deciding if (and when) an executive programme
is right for them can be classified as personal considerations, academic
considerations, financial considerations, and other considerations. Personal
considerations would include decision considerations such as a student’s perceived
need to become a more effective manager or community specialist, the likelihood of
remaining with the company, the pay-off or perceived value of the investment, the
design of the executive programme to minimize interference with work
responsibilities, and the ability to stay on the job while attending classes.
Academic decision considerations might include the reputation or prestige of the
college or university, the accreditation of the college or university, the programme’s
interaction or partnerships with the community and the rigorousness of the
curriculum. Financial consideration would include the actual cost/tuition of the
Executive programme and the availability of payment or credit terms for financing
participation in the programme. Other considerations would include its convenience
in terms of scheduling, the short duration of the programme and the time
commitment outside of the classroom.
Student
Characteristics
Gender
Age
Job Title
School
Characteristics
Tier
School Category
Academic
Considerations
Personal
Considerations
Financial
Considerations
Executive
programme
Choice
Other
Considerations
Figure 2 Decision Consideration Model for Executive programme Students
Adopted from: (Carrel and Schoenbachler, 2001)
63
PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES OF EXECUTIVE MASTERS PROGRAMMES
IN OTHER COUNTRIES
The reviewed literature points out an intense debate about the quality, value and
mode of delivery of executive programmes worldwide. For instance, in terms of
prospects, Utley (1992) confirmed that Executive Masters graduates were in a good
position to combine theories, knowledge of business and case studies in the
classrooms. The study also highlighted deficiencies with certain non-executive
programme and the timing for careers. The study by Lewis (1992) justifies the
popularity of executive masters programmes in other countries (USA) were many
senior managers are motivated to take on this extra burden of office work and
attendance of executive programmes.
The study by Baruch and Leeming (2001) indicated that executive MBA
programmes has add value to its graduates and make them better managers. Reports
on this study provided a comprehensive evaluation for the impact of a programme of
a leading UK business school on the competencies, skills, self-perception and
careers of its graduates. The results demonstrate the value that a programme
generates for individuals and their employers. The output of the study clearly
indicated increased managerial skills, self-confidence and several aspects of career
development.
Despites all these prospects of executive programmes, the literature have as well
pointed out some challenges. For instance, Desanctis and Sheppard, (n.d.) found the
social aspects of this learning process, especially with regard to learning in the
executive mode. The study mentioned the challenges in linking traditional
university education with corporate life. Other challenges includes teaching methods
used in the provision of the executive programmes. For example, Siebert and Martin
(2003) outlined the dominant variance theory approach based on a positivistic
hypothetical-deductive and do not adequately take into account sufficiently either
the diversity of students interests or the contexts in which business or community
operate.
The literature also indicates few studies to establish opinions and perceptions of
graduates in the Executive programmes in Tanzania. Louw, et al. (2001) did a study
to elicit the opinions of graduates on the future development of the MBA
programme in South Africa. There has been, however, a concern on the increasingly
uncoupled from practice and real-world relevance. The relevance gap in the
provision of executive education affects the quality of teaching as well as the
institutional legitimacy of our higher learning institutions. Tushman, et al. (2007)
argued that executive education is an underutilized context that can enhance the
quality of faculty as well as impact on managerial practice.
METHODOLOGY
This study surveyed students enrolled in the MCED and EMBA executive
programmes offered by The Open University of Tanzania. This survey covered
students enrolled in two academic years, namely: 2011/2012 and 2012/2013. The
population was of 250 students. (150 for MCED and 100 for MBA), who are spread
64
in various regional centers, namely: Dar-es-Salaam, Arusha, Mwanza, Zanzibar,
Mbeya and Dodoma. Since it was difficult to reach all students we selected using
simple random and convenient sampling a total of 120 students to form our sample.
Interviews were also done to Coordinator’s of both programmes and four selected
instructors teaching in the executive masters programmes.
This study employed a survey research methodology. Research instruments used
included well-structured questionnaire, interviews and documentary analysis. The
questionnaire had both close and open-ended questions and was administered to
ongoing students in the selected sample from various executive programs centers.
Questionnaires were mailed and/or hand delivered to respective students. Pilot
testing of the questionnaire was done to a few students in Dar-es-Salaam in order to
verify its content. Interviews were done with coordinators and a four randomly
selected instructors of the executive programs in order to get more insight in the
delivery, challenges and prospects of the programmes. Various published reports of
the two executive master’s programmes and literature review was used in
undertaking documentary analysis. Data collected was analyzed mainly using
descriptive statistics and content analysis.
Presentations of results and discussion
(i) Description of respondents
(a) Sex
Of the surveyed respondents, 65% were male and 35 % were females. This indicates
more male are enrolled in our executive masters programmes as compared to
females.
(b) Age
Table 1 shows that majority of respondents (55%) were in the age category of
between 31 and 40. Those of the age between 41 and 50 accounted for 35%. The
implication of these results is that executive programmes attract more students with
over thirty years as compared to the young ones.
Table 1: Age category
Age category
Response rate
26-30
10%
31-40
55%
41-50 and above
35%
Source: Author’s survey (2013)
(c) Marital status
Our survey indicates that 85% of the respondents were married. 15% were single,
8% were widowed and 2% were divorced. This implies that most of the respondents
had extra responsibilities of maintaining families while studying at the same time.
(d) Status of employment
The survey also investigated on the respondent’s status of employment. The results
are indicated in the table below:
65
Table 2: Status of employment
Status of employment
Response rate
Employed full time
90%
Employed part time
5%
Self employed
4%
Not employed
1%
Source: Author’s survey (2013)
90% of respondents had full time employment, while 5% were employed part time.
4% were self employed and 1% was not employed at all.
(e) Work experience
Results from the survey indicate that respondents have significant work experience.
55% have working experience ranging from 5 to 10 years, while 33% have work
experience of more than 10 years.
Table 3: Status of work experience
Work experience
Response rate
No experience
1%
Less than 5 years
11%
5- 10 years
55%
More than 10 years
33%
Source: Authors survey (2013)
(f) Motives for joining OUT executive programmes
Results indicate that respondents’ leading motive to join OUT executive
programmes was career advancement (41%). The second leading motive was
flexibility of OUT executive programmes (28%). Development of better working
skills was the third motive (19%) and the quality of OUT’s quality of the curriculum
ranked as the fourth motive (11%).
Table 4: Motives for joining executive programme
Motive for joining executive programme
Response rate
Quality of the curriculum
11%
Flexibility of the programme
28%
Career advancement
41%
To develop better skills
19%
Location and class convenience
7%
Cost of the programme
2%
Source: Authors survey (2013)
66
(g) Programme expectations
The survey also wanted to know how the executive programmes have met student’s
expectations. Results indicate that 45% of the respondents advanced their career,
30% were of the opinion that flexibility of the programmes met their needs, 18%
indicated that the programmes helped them to develop better working skills and
only 7% revealed that the programmes managed to facilitate theory and practice.
Table 5: Programme expectations
Programme expectations
met
Development of better
working skills
Career advancement
Linking theory and
practice
Flexibility of the
programme
Source: Authors survey (2013)
Response rate
18%
45%
7%
30%
Challenges encountered by student respondents
Student respondents indicated the following challenges encountered when
undertaking studies in the OUT Executive progammes.
(i) Loaded lectures within a short period of time in the face-to-face sessions.
Normally students meet for two weeks for a module which has three subjects.
Time allocated for a course is not aligned to the required course coverage.
(ii) Most of the students are employed with very busy schedules hence it is difficult
to cope with after class assignments. Balancing demand from employers and
studies becomes a great challenge and therefore contributes to delays in
meeting assignments deadlines.
(iii) Accessing relevant reading materials is a bit difficult due to poor internet
connectivity and lack of libraries in centers’ which are outside Dar-Es-salaam.
(iv) The available executive programs do not have adequate ICT interactive forums
for students and lecturers. This has in a way hindered the required continuous
follow-ups between and after face-to-face sessions.
(v) Delivery methodology considered not very friendly to adult learners. This is
because time allocated for face-to-face during modules was is not adequate to
cover all the three courses comprehensively. Hence delivery is mainly
dominated by teaching leaving very little room to share information and
knowledge between students and lecturers.
Interviews with the coordinator of Executive MCED programme revealed that there
is a chronic problem of students submitting their term papers on time due to their
busy working schedules. In addition full time attendance during the module session
is not regular as per requirement mainly explained by responsibilities and busy
working schedule of students. Decreasing completion rate of projects/dissertations
67
was also singled out as another outstanding challenge. Experience has shown that
once students finish coursework, writing the project paper/dissertation is not
prioritized. The MCED coordinator explained that “Project/dissertation completion
rate has decreased from approximately 90% in 2010 to below 50% in 2012.”
Delay of fees payment was cited as another challenge. Many students pay own fees
as most of their employers have not been supportive in financing their studies. This
has in a way contributed to the decreasing enrollment of students in the MCED
programme. “Many students are selected but normally only half of the selected
students finally enroll. Financing is mentioned as the main constraint” (MCED
coordinator).
The MBA Coordinator also echoed the problem of poor dissertation completion
rate. Busy work schedule and lack of continuity after completing the coursework
were mentioned as major constraints. He also cited decreasing enrollment of
executive masters students as a result of intense competition from other universities
and financing constraint.
MCED lecturer interviewed expressed concern on the quality of term papers
submitted as they were done in a rush in spite of having a break of two months to
prepare the papers. He further went on to say that “Copy and paste type of papers
have been the order of the day and students do not respect given deadlines”.
On the other hand, another Lecturer in the MCED programme testified that the
group presentation by students as part of their coursework was very effective in
ensuring that all students participate in learning and sharing work experience as
related to theory acquired.
MBA lecturer supported using timed tests and examinations as an effective way of
solving the delay of assignments and term papers. “He further went on to say that
having examinations improves attendance and knowledge acquisition.”
CONCLUSION
OUT Executive Master’s programmes have mainly attracted adults who have
significant work experience. Career advancement, flexibility of programmes, need
to develop better skills and quality of the curriculum are singled out as driving
forces for joining OUT executive programmes. Students’ expectations have been
met in regard to career advancement and flexibility of the programme.
However much needs to be done in ensuring that our programmes help in building
working skills required by students and link theory and practice in the industry.
Since most of our students are adults it is crucial to ensure that more relevant adult
teaching methodologies are adopted in order to create a friendlier teaching
environment. To ensure effective continuous assessment there is a need to use more
interactive forums for learning purposes. Since our students are busy workers this
approach can also go a long way in reducing the face-to-face sessions and instead
adopt ICT in delivery methodology. It is imperative to develop blended learning
mechanisms in order to mitigate challenges and be more competitive.
68
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Making a Case for E - learning: Experiences in Elearning at Langston University Langston, Oklahoma,
USA
Patricia Chogugudza
The Open University of Tanzania
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
Abstract: Research shows that, when activities are well planned, Web-based
learners’ performances can surpass those of students in traditional learning
settings. This paper discusses the findings carried out to investigate the effectiveness
of e- learning in hybrid and online learning environments at Langston University in
Oklahoma, USA. The study under discussion was a case study carried on 26
freshman students at the Langston University in Oklahoma, USA who were
struggling with English Language skills competence. The research method was
qualitative based mainly on participatory and observation and asking students’
their feelings, observing them work as well as recording their scores before and
after. The aim of the study was to explore whether technology/e learning can impact
students’ success in terms of skills competence, retention, and engagement. The
research found that e- learning exploits interactive technologies and communication
systems to improve the students’ learning experiences. It also established that elearning can provide a horde of educational opportunities ranging from creating
exciting and meaningful learning experiences for students to reinforcing
understanding, increasing student interaction and engagement, stimulating self
directed learning, to providing resources and supportive collaboration from a
distance. The study concluded that technology has the potential to transform the
way teachers teach and the way students learn. The study recommended, however,
that before resorting to e –learning, educators recognize that e -learning is about
learning and not about technology and that strategic planning and development of e
-learning should be based on the needs and demands of learners as well their level
of their educational experiences.
Key Concepts: E- learning, information and communications technology skills,
effective practice with e- learning, pedagogy, learning activity
INTRODUCTION
The effectiveness of e- learning has to be based on the same criteria as those used to
measure effectiveness of learning in general based on competences in:
communication skills--reading, writing, speaking, listening skills; and ability to
learn independently. E learning also aides social skills, ethics, positive attitude,
responsibility; teamwork; collaborative learning and networking. The; ability to
adapt to changing circumstances; thinking skills, problem solving, critical, logical,
numerical skills; knowledge navigation; entrepreneurship,taking initiative, seeing
opportunities; and digital literacy are also further benefits of e-learning (Bates,
2009).
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While some instructors have jumped on board the e–learning ship and have
embraced use of technology in their teaching, others have not been so persuaded.
These have taken the position of Medwecki of Hong Kong Police, who - arguing
against e- learning’s effectiveness, says:
When it comes to acquisition of management skills or problem solving skills
-- the utility of e- learning is less. In practice, I have found that e- learning is
more of a buzz word in training circles that promises much but delivers a
lot less (mgvh@ltsg).
Proponents of e-learning, however, maintain that e-learning is effective and that its
success is based on how it is used. A research conducted by Reshef (2000) found
that almost 50 per cent of educational institutions have started to use online learning
as a means of teaching because of its significant advantages. In the United States,
the US Department of Education in a study on the effectiveness of online learning
versus face-to-face instruction found that on average classes with online learning
produce stronger student learning outcomes than do classes with solely face-toface instruction while another online survey by same authors on whether e-learning
is effective found that 36 percent of the students said no while 64 percent said yes.
As Lessner (2003) points out, “e- learning must start with the tools to learn how to
learn and all learners should make its use a standard part of college experience,
making assistive software a mainstream application for all learners, whatever their
age or level of ability (Central Government, Education IT, Healthcare IT, 2009).
BACKGROUND
Several universities, as part of the audit process for developing e-learning are
looking into a number of initiatives, which can be used in conjunction with a
computer and interactive whiteboard. Most have concluded that students struggling
with concept mastery and skills competence benefit most if the full range of visual,
auditory and kin aesthetic principles, which are part of student learning styles, are
incorporated into lessons (Knight, 2004). Thus global-wise, most universities have
created initiatives geared at promoting e- learning as a means of empowering and
engaging learners (2004). University systems in general calling for a more
innovative approach in education to combat dropout -rates and improve graduation
rates have turned to educational technology. The result is that many educational
institutions are beginning to require one to have knowledge of educational
technology before one is hired. Hence e--learning is becoming increasingly
important since it is being viewed as a way to increase flexibility in teaching and
learning. As Bates (2009) notes:
On the ground, the impact of e-learning strategies is beginning to be classroom
level, while a new generation of research and development units has sprung up to
ensure that the potential for enhancing teaching and learning with new technologies
is fully explored Advocates of online teaching are claiming that e-learning can
provide both the instructor and the students time to reflect on what is going on, thus
allowing the teacher to become a facilitator while students take charge of their own
learning. Pushed by the need to meet the needs of a more diverse student
population, Langton University managers, like many university administrators
today, called for a course redesign. Thus in 2005, Langston University incorporated
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e-learning as a course redesign initiative to deliver learning through what was seen
as �an interactive and engaging way.’ Through this, e-learning, a skills tutor’
software, (which incorporates all provision in education and training from basic
level to advanced level skills) was introduced. The intention was to allow students
to master required competencies before they graduated to the next level. Learners
worked at their own pace and advanced to the next level only after achieving 80
percent proficiency. The focus was on �putting teaching, training and learning at the
heart of what the students were doing’ through e- learning. A writing laboratory to
allow course redesign and the inclusion of technology in traditional setting was
introduced allowing, e-learning to become the buzzword. Encouraged, Langston
University made consorted effort to support staff development in the use of learning
technologies, making inroads into establishing the skills practitioners would need to
teach with technology. Funds were earmarked to promote the development of elearning materials and instructors were actually rewarded for utilizing educational
technology such e-learning and smart boards. While Langston University found that
a growing number of instructors were developing e-learning materials, a good
number of instructors refused to be persuaded. Staff development meetings hence
had to be held to raise awareness on the benefits of integrating educational
technology into learning programmes as well as into raising the ICT skill levels
amongst practitioners. The study of students using e-learning in an English
proficiency class was one such effort created to assess the benefits of e –learning for
the benefit of practitioner engagement.
Bates (2009) maintains that technology skills cannot be independent of the subject
or topic, given that skills such as problem solving require knowledge of concepts.
Thus e-learning should be imbedded into all subject areas in order to provide
students with competencies such as information and communications technologies
required in almost all occupations and professions. It has become obvious that
digital technology is increasingly affecting all areas of human activity from creation,
storage, access, analysis, and dissemination of knowledge. Hence Bates sees elearning and educational technology as not just about teaching generic computer
literacy skills such as keyboard use or word processing but as one that should go
beyond to using computers for digital imaging, graphical information systems, and
wikis to teach writing skills as well as knowing what databases hold the relevant
information to solving a particular problem.
Findlay, JISC Learning and Teaching committee (2004) goes further to argue that
for e-learning to be effective, designing for e-learning has to take place in the
context of a preferred pedagogical approach, which in itself will be derived from a
perspective on the nature of the learning process. The focus is to move beyond an
understanding of e-learning as simply providing content and learning objects to
thinking about technology as central to contemporary teaching and learning
processes. The process adds Findlay, also requires seeing e-learning as part of the
range of resources available to the professional practitioner.
The United States government were encouraged by researches such as those done by
1) Shachar and Neumann (2010) who found that in 70 percent of cases, students
taking courses by distance education outperformed their student counterparts in the
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traditionally instructed courses and 2) by Neuhauser (2002) who concluded that
ninety six percent of the online students found the course to be either as effective or
more effective to their learning than their typical face to-face courses. The US thus
began to view the integration of e-learning into the curriculum as key to
transforming educational institutions, especially Black American Universities. As a
result Langston University received funds through Federal Title III funding to help
support the educational technology inclusion initiative. Thus at Langston University,
a number of staff development, conferences, and discussion on innovative
approaches to e-learning, especially in assessment methods, skills competency and
concept mastery were explored.
The aim was to improve retention, graduation rates and learner engagement. The
study under discussions used technology as part of a face-to-face environment to
investigate the impact of educational technology on students struggling with English
Language skills competence. The study utilized Desire to Learn (D2L) - a learning
management system, smart boards, computers, headphones, and My Skills Tutoran
English Language skills software programmeinstalled on each student’s computer.
The �My skills tutor software,’ is frequently used on ESOL courses to promote use
of language and reinforce understanding (Knight, 2004).
The software provides students with individualized work (created based on the
student’s level of proficiency derived from a pre test). It also had related questions
and quizzes with answers. The software would automatically grade students’ work
after each attempt. The quizzes and tests were always changing, so a student could
practice same concept but with different questions. For this study, students came to
the lab three times a week for two hours to practice on the �My Skills Tutor,”
software.
The study also found that e-learning is more useful in recruitment as it widens
participation, opening doors to adult and community learners providing especially
the disenfranchised with the skills and access to technology they require as citizens
in an information age. Further the study experiences at showed that e- learning has a
major role in supporting learning, raising standards and widening participation and
explicitly support’s government initiatives, strategies and policies to provide
flexibility, choice and the increased value of the importance of the learner’s
experience.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Effective e-learning institutions worldwide depend on initiatives supported and
implemented by practitioners. Yet, today instructors do not fully recognize the
effectiveness of educational technology. But as Bates (2009) points out, even when
potential advantages have been recognized, how, when and where to implement elearning in conjunction with established practice has still not been fully explored.
For many practitioners, e learning thus still brings with it as many questions as
answers. The case study was intended to contribute answers to some questions on
whether e-learning is effective as well as suggesting ways in which a better
understanding of the advantages of e- learning would be realized by practitioners.
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PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The aim of the study was to investigate whether e learning establishes a
pedagogically sound way of improving students’ learning. The purpose was to
explore the effectiveness of e learning in order to entice practitioners to feel
confident in applying e learning across the curriculum and in different modes of
delivery; traditional face to face, or open distance. The experiences of students at
Langston University from this case study thus were to provide an insight into the
advantages and effectiveness of e learning in a hybrid and long distance
environments.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of the study was to investigate the extent to which e learning
improves students’ learning outcomes in meeting the intended goals.
The specific objectives of the study were as follows:
1. To investigate the extent to which e- learning increases student opportunity to
goal negotiate so that they can take ownership of their learning
2. To establish whether e learning assists students in sharing and discussing ideas as
well as in evaluating concepts being learned.
3. To examine the extent to which e-learning helps students utilize formative
assessment to aid them in building skills competencies needed in the 21st century
as well as to help them monitor their learning.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study was aimed at practitioners in post-compulsory education and training –
lecturers, tutors and support staff in higher and further education institutions, as well
as facilitators, trainers and tutors in adult and community learning. The study will
in short be of significance to all those with an interest in enhancing the quality of
teaching and learning in their institutions as well as those with a curiosity about how
e-learning can assist them. It was hoped that the research would entice practitioners
to feel confident in applying e-learning across the curriculum and in different modes
of delivery; traditional face to face, or open distance.
RESEARCH GAP
Against the backdrop of the growing demand to utilize e-learning not many
researches have been carried out to investigate the effective practice of e-learning,
thus in January 2011, the researcher embarked on a research to investigate the
effectiveness of e learning as a pedagogy on 26 learners in an English language
proficiency programmed at Langston University.
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
E-learning
According to Knight (2004), e learning is equated to enhanced learning and is
defined as �learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and
communications technology. E- Learning may involve the use of some, or all, of the
following technologies: desktop and laptop computers, software, including assistive
software, interactive whiteboards, digital cameras, mobile and wireless tools,
including mobile phones, electronic communication tools, including email,
discussion boards, chat facilities and video conferencing. E- learning can be
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supporting learning, blended learning (the combination of traditional and e- learning
practices), or learning that is delivered entirely online. In this study, e- learning is no
longer simply associated with distance or remote learning but forms part of a
conscious choice of the best and most appropriate ways of promoting effective
learning.
Pedagogy
· Pedagogy is defined as �the activities of educating or instructing or teaching’ and
�activities that impart knowledge or skill’. Pedagogy implies a very special skill, in
which the role of the practitioner can be viewed as essentially creative. The term
�pedagogy’ (literally �a guide who took a boy to school’) means guiding and to
exploring the nature of the skills involved (Knight, 2004). Exploring the concept of
effective practice in either �e-’learning, or other types of learning, begins with an
understanding of the term �pedagogy’, which was formerly restricted to erudite usage
(Findley, 2004)“.
Beetham (2009) observes that a learning activity can be defined as an interaction
between a learner and an environment leading to a planned outcome. It is the planned
outcome, which makes learning a purposeful activity. In a learning activity, practice
is matched with learners’ needs and with the resources within the learning
environment
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Learners, needs motives and prior
experience
Learners’ needs and
resources and learning
environment
Preferred learning styles
and intended outcomes
Impact of learning environment on
intended outcomes
Adapted from Beetham, 2009
According to Beetham (2009), the e-learning approach must be matched with
preferred learning styles and intended outcomes, which include acquisition of
knowledge, academic and social skills; increased motivation; progression, technical
framework, support of the development of tools
for e- learning, subject-based
collaboration, and must offer opportunities for experimentation with new
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technologies. From this model, we note that making e-learning effective begins by
looking at the intended goals. Here learners are able to agree on some or all of their
learning goals in negotiation with tutors. What is established practice? Initial
assessment of learners’ needs and preferred learning styles takes place before
courses start. Learners are matched to the most suitable level and type of course. A
supportive and respectful relationship between learner and practitioner enables the
setting of agreed and achievable learning goals. What advantages can e- learning
bring? Access to differentiated online resources can open up a more extensive and
appropriate range of options for learners. Self-directed learning through online
simulations and tutorials can build learners’ confidence to take up formal learning
opportunities.
POPULATION
Located in Langston city in Oklahoma the Langston University writing laboratory is
a growing Learning Centre designed to provide a learning facility equipped with
computers to deliver a wide range of learning opportunities. The Centre holds 26
learners at a time but deals with over 200 student learners every week, offering
English skills competency to international and American students. As the Langton
Writing Laboratory director, I saw the need to tap into the experiences of the
millennium generation who all own either a computer or a phone. Most students
would come to the writing lab to use computers but ended up going to either to face
book or playing video games and never utilizing technology for learning or to find
information regarding their work. The writing laboratory technology, I realized was
being wasted while it could be channeled towards learning. I decided to make the
laboratory provide a formal place where students came to use technology to learn
and not to relax. Included in the population were freshman students as well as upper
level undergraduates who needed to booster their literacy levels, access information
or improve ICT skills with the help of the latest technology.
The writing laboratory served to provide foundation courses to allow students to
embark on full degree programmes. Skills taught were built around a mixture of
online materials put together by the instructors and commercially produced
materials with a strongly learner-centred approach. In addition, the study included
formal taught classes by instructors qualified in English Language teaching.
PARTICIPANTS
The study was carried out on students who took Basic English language classes,
foundation course designed to increase their scores so they could be fully enrolled
into the Bachelor education programme. The students included young men and
women and came from diverse backgrounds and races. Among the students enrolled
in the study were athletes who had been mainly recruited many for their
sportsmanship but who needed to pass classes to stay in the games. Students were
enrolled into regular classes but also came to the writing laboratory as lab hours
three times a weeks for a maximum of two hours per session. Drop-in basis slots
throughout each week to students outside the Basic English classes were also
provided. The laboratory tutors and instructors met learners on their initial visits in
order to put them at ease. They discussed student options and helped them on an
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individual learner path, allowing learners to apply knowledge in the context of real
life experiences. The learners were then given classes as well as interactive tutorials
in basic skills. Learners outcome were based entirely on their decision and the effort
they put in.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The questions of the study were mainly derived from the main objective of the study
and were as follows:
Major Question
To what extent does e–learning improve learning outcomes in terms of meeting
desired goals?
The specific objectives of the study were:
Г� Does e-learning increase student opportunity to goal negotiating for students to
take ownership of their learning?
Г� To what extent does e learning assist students in sharing and discussing ideas as
well as in evaluating concepts being learned?
Г� Does e learning help students utilize formative and aid students in skill
competencies needed in the 21st century and to monitor their learning?
Г� To what extent does e learning assist learners in explore new concepts, visualize
ideas to make learning exciting and active?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study began by setting up a course area on the desire to learn Learning
Management System (LMS) and enrolled learners into groups defined by the scores
they had earned in the pre testing. The researcher incorporated a mixture of
technologies and resources for learning support, including notes and handouts,
images (diagrams and photographs and videos) and then embedded my skills tutor
software and other on line programmes materials, practice activities, assessments
and discussion boards. In addition to providing support materials, the study explored
blending e learning with taught sessions, to assist learners in managing their own
learning. Each week, the learners worked through prepared material online, which
expanded on concepts discussed in the course textbook. Links to outside web
resources were also provided. These activities were then made the focus of
discussion in the following week’s class session.
Self-grading quizzes were set and delivered online. Learners took these quizzes in
their own time but with time restrictions to simulate exam conditions. The
submissions were automatically marked and if a learner performed poorly, built-in
feedback was provided with explanations. Tutors would then provide learners with
links to relevant learning materials. Further feedback could take place in face-toface sessions, thus providing a blended learning solution.
During the research, three effective practices of e-learning principles were observed:
1. Designing effective learning activities involves decisions, which appropriately
reflect the needs of learners, the nature of the learning environment and the
intended learning outcomes
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2.
3.
Effective practice matches learners’ needs with tools and resources within the
learning environment, the approach taken reflects learners’ preferences and
abilities, and matches these to the intended outcomes
Where the e-learning option is used, it extends learning potential and is not
used for its own sake (Beetham, 2009).
Classrooms and computer laboratories at the College were well equipped, mostly
with interactive whiteboard facilities and wall displays. A dedicated suite of
computer rooms is also available for teaching ICT and Computing. This allows e
learning to be used effectively as part of a traditional taught class, in addition to
having the resources and discussion facilities available to learners off-site. A real
advantage of online resources is that learners can concentrate their efforts during the
classroom sessions on learning, rather than on note taking, knowing that course
materials will be available to download from the VLE. They can also familiarize
themselves with the topics to be used in the next class and prepare questions in
advance, whetting their appetite for critical analysis.
For example, in one assignment, learners were asked to critically evaluate a webbased resource and post their observations to a discussion board. This activity was
initially structured as a taught session in the computer suite, but then extended
outside the timetabled classes with learners contributing to the discussion over
several days. The tutor then worked through their contributions in the next class,
providing feedback and stimulating further discussion. The ability to reflect and
consolidate in the intervening period, as well as contribute to the discussion online,
led to learners participating more in the classroom sessions.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Sub Question 1. Does e-learning increase student opportunity to goal negotiating
for students to take ownership of their learning?
To answer this question, instructors always discussed with the students enrolled in
the class and involved in the study what they, the students, visualized as the
intended outcome. Learners were made to discuss and agree with the tutors are on
some or all some of their learning goals. Before the start, there was an initial
assessment on learners’ needs and preferred learning styles. Student saw their scores
and agreed that the outcome had to be better. A supportive and respectful
relationship between learner and practitioner was then established to enable the
setting of agreed and achievable learning goals. Students were then asked what
learning style they preferred. Most students in this class almost 98% preferred
doing, seeing and hearing as their preferred learning styles. Some however preferred
taking short quizzed a multiple times while only a few 10% preferred answering
long questions. Most students enrolled in this class, it was discovered had very short
attention span. Learners were then matched to the most suitable level and type of
learning style and tools. Some students who were not very competent in using the
computer preferred to continue using the book. Others wanted the teacher to use the
smart board to explain concepts first. Some however were very comfortable with
technology and found that the “My Skills Tutor software,’ which involved several
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online instructors was better for them as it allowed them to work alone without the
interference of an instructor.
The study found that the matching of students to preferred learning styles and
resources brought many advantages. Access to differentiated online resources
opened up a more extensive and appropriate range of options for the learners, which
stimulated self-directed learning, which did build learners’ confidence to take up
formal learning opportunities. As students engaged in this course as a foundation
course, a follow up on the students’ progress showed that a high number, 70% of the
students who had been involved in the e–learning case study had grabbed extending
opportunities for learning and were doing just as well and some even better than
those who had not started of in basic skills classes.
Sub question 2
To what extent does e learning assist students in sharing and discussing ideas as
well as in evaluating concepts being learned?
Using the (D2L) platform, learners were grouped and prompted to ask and answer
discussion question through the discussion board. Learners were encouraged to
engage in group discussions to seek information and to analyze and assess their own
and others’ decisions. Classroom-based discussions were then used to reinforce
conceptual learning wherever time allowed. Instructors set guidelines for effective
discussion and invited learners to defend and promote a position and maintain
discussion as part of the course delivery. The study found that the sharing and
discussion of ideas had a myriad of advantages. First, learners discussed with their
peers exchanging roles in a team and then presented summaries for tutors and their
peers. The anonymity of online discussion encouraged participation even from those
learners who are normal not as active in face-to-face class discussions. Additionally,
students were able to work as teams thus allowing formation of learning
communities, which extended beyond class contact time and class discussion to
form. In addition online discussions were able to extend discussions and the sharing
of ideas even in real time (asynchronous) thus overcoming the barrier of distance
and providing social as well as task-focused support. Online discussions can allow
isolated learners to engage in collaborative group activities. Through use of learning
management systems (LMS) the study found that participation in discussion can be
more effectively and scheduled as a component in a course. The study also found
that the emphasis on collaborative learning through discussion boards to had given
learners a strong push towards their progress. As Jon Clarke, course leader for Child
and Youth Studies noted, “online discussion component of the course is not just as a
means of engaging learners but also an opportunity to maximize learning (Central
Government, Education IT, Healthcare IT, 2009).
Sub question 3
Does e learning help students utilize formative and aid students in skill
competencies needed in the 21st century and to monitor their learning?
Through e learning, we were able to organize learning into component units and
provide opportunities for summative evaluation. This approach allowed learners to
have opportunities to do practice questions, thus test their skills or knowledge.
Tutors as well as the learning software give clear feedback to students at each stage
to correct as well as direct student performance. The study found that online quizzes
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give learners opportunities to self-test prior to summative assessments and that
online assessment tests can provide immediate feedback in a non-judgmental way.
More than 95% of learners who participated in online self-test practices reported
increased confidence in their application of knowledge. The class registered a 20%
increase pass rate from the previous classes. The self test helped online study
mastery of concepts which in turn helped each student engaged in the class to
progress at his or her own pace. The immediate feedback - which occurred in a very
private way, made the learning environment come alive but not in a threatening or
embarrassing way while at the same time provided direction to guide students’
performance. Results from the class showed a move from the bell curve. Most
students in the English Proficiency class averaged 70-80% and only and 10 to 15 %
failure failed to pass and the drop out rate was less than 5%.
In the study, learners became more independent suggesting that self-testing
initiatives during learning can lead to a deeper understanding of concepts and skills
acquisition and mastery than a content-driven approach. The study concluded that
opportunities for feedback should be provided to allow learners to understand where
they went wrong. The use of repetition through further activities can, in fact be fun
if done though the new technologies. The study also found that e learning allows
many more methods than face to face.
SUMMARY
Online resources can support different learning styles as indicated in the study
carried out in 2011-2012 on 26 Basic English students. In addition, the study also
established that that e-learning brings media-rich resources in different formats,
which can provide more efficient learning when linked with traditional methods.
However, for e –learning to be successful, the study found that the applied pedagogy
has to be different since there is need to keep the learner excited and focused to
enable him/her to acquire the desired skills. The case study found that the e-learning
option provides effective solutions to learning situations-- thus e –learning can aid
the ability of learners to achieve the desired outcomes (Teaching college courses
online vs. face-to-face).
The study also found that e learning is not about posting presentations on line that
are clueless or half-baked. For example, where instructors simply put a list of
bulletin points in place of meaningful content and where power points and content
were not clear, the students continuously asked for teachers’ assistance, which
ended up frustrating both the learners and the instructor. This also was the case
where students where being asked to work on line but their computer literacy was
nil. The students got scared and all attempts to learn stopped. This warranted the
need to offer separate classes to those students who could not use computers. The
class was designed to provide software skills to enable learners to be able to create,
edit, and publish so as to provide lessons feedback to give the look and feel of a live
event. The training was used to help student attach and open responses in the drop
box, openly respond and post responses on discussion boards as well as take quizzes
and post online presentations, which helped them engage l in their work more
effectively. It was noted that new users of technology should not be made to feel
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alienated.
During this study, researchers found that combination of multimedia instructional
design as well as use of other experts could be employed to work with students.
Additionally, e learning freed course navigation giving learne more control. It also
freed teachers to facilitate as well as allowed them to do more preparation. Finally,
e learning allowed performance-based assessments hence reducing plagiarism and
rot learning. Further assessments on e learning assimilated work place experiences.
As such, e learning is essential in developing the digital skills that are necessary to
navigate particular subject domains (Staff Contributor. (2012). As Bates (2009)
points out:
Information technology is no longer just a useful tool that supports
university and college administration and teaching and learning but rather
an integral and essential component of almost all core higher education
activities, which needs to be used, managed, and organized accordingly –
CONCLUSION
The study found that allowing students to participate in evaluating their learning
outcomes and resources used and then share their findings with each other and the
instructors went a long way to developing students’ confidence and skills.
In addition, giving students the freedom to use an online system in a way that
complemented their own proffered learning style proved motivational factor in
encouraging experimentation with online provisions. Being able to reinforce
difficult concepts at their own pace, often from home, and to follow these up with
the instructor made e learning exciting for most learners in the English Proficiency
class at Langston University class.
Further, the development of e learning at Langston University enabled instructors to
devote more time to individual learners during their time at college while other
students carried on independently. During the study, learners had the opportunity to
offer feedback at the end of each semester as e learning software prompted for these
comments, which were later used to improve the e-learning platforms. The future
promises much benefit from e learning, including �meeting demands from the public
sector, hence there is need to invest heavily to meet the cost of e-learning projects.
As Toy (2009) “ We must always remember that e-learning is not just part of the IT
infrastructure, it is part of a strategic business consideration for developing
human resources.” Students work at one level until desired results before proceeding
to next level. Thousands of students learn together at the same time; live group
sessions in a virtual classroom. E learning assimilates dating sites; it provides more
interaction than face to face, especially on collaborated group assignments through
Wikis and Google docs (Staff Contributor. (2012).
In addition, e learning is learner-based It aims at mastery, not just covering course
content. It allows multiple attempts for quizzes because of the large pool of
questions, hence the purpose of learning isn’t passing a test – but applying skills on
the job with more e-learning students mastering cooperate job skills. The study
further found that dedicated students pass and the not so dedicated fail, thus e 82
learning does not spoon feed. It provides freedom to fail yet retains and graduates
more students. Further, the study found that e-learning uses technology to increase
the range of options available to instructors and students in the approaches they can
take to learning and thus can be employed not only to enhance the quality and
effectiveness of teaching to raise standards but also to help widen the number of
participants in learning environments.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Reliable and efficient networks and systems are key, 
but often forgotten, and
components of successful e learning. A poor network and systems infrastructure can
greatly inhibit the benefits of e learning. Learners will lose patience and confidence
if the infrastructure is of a poor quality (Bates, 2009). Hence the following
recommendation:
Г� There need to work hard to ensure that support for learners is in place as this is
an important component in the success of e learning.
Г� Provide a range of learning packages. Lack of a clear strategy for the
development of e-learning is a real barrier to success according to Phil McBride.
Г� Map out a clear vision of how e-learning should develop from the beginning, It
may be important to drive at creating a paperless environment and pute learning
online.
Г� There is need to empower learners to be comfortable with technology before
setting them out on their own. Let them set their own learning goals, which is
best done in a relaxed, informal setting.
Г� With most course activities occurring online, some learners could be
disadvantaged if they lack the necessary ICT skills. To address this, all learners
enrolling on line should undergo diagnostic assessment in ICT and be provided
with the training required to enable participation.
References
Bates, T (2009) The State of e-learning
http://www.tonybates.ca/2009/12/18/the-state-of-e-learning-2009/
Beetham, H. (2009) Learning Literacies for a Digital Age, - Oxford Centre for Staff
and
Learning
...https://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsld/.../helen_beetham.html
Central Government, Education IT, Healthcare IT (2009) The great debate: is elearning effective? http://www.futuregov.asia/articles/2009/aug/25/e-
learning-effective/
Findley, P. (2004)“Towards a Unified e-learning Strategy,(2004) Effective practice
with e-learning A good practice guide in designing for learning. Joint
Information Systems Committee (JISC) University of Bristol, UK
Knight, S. (2004) Effective practice with e-learning: a good practice guide in
designing for learning. Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC)
83
University of Bristol, UK mgvh@ltsg Why E-Learning is So Effective :The
Rapid eLearning Blog
http://www.articulate.com/rapid-elearning/why-e-learning-is-soeffective/#sthash.XFwft1na.dpuf
Neuhauser, C. (2002). Learning Style and Effectiveness of Online and Face to Face
Instruction, The American Journal of Distance Education 16(2).
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERIC
ExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ656148&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no
&accno=EJ65 6148
Shachar M. & Neumann, Y., (2010). Twenty Years of Research on the Academic
Performance Differences Between Traditional and Distance Learning:
Summative Meta Analysis and Trend Examination, MERLOT Journal of
Online Learning and TeachingVol. 6, No. 2.
http://jolt.merlot.org/vol6no2/shachar_0610.pdf
Staff Contributor. (2012). Online distance learning classroom [Online forum
comment].
Retrieved from http://www.soyouwanna.com/long-distance-learning-classroom10615.html
Teaching college courses online vs face-to-face. The Journal: transforming
education through technology. Retrieved from
http://thejournal.com/Articles/2001/04/01/Teaching-College-CoursesOnline-vs-FacetoFace.aspx? Page=1
84
Subtheme Two:
Quality Assurance Systems in Blended Learning
Challenges of Implementing Quality Assurance Systems in Blended Learning in
Uganda: The Need For An Assessment Framework
Nambale Moses Geoffrey
Uganda Christian University (Mbale Campus)
Challenges Faced by Adult Learners Enrolled in Blended Distance Learning
Programmes: A Case Study of the Institute of Adult Education
Bernadetha Kapinga and Mugabe Mtani
Institute of Adult Education
Assessing Students Perceptions on Intensive Face to Face in Open and Distance
Education: A Case of The Open University of Tanzania
Martha Jacob Kabate
The Open University of Tanzania
Students’ Perception on the Quality of Open and Distance Learning Programmes in
Tanzania
Innocent Nasson Messo
Building Competitive Advantage in Academic Programmes in Open and Distance
Learning (ODL) Institutions: Case of The Open University of Tanzania
Deus D. Ngaruko12, Leonard L.W.T Fweja13, Fauzia M. Mohammed14
The Open University of Tanzania
85
Challenges of Implementing Quality Assurance
Systems in Blended Learning in Uganda: The Need
For An Assessment Framework
Nambale Moses Geoffrey
Uganda Christian University (Mbale Campus)
[email protected]
Abstract: In order to deal with the increasing demand for higher education against
acute shortages of academic staff and infrastructure in the growing numbers of
institutions of higher learning, some of the campus-based face to face institutions
are now turning to blended learning, “a convergence of distance learning and
conventional learning,” modes of delivery to their students in the campuses. This
paper uses the case of Uganda in discussing issues confronting institutions of higher
learning in their efforts to provide opportunity for the increasing demand for higher
education while at the same time trying to maintain quality of instruction for large
classes. The methodology employed in this study was entirely literature-based.
Blended learning is described with examples of its application referenced to existing
programmes at some universities. A discussion of the challenges of implementing
quality assurance systems is included. The paper concludes with the need for an
assessment framework and a summary of the plausible proposals for ensuring
quality in the delivery blended learning.
Keywords: Blended Learning, Quality Assurance, Assessment Framework, Uganda
INTRODUCTION
With the increasing demand for higher education against acute shortages of
academic staff and infrastructure in the growing numbers of institutions of higher
learning, some of the campus-based face to face programmes are being delivered
through blended learning approaches as opposed to traditional learning methods.
Traditional learning methods do not meet the contemporary needs of our
information society any more (GГјtl et al., 2004). Traditionally learning was carried
out in a designated place, at a particular time and by a known tutor. To exemplify
this, Cross (2004) observes in Downes (2007) thus: “For sixty years, we’ve thought
of learning as residing in the formal models exemplified by schools, universities,
and training programs. Common to these top-down formats is a curriculum that rests
on the beliefs and worldview of the authorities in charge.” Advances in technology
all over the world have contributed to the paradigm shift in several areas inclusive
education. Today learning can occur everywhere due to the technological factors
that have broken the geographical barriers to learning. Detecon and Diebold (2002)
observe that the potential of e-technology for the developing countries is
breathtaking, and the significance of this for e-learning is huge. Especially in Africa,
86
the current status requires innovative ways to support education for all (UNESCOIITE Report, 2003). Thus, technology-based solutions have been increasingly
established to overcome these problems. The need to invent more innovative ways
of providing learning is being driven by the changing conditions and unique
contexts in which learners find themselves (Devlin et al., 2001). The future direction
of e-learning has been defined as “blended learning” (Mitchell, 2001).
DEFINITION OF BLENDED LEARNING
The dominant perception of blended learning is that it is a mix of media and modes
(Adams et al., 2006). This understanding forms the core of most blended learning
definitions which usually state that blended learning is a combination of e-learning
and face-to-face (F2F) delivery. Such perception is inadequate in that it does not
indicate the educational process and decisions that inform and shape a blended
learning approach and the subsequent skills and support needed to realize such an
approach. Therefore, Rovai and Jordan (2004) suggest that:
“Blended learning is a flexible approach to course design that supports the
blending of different times and places for learning, offering some of the
conveniences of fully online courses without the complete loss of face-to-face
contact. The result is potentially a more robust educational experience than
either traditional or fully online learning can offer.”
However, some scholars - Matheos (2012); Akyol and Garrison (2011), through
consultation with academic staff who have been involved in developing blended
learning programmes, formulated their own working definition of blended learning.
According to them, blended learning is considered to be:
“The planned integration of learning and teaching methods that support
learners in the achievement of learning outcomes through the provision of a
range of learning experiences that accommodate different approaches to
learning in a range of learning environments”
(Adams, at el., 2006).
To date there is no consensus on a single agreed-upon definition for blended
learning. However, the approach combines face to face classroom methods with
computer-mediated activities to form an integrated instructional approach.
REASONS FOR BLENDING
Some scholars - Abel (2005); Akyol and Garrison (2011) believe that the fact that
blended learning is an approach that adopts a mix of methods of instruction; then
blended learning is as old as the education systems around the world. This is
because even in traditional learning, teachers often apply more than one method of
instruction especially when teaching students with mixed abilities. However, with
the invention of technology and its application in teaching, blended learning seems
to have taken on a modern definition. Various reasons have been advanced for
institutions of higher learning taking on blended learning. In the case of Uganda,
blended learning started to manifest after the Education White Paper of 1992 which
provided several options for university entry due to increased demand for higher
87
education in the country. This led to increased enrolments against limited staff,
infrastructure, limited funding and teaching-learning materials. Makerere University
- in particular, started Distance Education programmes for Bachelor of Education
and Bachelor of Commerce. These programmes combined face to face on campus
teaching with individualized learning for the various students on course. Over time,
several other universities (Kyambogo, Ndejje and Bugema) in the country also
started programmes that embraced the blended learning approach.
Several other reasons have been advanced for the growing need for blended learning
both in Uganda and elsewhere in the world. These include but not limited to:
В· More effective pedagogy
В· Increased convenience and access
В· Increased cost effectiveness
В· More increase in active learning strategies
В· More learner-centered focus
В· A greater emphasis on peer-to-peer learning
В· A change in the way faculty allocate time for increased mentoring of individual
students
В· The possibility for interaction with remote expert or peer review of projects
В· Learner convenience especially mature learners with commitment
В· Social interaction and human touch in face-to-face class environment
METHODOLOGY
The methodology employed in this study was entirely literature-based research in
which secondary data pertaining to the particular areas of interest were explored
without having to go through the process of collecting data in the field. This
theoretical analysis enabled selection and discussion of theoretical and descriptive
material (Bryman, 2008), in the Ugandan context, and detailed comparison of
concepts on blended learning in terms of their applicability.
SITUATION IN UGANDA
Currently, the Government of Uganda and Ministry of Education and Sports in
particular, places a lot of emphasis on the use of technology in education. In the past
five years, the Uganda Communications Commission supplied computers to several
secondary schools and institutions. The SchoolNet and Cyber programmes have also
given schools computers to be used in the teaching-learning process. Several other
schools and institutions have acquired computers through other funding
mechanisms. The schools are not only using possession of computers as a basis for
advertisement but also as a means to promote the use of ICT in teaching and
learning. Currently, some universities in Uganda (The International University of
East Africa in Kasanga; Livingstone International University) now offer a laptop or
a kindle to every first year student. Generally, many educational institutions in
Uganda have adapted the use of technologies for enhancing the traditional
classroom teaching. How the technology has been implemented varies from one
institution to another depending on the goals of the institution and resources. For
88
instance, Gayaza High School has online programmes where the students access
instruction and coursework assignments from their teachers and send their responses
back to the teachers online. The growing demand for post-secondary education and
the teacher-student ratio in Uganda has also encouraged the adoption of blended
learning.
THE IMPLICATIONS OF ADOPTION OF BLENDED LEARNING
According to Hennessy and Onguko (2010), adoption of blended learning in
Ugandan institutions of higher learning, or institutions in other countries such as
Tanzania, Kenya and Botswana; comes with implications that may include but not
limited to the following:
В· Lecturers need training to acquire skills for integrating technology into their
practice
В· Need to appropriately design blended learning programmes
· Need for students’ adequate skills to use technology
В· Access to the Internet by learners crucial
В· Need for proper assessment of the learning outcomes
В· National Information & Communication Technology Policy
CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING BLENDED LEARNING
Singh and Reed (2001) believe that blended learning focuses on optimizing
achievement of learning objectives by applying the “right” learning technologies to
match the “right” personal learning style to transfer the “right” skills to the “right”
person at the “right” time. However, given that adoption of blended learning comes
with implications means that there are several challenges that institutions have to
resolve to successfully implement the approach. Research studies (Kajumbula and
Tibaingana, 2009; Aguti, 2000; Bbuye, 2005) found out that some of the challenges
that Ugandan institutions of higher learning face as they struggle to provide blended
learning include:
· Finding the “right” blend
В· Adapting to the increased demand on time
В· Measuring the impact of blended learning environment
В· Adapting the culture to accept blended learning environments
В·
В·
В·
В·
Finding the appropriate model
Having access to the appropriate infrastructure – internet, websites
Ability for learners to use the technology
Inconsistencies in power supply
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
Interrupted network
Quality assurance
Poor management
Lack of incentives
Fear or lack of confidence in using the LMS & technology in general
Slow network and shutdowns
89
В·
В·
Technical support for students
Students’ limited technological skills and attitudes towards using online
learning
QUALITY ASSURANCE PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES
From the list above, one of the challenges of implementing blended learning not
only in Uganda but elsewhere in the world is quality assurance. However, what do
we mean when we talk about quality in education? According to Gandhe (2009),
quality is often defined as embracing effectiveness, efficiency and accountability.
These terms have connotations with terms used in trade, commerce and industry.
Education and higher education in particular, is much different in that every element
therein - input, process and output - is a human being, which is a very complex and
highly individualistic phenomenon. Therefore, effectiveness, efficiency and
accountability in this case are hinged on personal life and achievement of the needs
and aspirations of the beneficiaries. Hence quality in higher education is defined as
“fitness for the purpose”. The following should be benchmarks to this effect:
В· Exceptional high standards
В· Perfection and consistency
В· Fitness for purpose
В· Value for money, and
В· Transformation capabilities
Naturally, institutions must ensure that the blended learning solutions adhere to best
practice both in terms of development methodologies and delivery techniques.
According to Kajumbula and Tibaingana (2009) if institutions must ensure quality
learning, the following are some of the important questions institutions should think
about when adopting blended learning.
В· How learning materials are currently designed and developed?
В· What quality assessment processes are in place?
В· Are any formal quality procedures in place?
В· What guidelines and methodologies are in place for designing and developing
learning?
В· What is the policy for accessibility and usability?
В· How are materials maintained and updated?
Assessment is the ongoing process of establishing clear, measurable expected
outcomes of student learning; ensuring that students have sufficient opportunities to
achieve those outcomes; systematically gathering, analyzing, and interpreting
evidence to determine how well students learning matches the expectations and;
using the resulting information to understand and improve student learning (Suskie,
2009). Assessment of the quality of blended learning experiences is no easy matter
as technologies typically support only part of the learning processes that the learners
engage in (Bertrand, 2010). Consequently, evaluating the contribution of the
technologies in blended learning experiences requires well researched and designed
methodologies sufficiently sensitive so as to recognize and acknowledge the
relational nature of the technologies to the quality of learning. According to
Entwistle et al., (2002), there are several issues institutions need to focus on in as far
as quality assurance is concerned. These are presented in Figure 1.
90
From Figure 1, it is apparent that institutions of higher learning need to focus on
several aspects in the learning process in order to appropriately assess and ensure
quality of learning in blended learning. While the need for assessment is clear; i.e.
as noted by Suskie (2009); an implementation gap exists between the desired
outcomes and how institutions ought to get there.
Source: Entwistle et al. (2002)
Figure 1: Concepts related to the quality of learning at university
This gap presents challenges for institutions in Uganda (and perhaps many other
developing countries like Tanzania) from developing an effective assessment plan
that could yield meaningful data about the learners, course, programme and the
institution. The breadth and width of the gap varies from institution to institution.
Therefore, this paper proposes the need for an Assessment Framework to fill the
assessment information gap by defining an assessment vocabulary, outlining a
practical assessment implementation process, and establishing a methodology of
how to use assessment data in an integrated fashion across institutions in the
country.
This could be through each institution considering to design an assessment
framework or the National Council for Higher Education (NCHE- accrediting body)
adopting a general framework that would ensure quality learning outcomes across
all institutions of higher learning. The framework should address quality of the
“learning outcomes” in blended learning through the development of reliable and
valid scales, and link these aspects of quality of the “learning outcomes” to the
91
“whole” of the learner experiences by investigating the relations of these scales with
learners’ approaches to learning across the entire course, as well as the overall grade
(Bertrand, 2010).
An Assessment Framework is important for the range of stakeholders with interests
in the performance of a college. Figure 2 illustrates the variety of stakeholders
associated with a community college or university.
Figure 2: Stakeholders associated with a Community College
Source: Bersin (2004)
Figure 2 illustrates the number of stakeholders with an interest in the performance of
an institution. All stakeholders have a need and right to receive and understand
effectiveness indicators. Given the range of stakeholders, the institutional
performance data need to be packaged and presented in a clear, concise, and precise
fashion. The other primary goal for the Assessment Framework is to establish a
vocabulary of assessment terms so that all stakeholders may easily understand data
presentation on learning effectiveness. In addition, the Assessment Framework aims
to outline a process for measuring student learning that all stakeholders will be able
to understand. Clearness of language and transparency of process are critical to the
success of any organization and perhaps even more important in a college setting
where stakeholder interests are so varied and diverse.
A typical assessment framework (Standahl, 2008) should focus on the following:
В· Defined measurable institutional learning outcomes. Establish outcomes at the
institutional, program, major, course, and classroom level.
92
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
Designed assessments to measure learning outcomes. Determine the outcomes
to measure, determine the purpose for the assessment, determine the assessment
method to employ, and determine the kind of assessment data you need to
collect.
Designed learning events based upon learning outcomes. Include assessment
activities within the learning designs.
Delivered learning.
Assessment of learning and learning events.
Gathering and formatting data generated from assessment activities.
Interpretation of the assessment data.
Use assessment data to make decisions at the student, classroom, course, major,
program, or institutional level.
GUIDELINES TO THE CHOICE OF AN ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
Assessment and learning objectives are intimately connected so one useful
framework for considering both is Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956), a
hierarchical classification of the different objectives that are typically set for
learners. In choosing blended learning approaches for assessment, it is important to
revisit the institutional course learning objectives and consider the nature of what it
is that the institution wants the learners to demonstrate. To this effect, the institution
should first consider the following:
В· How will (should) learners use the knowledge and/or skills gained in the course
in the real-world?
В· What will learners be doing in the course; that is, what are the learning activities
I have designed?
В· What needs to be assessed, and why (i.e., knowledge, skills, attitudes, etc)?
Other things to consider may include:
В· Can the institution provide opportunities for self-assessment, particularly of
knowledge?
· Can the institution provide �low stakes’ assessment (e.g., a quiz) to guide the
learner and provide feedback?
В· How will the institution provide feedback on progress and what is the nature
and timing of feedback?
В· Are there opportunities for both informal and formal feedback?
В· How consistent are the types of assessment with the types of learning activities?
В· Do the assessment tasks align with the course aims and intended learning
objectives?
В· What are the workload implications for staff and students?
В· Are there skills that need to be developed in order to use the technology?
В· Will implementing a blended learning strategy create more workload or can it
be made more efficient?
В· How will the institution communicate the purpose and relevance of tasks to
students?
· The timing of assessment tasks in the institution’s course is important.
В· Are they reasonably spread across the semester?
93
В·
В·
Does the institution know how the timing of assessment in your course relates to
other courses within the program that students are likely to be enrolled in?
Learners in early years of a programme need to complete tasks early in the
semester so the institution has some way of gauging the need for support. Make
sure the institution knows what support is available. If possible, make
arrangements with support staff before semester starts so the help comes to the
learners �just in time’ for them to complete tasks.
Therefore, the objectives could be aligned according to Bloom’s Taxonomy or on
Krathwohl and Anderson taxonomy. According to Bloom (1956) learning objectives
have to be designed by identifying what the learner should know or be able to do by
the end of the course. For instance, you may want the learner to, apply know,
comprehend, analyze, synthesize or evaluate. It therefore follows that when
designing an assessment tool, the framework used should map the learning
objectives to the assessment strategy. Similarly, if one chose to use the Krathwohl
and Andersen taxonomy, then the learning objectives may be designed with the
intentions of wanting the learner to remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate
or create. For purpose of this study, the Krathwohl and Andersen taxonomy has
been used to provide a typical example of aligning objectives to the assessment
strategy for both traditional and electronic teaching methods.
Table 1: Aligning Objectives to Assessment Strategies (basing on Krathwohl
and Anderson taxonomy)
Learning
Objective
Remember
Understand
Traditional
Electronic
Multiple choice or
matching questions
Multiple choice or
Essay
Matching questions
summary
Online quiz or
fact-based game
Online quiz
Flow chart Concept
or fact-based
map
game
Online quiz
Do an
Make a
online
podcast
search
that
examines a
theory
Apply
Multiple
choice
questions
Analyze
Distinguish Analyze
between 2 data
theories
Reverse
engineer a
device
Conduct and
report on a
web survey
Collect and Contrast 2
analyze
blog posts
media clips
Evaluate
Evaluate an Appraise a
writing
research
sample
article
Judge a
marketing
plan
Moderate a
discussion
forum
Evaluate a
video or
debate
Peer
evaluation
Create
Generate
an
expository
essay
Produce and
deliver a
presentation
Generate an
e-Portfolio
Create a
video
Build a
website
Calculate
the answer
to a
problem
Formulate
a research
plan
Demonstrate
a procedure
Source: Suskie (2009)
94
Given the basis for aligning learning objectives to the assessment strategies as
provided by Krathwohl and Anderson, (or by Bloom); the assessment framework
needed to ensure quality in blended learning should combine both assessment
strategies i.e. traditional and electronic. From Table 1, the kind of questions that
should be used in carrying out effective assessment for quality assurance should
require the learner to do what is provided in Table 2.
Table 2: Knowledge required of a Learner during Assessment
Higher order thinking
Generate, plan, produce, develop, construct, organize,
Creating
propose, invent
Argue, decide, validate, evaluate, appraise, judge, measure,
Evaluating
rank, criticize, rate, select, consider
Distinguish, contrast, scrutinize, dissect, separate,
Analyzing
discriminate, analyze, examine, survey
Lower order thinking
Employ, execute, implement, practice, calculate, show,
Applying
demonstrate, translate, illustrate, model
Understanding Relate, interpret, classify, summarize, discuss, explain,
conclude, compare and contrast
Memorize, define, recite, recall, cite, draw, list, name, record,
Remembering
repeat
Source: Weinstein (2010)
CONCLUSION
Blended learning has been defined in different ways. However, there is a general
agreement that blended learning is the planned integration of learning and teaching
methods that support learners in the achievement of learning outcomes through the
provision of a range of learning experiences that accommodate different approaches
to learning in a range of learning environments. Various reasons are advanced for
institutions of higher learning taking on blended learning. These include but not
limited to dealing with increased enrolments against limited staff, infrastructure,
limited funding and availability of teaching-learning materials. Greatrix (2001) and
Herrington, et al., (2001) believe that blended learning should be adopted because it
provides more effective pedagogy, increased convenience and access, increased cost
effectiveness, more increase in active learning strategies, more learner-centered
focus, and a greater emphasis on peer-to-peer learning.
While proponents of blended learning believe that the approach focuses on
optimizing achievement of learning objectives by applying the “right” learning
technologies to match the “right” personal learning style to transfer the “right” skills
to the “right” person at the “right” time; adoption of blended learning comes with
implications that often lead to several challenges that institutions need to resolve to
successfully implement the approach. These include the need to train lecturers to
acquire skills for integrating technology into their practice; need to appropriately
design blended learning programmes, need for students’ adequate skills to use
technology; access to the Internet by learners being crucial, and the need for proper
95
assessment of the learning outcomes to ensure quality learning. Assessment is the
ongoing process of establishing clear, measurable expected outcomes of student
learning; ensuring that students have sufficient opportunities to achieve those
outcomes; systematically gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to
determine how well students learning matches the expectations of stakeholders and;
using the resulting information to understand and improve student learning.
Assessment of the quality of blended learning experiences is no easy matter as
technologies typically support only part of the learning processes of the learners.
Consequently, evaluating the contribution of the technologies in blended learning
experiences requires well researched and designed methodologies sufficiently
sensitive to recognize and acknowledge the relational nature of the technologies to
the quality of learning. This should apply to all institutions within a given setting
(level of training, country or otherwise) by having a common assessment
framework. Such a framework should take cognizance of the state and abilities of
the learners, lecturers, nature of course, type of programme and the institution. The
framework should also define an assessment vocabulary, outline a practical
assessment implementation process, and establish methodology of how to use
assessment data in an integrated fashion across institutions.
RECOMMENDATION
Since assessment and learning objectives are intimately connected, this paper
proposes that in designing an assessment framework for blended learning, it is
important to revisit the institutional course learning objectives and consider the
nature of what it is that the institution wants the learners to demonstrate. This could
be aligned according to Bloom’s Taxonomy or on Krathwohl and Anderson
taxonomy and ensure that a blend between the traditional and electronic approaches
is carefully integrated in the framework. The framework could finally include what
the learner is required to do when being assessed.
As institutions of higher learning rush to adopt blended learning, they should
seriously consider doing the first things first: invest in management of the
impending challenges and collaboratively design an appropriate framework that
takes cognizance of the state and abilities of the learners, lecturers, nature of course,
type of programme and the institution. A framework that defines an assessment
vocabulary, outlines a practical assessment implementation process, and establishes
methodology of how to use assessment data in an integrated fashion across
institutions.
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98
Challenges Faced by Adult Learners Enrolled in
Blended Distance Learning Programmes: A Case
Study of the Institute of Adult Education
Bernadetha Kapinga
[email protected]
Institute of Adult Education
mailto:Mugabe Mtani –
[email protected]
Institute of Adult Education
Abstract: This research attempted to provide an insight into major barriers facing
adult learners pursuing a diploma in adult and continuing education programme
through Blended Distance Learning. Participants included the adult learners, staff
from the Department of Open and Distance Learning who are also the facilitators of
the programme. This study was conducted as a descriptive case study of the barriers
and difficulties faced by adult learners seeking an alternative route to education.
Data were collected in the form of interviews, email correspondences, and
documents from participants - both learners and facilitators. The findings of the
study show that, most of the learners pursuing this programme did not have
computers and internet access. Secondly, participants had limited ICT knowledge.
Thirdly, most of them didn’t have study skills and fourthly, these adult learners had
competing priorities and struggled balancing family responsibilities, job
obligations, and commitment to the programme. It was recommended that, the
Institute of Adult Education should introduce capacity building programmes such as
provision of short ICT courses concerning for both facilitators and adult learners,
improving ICT infrastructures as well as introducing resource centers at the headquarters and all regional centres.
Keywords: Adult learners, distance learning, blended distance learning, education
technology, case study.
INTRODUCTION
Online distance education has become increasingly more common in higher
education. As institutions are moving into this learning environment creating more
online courses and degree options, the primary consumer of these courses is the
adult learners, those learners outside the 18-24 age groups (Benson, 2003). Online
courses and degree programmes have created incredible opportunities for adult
learners to participate in an online distance education (Bollag and Overland, 2001Нѕ
Warschauer, 2003). Online courses have made it possible for the working adult to
return to school. This is particularly important for primary and secondary school
teachers working in the education field who need continuing education in order to
improve their knowledge and teaching skills. Online distance education also offers
an option for teachers who need or would like to add additional credentials to their
existing work. There are also some challenges despite the great opportunity of
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online distance education. For the adult learners, it is important to understand the
challenges and barriers as well as the opportunities when participating in an online
distance education course or programme. Adult learners have unique learning needs
that need to be addressed in the online learning environment.
This paper is organized into five major sections. Section one introduces this study;
section two covers adult learning theories; section three discusses the methodology
used for the study; section four is about the findings and discussion; and section five
deals with conclusion and recommendations.
ADULT LEARNING THEORIES
Although Malcolm Knowles is considered to be the authority on andragogy - which
is also known as adult learning theory, Eduard Lindeman was considered a major
philosopher of adult education in the United States during the early 1900s (Stewart,
1987). Brookfield (1987:122).) notes that according to Lindeman, adult education is
“a cooperative venture in non-authoritarian, informal learning - the chief purpose of
which is to discover the meaning of experience.” Lindeman advocated for the use of
adult learning groups, and believed that the adult learner should be offered an
opportunity to learn in small groups and that lectures should be eliminated
(Brookfield, 1987).
Lindeman’s methods of adult education stressed the importance of discussion. He
believed that the curriculum should focus on the competence instead of content. He
wrote that adult learners should have a set of analytical skills developed through
discussion groups, that could be applied to understand a range of different situation
(Brookfield, 1987). He also believed that adults need to learn how to learn.
In 1920, Lindeman wrote about andragogy with Martha Anderson and together they
stated that andragogy was “the true method of adult learning’’ (as cited in
Brookfield, 1987:127). This was to become one of the most important concepts in
the field of adult education (Brookfield, op. cit.).
Andragogy, which was first introduced by a German grammar teacher Alexander
Kapp, was used to help illustrate Plato’s educational theory (Knowles, Holton, &
Swanson 1998). Later, in 1921, the concept of andragogy surfaced again when
Eugen Rosen stock, a German social scientist claimed that: “adult education
required special teachers, special methods, and a special philosophy” (Knowles
Holton, & Swanson, 1998:59). In 1968, Malcolm Knowles heard about andragogy
and began using that term (Brookfield, 1987). Knowles has since become known as
the principle expert on andragogy.
Malcolm Knowles’s theory of andragogy outlines effective methodologies for adult
learning. Andragogy includes ideas such as an adult’s readiness to learn, the role of
the learner’s experiences, the faculty member as a facilitator of learning, an adult’s
orientation to learning, and the learner’s self concept (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson,
1998). Andragogy is based on six basic principles or assumptions about the
characteristics of adult learners that are different from the assumptions about the
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learning of a young child. First, adult learners are self-directed rather than
dependent. Secondly, adults have life experiences that are resources for learning.
Thirdly, as adults mature, their readiness to learn is oriented to the developmental
tasks of their social roles. Fourthly, adults are problem centered in their orientation
to learning. Fifthly, an adult’s perception of learning changes from a postponed
application of knowledge to an immediate application. Sixthly, an adult’s
motivation to learn is internal (Knowles, 1984Нѕ Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998Нѕ
Knowles & Knowles, 1972).
With a traditional pedagogical curriculum model, it is assumed that a student will
simply learn what he or she is told (Posner, 2004). This is not the case with adult
learners. Adult learners need to know why they should learn something. However,
adults are accustomed to understanding what they do in life (Knowles, 1984Нѕ
Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 1998). Adults want to know the reason for learning
something or how it will benefit them.
The distinction Knowles (1975) made between how adults and children learn was an
important landmark in teaching and learning practices in vocational education and
training, as well as in higher education. Andragogy, and the principles of adult
learning that were derived from it, transformed face-to-face teaching (Brookfield,
1987Нѕ Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998) and provided a rationale for distance
education based on the notion of self-directedness (Knowles, 1980, 1984, 1989).
Most of the teachers who are teaching in Folk Development Colleges in Tanzania
are form four leavers and they don’t have enough qualifications for facilitating
college level education. Therefore, the diploma in adult and continuing education
equip them with knowledge and skills of how to help adult learners to learn in a
clear, helpful and friendly manner.
METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted at the Institute of Adult Education in Dar es Salaam
Region. It was mainly qualitative although elements of quantitative methodology
were also employed. Different categories of respondents were used in order to
provide extensive and comprehensive information about the problem being
investigated. Forty respondents were involved including 10 course facilitators and
30 learners of the selected Focal Development Colleges from IAE in Dar es Salaam.
Random sampling technique was used to select both facilitators and learners.
The method of collecting data included in-depth interviews, email correspondences
and documentary analysis. While in-depth interviews enabled the researchers to
probe on salient issues, documentary reviews provided the opportunity to check and
verify issues emerging from in-depth interviews.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
This part presents the findings of the study and their analysis. The findings were
categorized and organized into four themes; communication, technology, social
inclusion and family responsibility.
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COMMUNICATION
This section sought to assess how communication between distance learning
participants, facilitators and programme coordinator has taken place during the
learning process. Through interview, it was revealed that, a learner enrolled in
blended distance learning course or programme will find that the driving force of
learning will be textbased. The exchange of information between and among
distance learning participants was primarily textual. Text based communication in
distance learning had limitations. Text-based communication lacked mechanisms for
making social differentiation. Social and physical cue do not necessarily show up in
written speech. Gestures, voice intonation and facial expressions are lost in a textbased communication.
With the exception of a few who preferred to make telephone inquiries, email
correspondence was almost exclusively the medium of communication among
participants in the online distance education programme. This was evidenced by the
huge amount of email data collected from the respondents. Over 300 exchanges took
place between participants and programme coordinators during the first semester of
the academic year 2011/2013. After the initial technology orientation the exchanges
was over 600. Some of the problems encountered by learners include the following:
“My assignment froze up and I cannot open it to retake it.
I am having a problem opening the assignment again. Could you please resend……
Help me I cannot find your module material posted……
I can’t find my assignment ……..”
“Madam am very sorry, I was not able to submit the assignment on time, because I
forgot to save……so the text disappeared……”
It became apparent that the adult learners required immediate feedback when asking
a question or sending an assignment. If feedback was not received within 24 to 48
hours of the initial inquiry, learners became anxious and concerned about their level
of success in the programme. These worries were then relayed to the coordinator
who would help to ease some of their difficulties. Some answers to student inquires
could not be addressed via email or even a telephone call. One of them remarked as
follows:
“Most of the times when I need to speak with my module facilitator, I find it
difficult because they seem to be busy…… and promise to call me back, the thing
which never happened”
Contrary to the above, another learner put it plainly that:
“Our facilitators are very helpful to us, the problem is that, most of us have
insufficient technological skills in the use of computer which sometimes delay the
communication between us and them.”
Most of the adult learners participants expressed anxiety about delayed or getting no
replies when assignments were sent via email attachments. This online distance
learning programme required most of the communication to be textual. This was not
102
a synchronous exchange and the initiator of the inquiry was required to wait for a
response. Meanwhile, the learners’s question remained unanswered thus negatively
affecting the learning process. When the adult learner participants were asked about
which programme areas needed frequent improvement they said that: “We need
quick feedback on emails.”
It is important for all participants to understand the importance of immediacy of
response when corresponding through an asynchronous media such as email. When
face to face contact is limited, other means of synchronous communication need to
be incorporated into the online environment. This may be accomplished through
“chat” features which are built into the CMS interface.
TECHNOLOGY
A learner enrolled in blended distance learning programme is expected to have some
basic ICT literacy skills. Distance learning appeals to the older adult learner because
there is the convenience of completing course work anytime and anywhere, and
accommodating individual family and career responsibilities. Most of our distance
learners are not a generation of digital learning technology. This was due to the fact
that technological skills were not necessary in their lives. From this study, it was
noted that learners pursuing a diploma in adult and continuing education received a
two day face to face technology orientation in their second semester. Most of them
suggested that more thorough and in-depth technology skills training were needed.
The training was reactionary in that it addressed specific problems that the
participants had encountered during the previous semester. Some of the facilitators
were good in using emails and telephone correspondence but did not have sufficient
baseline technology skills to conduct class online such as skype.
Without basic technology skills and minimum computer system requirements, these
adult learners lose sight of the educational goals of the programme. Instead, they
become burdened with technological jargon and maneuvering within the online
course management system (CMS). There can be a sense of insecurity when sending
an email with an assignment attached. These issues need to be addressed early in the
online distance learning experience. Orienting the digital converts to the online
format, the CMS tools, and the protocols needs to be inclusive of institution and
students. This technology orientation should be delivered in a face-to-face
environment with time for practical application and experimentation.
Regardless whether the online distance education participants were experts or
beginners in basic technology skills, the most significant area of frustration within
the category of technology was the actual system requirements needed to navigate
and participate in online distance learning programme. The World Wide Web is
media rich which can be integrated into text based online learning environments
enhancing the curriculum when face-to-face contact is limited. Comfortably
accessing the media available on the internet requires a broadband or high-speed
internet connection. Several adult learners did not have high-speed internet when
they started the programme. When downloading academic materials from their
facilitators took several hours over a dial up connection, it became apparent that
103
successful and timely completion of the programme would require subscribing to a
high-speed Internet service. Three adult learners shared that:“We lived in rural
areas and we don’t have high speed internet service available.”
Lack of high speed internet service available put the burden on them to complete the
majority of their online course work at their places of employment creating yet
another set of challenges. All of the adult learners were tutors and therefore worked
in colleges. Internet connection speed was not the only system requirement needed
for successful adult learning. In order for digital documents to be exchanged
between and among adult learners, each user’s computer needed to have compatible
software for their successfully blended distance learning.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study provides insight into analyzing and identifying critical barriers for adult
learners pursuing a diploma in adult and continuing education programme through
blended distance learning. Its key findings point to a need for clear common
programme goals and instructional design that takes into consideration the special
needs of the adult learners pursuing blended distance learning programme. Future
research capacity in blended distance learning, including serious attempts to digitize
and disseminate research, are needed. Government and higher institutions
organizations should develop concrete strategies to improve adult learners’
knowledge in the use of technology.
References
Benson, A. D. (2003). Dimensions of quality in online degree programmes. The
American Journal of Distance Education, 17(3), 145159.
Bollag, B. and Overland, M. A. (2001). Developing countries turn to distance
education.
Chronicle of Higher Education, 47(40), 2931.
Brookfield, S. (1987). Eduard Lindeman. In Jarvis, P. (Ed.), Twentieth century
thinkers in adult education (pp. 119143). New York: Routledge.
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From andragogy
to pedagogy. Chicago: Follett Publishing Co.
Knowles, M. S. (1984). Andragogy in action: Applying modern principles of adult
learning. San Francisco: JosseyBass Publishers.
Knowles, M. S. (1989). The making of an adult educator: An autobiographical
journey. San Francisco: JosseyBass Publishers.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F. and Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult learner.
Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
Knowles, M. S. and Knowles, H. (1972). Introduction to group dynamics (Rev. ed.).
Chicago: Follett Publishing Co.
Posner, G. J. (2004). Analyzing the curriculum (3 rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Stewart, D. W. (1987). Adult learning in America: Eduard Lindeman and his
agenda for lifelong education. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co.
Warschauer, M. (2003). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital
divide. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
104
Assessing Students Perceptions on Intensive Face to
Face in Open and Distance Education: A Case of the
Open University of Tanzania
Martha Jacob Kabate
The Open University of Tanzania (OUT),Institute of Continuing Education (ICE),
Department of Professional Studies and Continuing Education
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
Abstract: Intensive face to face has been going on as a strategy to blend learning in
diploma in primary teachers’ education at OUT. However, at The Open University
of Tanzania there has been no study that has investigated whether students find it
useful or not. Therefore, this study assessed students’ perception on Intensive Face
to Face sessions. The study specifically aimed at identifying students’ perception on
quality of interaction between tutors and students and between students on the other
hand. It also explored the nature of challenges students meet in attending face to
face sessions. Sixty students and ten tutors from the Institute of Continuing
Education were consulted for questionnaire and interview administration. Overall,
findings show that, students perceived intensive face to face as a resourceful
occasion for their studies in terms of receiving clarification from tutors, promoting
students’ collaboration and acquiring study skills from peers. Students getting
psychosocial support from peers were also another reason for students to positively
perceive the intensive face to face sessions. Students also expressed concerns about
tutors’ strategies in identifying and addressing students’ academic and psychosocial
problems. The study recommends measures to make face to face comprehensive in
nature that is, more in-depth research work in regard to the quality of teaching and
learning sessions between tutors and students on one hand and between students on
the other hand. Further studies on psychosocial support services that can be
incorporated in the conduct of face to face for better support of ODL students can
be done.
Keywords: Perception, intensive face to face, distance education
INTRODUCTION
Distance education is any type of a learning system in which teaching is separated
from learning, with learners working on their own with the aid of study materials
developed by instructors (Mpofu, Mafa and Chimhenga, 2013). Teaching and
learning through open and distance learning (ODL) include widening access,
reducing some barriers to education, flexibility and the learner friendly approaches
to teaching and learning are increasingly acknowledged. Provision of distance
education relies heavily on technologies of delivery like print materials, radio
broadcasting, television broadcasting, teleconferencing, electronic mail, interactive
video, satellite telecommunication and multimedia computer technologies. These
technologies are all used to promote students teacher interactions at distance (Al105
fahad, 2009). In addition, distance learning can be combined with face to face
meetings (AACSB, 1999).
Face to face is one of the key strategies for teaching and learning in Distance
education. Others inc Teaching and learning through face to face in the ODL system
involves tutorial, learner-learner interaction, library studies and practical sessions.
According to Howell (2003), in addition to knowledge sharing among students, the
incorporation of face to face in distance education is important for the ODL
institution in managing the educational process, personalizing instruction and
addressing challenges which distance learners face. Watson (2008) adds that face to
face is also important in supporting and motivating the learners to continue and
persevere in their learning. On the other hand, Chen and Jones (2007) argue that
face to face tutoring does not provide extra resources that offer learners extra
competence and confidence in their learning and gives limited base of sources of
information when comparing to E- learning technologies.
The argument of face to face tutoring in distance learning that are drawn from
studies have also been reported and discussed in some African countries. The study
of Mapfumo and Mwenje (2013) titled “Blending Traditional face to face tutoring
with internet based tutoring services” done at Zimbabwe Open University found that
majority (97%) of the students had positive perceptions on the benefit derived from
the face to face tutorials and all students viewed face to face tutorials as a platforms
for sharing study skills and for putting theory into practice. The variations in the
students’ views about face to face can be attributed to the difference in the contexts
such as the levels of technologies and support materials in which the face to face
component of teaching and learning through ODL system is provided. In fact, it can
also be argued that, the variations in the students’ views about the role of face to
face component can be attributed to differences in nature of their course
programmes. It is against this background this paper presents the case study of
perceptions of the intensive face to face for the students taking the Diploma in
Primary Teacher Education (DPTE) offered in the Institute of Continuing Education
at The Open University of Tanzania. The intensive face to face for the DPTE takes
duration of two to three weeks where students had to meet with tutors for face to
face tutoring.
STUDY OBJECTIVES
The study specifically aimed to:
В· Assess perceptions of students on intensive face to face sessions;
В· Identify the challenges the students face during intensive face to face sessions.
METHODOOGY STUDY
Student and tutor participants were selected from the three regional centers in Dar es
Salaam. The study involved a total 60 DPTE students. Because the DPTE students like any other students, are not always at the regional centers and so it would not be
easily or possible to meet them at once for study participation, the snowball
sampling method was used to obtain the students for participating in completing the
questionnaire. The researcher initially identified some students by tracing their
106
contacts (mobiles) from the students records files, contacted them and visited those
who were willing to take part in the study in the primary schools where they work
for completing the questionnaire. In addition, the researcher also obtained contacts
and location of the respective schools from their peers. Depending on the
convenience of the students, some students who completed the questionnaire were
interviewed for follow up purpose.
Purposeful sampling was used to select tutors for interview. Ten tutors (10) were
selected through random sampling method. Tutors involved are those who ever
participated or attending in the intensive face to face for at least twice. The former
Director of the ICE - who was also the founder of the DPTE, was interviewed as a
key informant. Moreover, the researcher conducted documentary review of key
documents such as reports of the intensive face to face for DPTE students for the
purpose of complementing the data obtained through student questionnaire and
interviews.
The data from the student questionnaires were analyzed using Statistical Package for
Social Scientists (SPSS). The analysis involved running the frequencies and
percentages of the students’ responses which were presented in tables and figures.
Analysis of the interview data on the other hand involved selecting relevant quotes
for complementing information obtained through student questionnaire.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Tutoring and interaction in the face to face
Tutoring in the ODL can be in a form of face to face or internet based. The ODL
tutoring demands the tutors to posses communication, motivational and problem
solving skills for supporting and responding to learners. In tutoring, effective
communication is very important for interpersonal interaction where needs of
learners are addressed and learners are able to express themselves. On the other
hand motivational skills for a tutor, encourage and develop strategies for coping
with difficulties in a learner by incorporating massages in their regular
communication. Problem solving is also a skill for the tutors which is important for
identifying and providing quality support to students.
In addition to the above, the effectiveness of tutoring depends also on the course
design (Verduin and Clarke, 1991; Moore and Kearsley, 1996). A study done by
Rosemary and Richard (2013) titled “Tutors Effectiveness: Conception of Students
Teachers at Zimbabwe Open University in Masvingo” noted that students viewed
positively on tutor preparation of the tutorials, expectations of success for all
students, sense of purpose in counseling student, as well as provision of adequate
guidance on assignment and exams as being factors for effective tutoring.
Perception on the incorporation of face to face into distance education
According to a study done in Zimbabwe Open University, (Mpofu, Mafa and
Chimhenga, 2013) face to face has an advantage in learning, namely:
ability of the students to meet with other students for study groups, ability to know
tutors, and better achievement in academics. In addition, the authors went on by
107
showing that, face to face has been integrated in the learning programmes in which
students are expected to interact, discuss and debate issues or questions they had
identified during their studies under Open and Distance Learning. further, Howell et
al. (2003), in his study has shown the significance of combining distance education
and face to face in bringing the general development of knowledge to students by
meeting with their fellow students as well as meeting and interacting with their
tutors. However, combination between face to face and distance learning has some
challenges. For example,, students at Zimbabwe Open University faced the
challenge of living in rural areas that are far from the regional centers where
tutorials are conducted. Also they encountered travel cost, accommodation and up
keep costs during the tutorial (face to face) sessions (Kurasha, 2003). On the other
hand, face to face tutoring is seen as not encouraging learner- centered type of
learning compared with internet tutoring, for example with internet tutoring,
students feel more at ease in asking any question that they need an answer (Banda
aria 2007) in Mapfumo and Mwenje (2013).
Intensive face to face for the DPTE programme at OUT
The Open University of Tanzania is one among the institutions under open and
distance learning system in the world. In 1992 The Open University of Tanzania
was established as a single mode higher learning institution and started to conduct
various academic programmes through ODL leading to awards in certificates,
diplomas, bachelors’ degrees and postgraduate diplomas and degrees.
The Diploma in Primary Teacher Education is a two years course for the primary
teacher which started in 2008/2009 academic year with the support from the Open
University of the United Kingdom on Teacher Education for Sub-Saharan Africa
(TESSA). The DPTE is offered by the Institute of Continuing Education at The
Open University of Tanzania in response to the urgent need for quality teachers in
Tanzania. The programme integrates theory with practice aiming for professional
development and enhancing capability to provide quality primary education.
Specifically, the DPTE programme focuses on promoting knowledge and skills in
various techniques of interactive learning and teaching that are child friendly and
gender sensitive. Additionally, the programme also aims at updating the knowledge
of the students’ teachers in their teaching subject and enhances their professional
competencies (ICE, Student Hand Book, 2010/2011). At first, student teachers went
for intensive face to face sessions twice a year and later on intensive face to face
was shifted into only one session (November or December) whereby first year and
second year students participated in this one session. Currently, centers involved for
that activity include; Mtwara Teacher College, Bunda Teacher College, Patandi
Teachers College and Njombe Focal Development College
Face to face tutoring is said to be intensive in the sense that at first it was done twice
a year which included six week in each session - in June and November/ December.
During intensive face to face, the four weeks were used for facilitation and the
remaining weeks were used for main timed-test and examination session in June and
December. Currently, tests are not administered during face to face sessions. The
intensive face to face sessions for the DPTE students at OUT is different from face
108
to face sessions for other programmes in the sense that it takes longer duration - of
more than two weeks, and it combines tutorial classes unlike in other programmes.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Factors for integrating intensive face to face for Students under Diploma in
Primary Teacher Education
From the interview with the former Director of the Institute of Continuing
Education and the founder of the Diploma in Primary Teacher Education, the factors
for combining face to face tutorials and distance education are as follows: First, the
majority of primary school teachers have been out of school for long. Thus by
running face to face tutorials would make it easier for them to module content.
Secondly, in the intensive face to face students are acquiring knowledge on the use
of Open Educational Resources (OERs) which include course materials and text
books that have been designed for use in teaching and learning. The OERs
according UNESCO (2011) are defined as materials openly for use by educators and
students without accompanying need to pay royalties’ or license fees. In additional
to that, the former Director of the Institute of Continuing Education reported that;
there was a survey which was conducted in 2005 by the Ministry of Education in
collaboration with The Open University of Tanzania. They survey found that, only
32 Teacher Training Colleges in Tanzania had computer laboratories then it was the
time these students to be oriented with the ICT skills so as to be able to access study
material through computer ( internet) as open and distance learning system is
concern. Therefore, intensive face to face was very important for such type of
students to get them familiar with the course, the orientation of a new type of
learning that is Open and Distance Learning (ODL) as well as to be oriented in
academic arena.
Table 1: Students Perception on the intensive face to face conduct
Perception statement
Agree (%)
Disagree (%)
Total (%)
During face to face there is
conducive environment for learning
Face to face motivates learning
63.3
36.7
100
80.0
20.0
100
Face to face improves academic
performance
Time spent for face to face is
enough
Attending face to face contributes
to students completing the course
71.7
28.3
100
40.0
60.0
100
75.0
25.0
100
Students perceived positively running of intensive face to face sessions. Most of the
students highly rated the face to face sessions as being motivating to students,
increasing the course completion rates and improving academic performance.
Motivation has great influence on the success of learning. According to Galusha
(1997), motivation positively contributes to academic performance and students
completion rates. OUT Facts and Figures (2012/2013), show that from 2008/2009
academic year, enrolment has generally increased as shown in Table 2 in relation to
completion rates.
109
Table 2: Enrollment and completion rates of DPTE students
Year
2008/2009
2009/2010
2010/2011
2011/2012
2012/2013
Total
Students enrolled
488
497
829
964
1003
3781
Students Completed
86 (18%)
143 (29%)
319 (38%)
Results still being processed
First year students
548 (14%)
Source: OUT Facts and Figures, 2012/2013
Table 2 shows that the rate of enrollment and the rate of completion have been
increasing each year. However, it can be seen that there are more students enrolled
each year compared to those who complete the programme (548 (14%)). This may
be due to fact that admitted students drop from the programme, or postpone their
studies due to social, financial or family issues - even death. Studies done by Zuhairi
and others (2013) on the quality assurance of Open and Distance Education at the
University of Terbuka, found that ODL learners encounter different problems during
their studies including family disruptions, lack of experience of learning through
ODL system or perceiving it as irrelevant mode of studying in contrast to the
conventional system.
Students’ perception of intensive face to face on tutor-student interaction and
tutoring
With regard to students’ perception on the quality of student-tutor interaction and
tutorial sessions, the findings in Table 3 show that most of the students had positive
perceptions about face to face in terms of helping them to understand the module
contents and perceived their tutors as generally accessible (approachable) for
consultation for clarification of difficult areas or obtaining information for reference
materials.
Table 3: Students Perception of intensive face to face on tutor- student
interaction and tutoring
Perception statement
Tutors are reliable for consultation during
face to face session
Tutors help in understanding instructional
materials or module contents
Tutors clarify difficulty areas from the
instructional materials which are asked by
the students
Tutor use participatory methods to involve
the students in during teaching and learning
Tutors discuss with the students about study
skills for ODL context
Respective tutor teach ICT skills as a subject
Tutors cover module contents during face to
face session
110
Agree
(%)
56.7
Disagree
(%)
43.3
Total
(%)
100
76.7
23.3
100
78.3
21.7
100
61.7
38.3
100
68.3
31.7
100
78.3
56.7
21.7
43.3
100
100
However, the results also show that over a third of the students reported that tutors
do not use participatory methods (38.3%) and that tutors do not discuss with them
about ODL study skills (31.7%) during face to face sessions. This suggests that a
significant number of students viewed the quality of teaching and consultation face
to face sessions as not wholly enhancing their learning in terms of their module
contents and tutor support in acquiring the study skills.
In a follow up discussion after completing the questionnaire one student commented
that:
Madam, we sometimes wonder for some of the tutors, one can ask in a rush
if there is any of us with a problem to discuss, it is sometimes too quick, and
am sure some of us go back with unsolved problems, yah it makes face to
face partly ineffective (Student 1).
Corresponding to this student’s comment, the data in Table 3 also shows that a
sizable number of students reported that tutors were not reliable for consultation and
did not complete the module contents.
During intensive face to face, we do not teach the whole module of the
specific subject, in fact we don’t necessarily need to do that ….I expect
students to suggest difficulty areas they encountered in their reading
(Tutor_1)
The Open and Distance learners have the expectation of being taught each
and everything within the two or three weeks, this is difficult to achieve.
After all our role is to facilitate and not to spoon-feed them (Tutor_2)
The two extracts obtained in the interviews with tutors suggest that tutors expect
students to be proactive in identifying difficult areas for discussion and that teaching
and learning session during face to face is not for going through the module contents
one after another. This tutors’ view does not match the students’ perception about
the teaching role of the tutor during face to face. In their study titled “Blending
tradition face to face tutoring with internet based tutoring services, Mapfumo and
Mwenje (2013) noted constraints and benefits of ODL for students and tutors in
Zimbabwe. When students were asked about their perceptions on benefits derived
from face to face tutoring, among the 415 students who were involved in the study,
407(97%) students said they benefited from face to face with tutors. In their study
on prospects, challenges and way forward in regard to combining face to face and
Open and Distance learning at Zimbabwe Open University, Mpofu, Mafa and
Chimhenga (2013) found that in face to face tutorial students do interact, discuss
and debate or ask questions they had identified during their studies.
Individual tutoring practices of instructing students in open and distance learning
enrich printed-based learning through a variety of practical and interactive exercises
(Rouke, 2003 in Rosemary and Richard, 2013). The findings above show that face
to face tutoring facilitates an understanding of instructional materials (Fung and
Carr, 2010) by making sure difficults areas which most students came across - while
studying, are clarified. Moreover, Yuen (2010) points out that face to face tutoring
offers no cooperative activities beyond the classroom and also the face to face
111
tutoring does not provide extra resources that give a learner an extra competencies
and confidence (Bandalaria, 2007).
Students’ perception of intensive face to face on student-students interaction
and support for learning
The results in Table 4 indicate that, overall, students positively perceived attending
face to face sessions towards their academic progress in several ways.
Table 4: Students Perceptions of intensive face to face on the student-student
interaction and students learning
Perceptions Statement
Agree
Disagree
Total
(%)
(%)
(%)
Promotes collaboration among students
78.3
21.7
100
Students get a chance to help each
81.7
18.3
100
other in adopting new perspective in
learning
Students get a chance each other in
80.0
20.0
100
finding other sources of materials for
learning
I get help from my fellow students on
76.7
23.3
100
academic issues
I build the ability to learn with others
81.7
18.3
100
for better achievement in learning
I get network for cooperating with other
73.0
27.0
100
long distance learners
Teachers’ views were in agreement with students’ positive perception of face to face
as regards the academic benefits they get through the meetings, interactions and
discussions during face to face sessions.
During face to face students interact by making group discussions ... they
learn and make discussions usually in the evening hours after periods or
sometimes during evening time (Tutor 1).
However, apart from the positive views about face to face as regards student
academic support and other benefits - as explained above, follow up interviews with
students who had completed the questionnaire also showed that attending face to
face served as an opportunity for some students to seek and obtain psychosocial
support from their peers which in turn help them to proceed with their studies.
I am a woman, am a worker, as a woman, during face to face period, I meet
other fellow female students. …When we meet we don’t discuss only about
studies, we chat out problems that affect female students especially us with
families. So instead of running away from studies because of family and
academic pressure, talking to others helps, you can get some advice
(Student 3).
112
I like intensive face to face, it is a one way of exchanging views with others.
To me I find even changing the place for studying is useful and I can
concentrate. I also become encouraged when I meet other students (Student
4).
The two extracts above imply that some students perceive face to face as something
useful and positive for their studies because of the psychological and social benefits
or satisfactions which they get: such as seeking or getting advice from peers
including balancing academic and family life particularly for female students
(Student 3) and experiencing face to face providing conducive and motivating
environment in terms of social influence to concentrate on their studies.
Challenges of the intensive face to face from students’ perspectives
Findings from the student questionnaire and follow up interviews showed that the
majority of students (43%) faced challenges in terms of short time for their time
allocated for the f2f sessions. The students explained that the time allocated for the
face to face was not enough in accomplishing required tasks. The students’ concerns
about time were also reported by tutors as challenge for face to face sessions.
One tutor commented that:
Time for intensive face to face is so limited to cover all the main contents
and activities as expected...This is affected by financial problem from the
institution (Tutor 1).
Other challenges included shortage of print study materials, as reported by students
(35%) who participated in this study. In addition to that, 50% of tutors reported
that student use of the CDs in accessing material was also a challenge as most of
the students come from upcountry regions where the infrastructure for online service
- in terms of internet connection, is poor as well as lack of ICT skills.
Source: Field Data
113
Therefore, students are forced to rely on print materials as the major option.
Students incur expenses during face-to-face sessions such as travel and
accommodation expenses. This was reported by the students (22%) as a challenge.
Therefore, the students in the Diploma of Primary Teacher Education (DPTE)
progrmme perceive the face to face sessions as an advantage session to them where
more teaching and learning takes place; in this case they viewed the three weeks
arranged by the institution for f2f as not being enough to accomplish the intended
goals.
Furthermore, students reported shortage of time as a challenge (45%). This finding
align with that of Mapfumo and Mwenje (2013) from Zimbabwe Open University
in which students reported that the time allocated for face to face tutoring was not
enough to cover the module contents. In addition, a study done by Islam and Johan
(2009) in Bangladesh, found that tutors and learners opined that allocated time for
face to face tutoring was not sufficient to cover the syllabus. This imples that,
sometimes face to face sessions do not meet the students goals or objectives of the
study and hence interrupt the leaning of a distance learner.
CONCLUSION
While most of the existing studies - like that of Mpofu, Mafa and Chimhenga
(2013), and those of Howell et al. (2003), have reported benefits of face to face to
students in terms of academic satisfaction, the results of this study shows that
intensive face to face is not only perceived as being beneficial and resourceful to the
students in terms of academic but also in terms of providing psychosocial support
services. It implies that improving face to face should not only focus on academic
aspects, the psychosocial aspects that affect ODL students needs to be taken into
account for holistic face to face support services.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations should be taken into considerations for improving
education provision in Open and Distance Learning for the Open Universities
Programme and Diploma in Primary Teacher Education in Particular:
(i)
Each regional center to be equipped with computers and internet. Connection
and the tutors or departments should see the possibility to run parallel ICT
sessions during face to face on particular ICT skills particularly for centers
which cater for students in which majority come from upcountry areas.
(ii) Because the findings in this study has shown that students viewed face to face
positively because it benefits them academically and obtaining some
psychosocial support mainly from their peers, OUT counseling Unitcan provide
tutors with counseling skills that are relevant to providing support for their
ODL students during face to face sessions.
(iii) The course materials should be reviewed so as to meet the expectation and
needs of a learners.
114
Recommendations for future studies
(i)
The present study has indicated that to some extent the students positively
perceive face to face because of the support services and information they get
from their peers during face to face sessions. Therefore, a study on students’
perception and experiences of face to face in terms of support services as part
of the process of implementing face to face sessions is needed.
(ii) Because the present study has revealed some students’ dissatisfaction in
regard to strategies which tutors use to identify students’ problems and
approaches that teachers use to address the students’ academic difficulties,
therefore, a more in-depth study on the nature of study or learning difficulties
students face, the corresponding strategies that teachers use might of interest.
(iii) This study has also revealed a mismatch between students’ and tutors’
expectations in terms of the roles of the students and tutors’ during face to
face sessions in the context of ODL system. A follow up study would be
useful for accounting the nature of the disparities, the effects and possible
measures to rectify the problems emanating from the mismatch.
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Students’ Perception on the Quality of Open and
Distance Learning Programmes in Tanzania
Innocent Nasson Messo
Open University of Tanzania
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: A controversial topic in higher education today revolves around the
enormous growth of distance education. The issues surrounding quality of distance
education have been discussed and debated by many different parties. Regardless of
who is interested in this unique educational environment that distance education
establishes, “all stress the need to have a better understanding of what contributes
to quality” in distance education programmes. This study aimed at assessing the
quality of open and distance learning programmes from students’ point of view. The
sample was drawn from the Open University of Tanzania’s students in nine
University regional centres from Tanzania mainland and it constituted 305 students.
Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed, since there is no single
technique which is necessarily superior over the others. The factors assessed ranged
from registration procedures, accesses to course instructors, administrative
processes, course materials, instructional methods, clarity of syllabus, exam
processes and the like. The findings showed that about 71.5% students have a
positive perception on the overall quality of distance education in Tanzania. About
63.6% of participants were very likely to recommend open and distance learning to
others, while 34.8% were somewhat likely to do so. The major weaknesses found
were insufficiency of study material, internet services and academic staff in regional
centres. The study therefore concludes that quality of higher education via open and
distance learning is achieved by demonstrating that the quality of content, delivery,
assessment and outcomes in ODL institutions is equal to, or better than, the
traditional forms of education.
Key words: open, distance, learning, quality, programme, perception, learners
BACKGROUND
The term �perception’ refers to an idea, a belief or an image one has as a result of
how s/he sees or understands something. Perception is the way people sense and
interpret the world around them (Arnould et al., 2002). Moreover, Arnould et al.
(2002) explain that perceptions are results from acquisition, consumption and
disposal of goods. While Kolesar and Galbraith (2000) suggest that perceptions are
a consumer’s opinions and attitudes towards any products after purchasing them.
Distance education means an educational approach in which there is a quasi
separation of the learner and the teacher in time and space (Keegan, 1996). In
distance education, the instructor and the instructional strategy/ methods are
subsumed into the learning material (popularly referred to as Study Materials), that
have been designed as a self-directed learning guide for the student. The term �Open
Learning,’ on the other hand, refers to the philosophical construct that seeks to
remove barriers and constraints that may prevent learners from accessing and
117
succeeding in quality, lifelong education. Open and distance learning (ODL) as an
educational method and a philosophic construct has been identified as the most
potent instrument for combating the educational problems assailing a nation like
Tanzania.
A controversial topic in higher education today revolves around the enormous
growth of distance education (Novak, 2002; Meyer, 2002). According to Mehrotra
et al. (2001), ODL is not a future possibility for which higher education must
prepare, rather, it is a current reality creating opportunities and challenges for
educational institutions; a reality offering students expanded choices in where,
when, how, and from whom they learn; a reality making education accessible to
ever larger numbers of persons.
According to Sherry (2003), translating ideals of academic excellence into
applicable terms for providers and users of distance education is not an easy
task…[however] in this new century, with distance education expanding worldwide,
the urgency of quality assurance is apparent. The issues surrounding quality of
distance education have been discussed and debated by many different parties.
Regardless of who is interested in quality of this unique educational environment
that distance education establishes, “all stress the need to have what contributes to
quality” in distance education courses and programs (Meyer, 2002). The concept of
quality is not new: it has always been part of the academic tradition. It is the outside
world that now emphasizes the need for attention to quality. It is the relationship
between higher education and society which has changed (Vroeijenstijn, 1995).
Despite the rapid growth in the popularity of distance learning, the quality of higher
learning via open and distance education has been called to question (Dede, 1996;
Harrison, 2001; as cited in Peat & Helland, 2002), leading to ODL quality confusion
to some stakeholders.
OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING IN TANZANIA
Distance education is a developing field in Tanzania and is emerging as a significant
component of life-long and training. This is evidenced in the number of distance
education programmes currently operating ranging from secondary education,
teacher training, and vocational education to higher education. There has been an
increase in access to the internet and to computers over the past few years, and this
is reflected in growing use of e-mail as a communication technology. There is still
minimal use of information and communication technologies to support
management and administration of distance education in Tanzania (Bhalalusesa,
n.d).
While the benefits of ODL can be evaluated by technical, social, and economic
criteria, distance learning methods also have their pedagogical merit, which leads
students to a different way of conceiving knowledge generation and acquisition.
Different people perceive the advantages of ODL differently, and their perceptions
have influenced attitudes towards acceptance and use of ODL in the education
system in Tanzania and other countries. There remain concerns, however, about the
118
effectiveness of distance education for learners who may be considered less
independent and thus may require direct interaction throughout the instructional
process (Schmidt and Faulkner, 1989).
Adverse research works in distance education in response to students experiences of
learning at a distance and the challenges of learning within this mode of delivery in
Tanzania are well documented [for example, Mwinyichande (1997), Kilato (1997),
Bhalalusesa (1998), Mcharazo (1998.), Sigalla (1999), Bhalalusesa et al. (2000), and
Kakili (2001)] as cited in Bhalalusesa (n.d)]. Yet, there is paucity of studies that
have systematically studied the perception of ODL programmes in Tanzania, and
this study availed such a unique opportunity to explore the phenomenon in a
developing country’s context.
METHODS
Study Design
The principal design of this study was cross-section survey. This design was
appropriate for this study because it allows group comparison in terms of beliefs,
attitudes, opinions or practices (Creswell, 2005). The design also has the advantage
of providing information in a short period of time. Both qualitative and quantitative
methods were used in gathering, managing, processing, and analysing the
information.
Study Area
The study was conducted in nine regional centres of the Open University of
Tanzania-mainland. OUT was thought to provide a wide range of participants (OUT
students) due to its coverage all over the country. Specifically, the sample was
drawn from Temeke, Ilala, Kinondoni, Arusha, Mwanza, Korogwe, Mbeye, Kyela
and Katavi.
Sample and Sampling Techniques
Based on the specific objectives of the study, simple random sampling was
employed to get the study centres and study participants. The use of random
sampling technique was meant to make the sample more close to represent the
population. However, purposeful sampling technique was used to capture
participants for qualitative information. The sample of 305 participants was picked
from all the programmes offered by OUT. To achieve a more realistic picture of
how students perceive the quality of open and distance learning, it was important to
question students who have participated in both traditional and distance education. It
was fortunate that almost all OUT students have experienced the traditional
education system.
Data Collecting Tools
A questionnaire was used in collecting quantitative information (data) while the
qualitative ones were collected through interview. Interviewing is a popular way of
gathering qualitative research data because it is perceived as "talking," and talking is
natural (Stake, 1995). Interviews allow participants to provide rich, contextual
descriptions of events. However, questionnaires are thought to be appropriate
119
method of collecting quantitative data, as Best and Kahn (2006) argue that
questionnaire is used when factual information or opinions rather than facts are
desired.
Procedures
This study was conducted in June-July 2012 when students were sitting for their
annual examinations. Data were collected by OUT academic staff who went for
examinations invigilation to different centers country wide.
Data Management and Analysis
Data from questionnaires were explored and carefully inspected to know general
features of data, check for errors and get assured that the data are correct. Then, data
were analysed using the IBM-Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version
19). Descriptive statistics: mean, frequencies, and percentages were calculated and
presented in tables, figures and other statistical presentations.
Thematic analysis was employed for data from interviews whereby both dominant
and alternative views were considered by determining which views reflect the
majority opinion and those which were expressed by one or several participants.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Participants’ Characteristics
The nature of open and distance learning implies a variety of learners with different
demographic characteristics. As the current study was conducted in different parts
of the country, it was anticipated that participants would have different
characteristics also (see Table 1).
Out of 305 participants about 191 (62.6%) were men. A good number of participants
were at middle adulthood (31-40 years for men (48.2%), and 21-30 years for women
(47.4%)), while at late adulthood (51+ years) there were 18 participants (5.9%) 17
men and only one woman.
These findings reflect that women are joining ODL programmes at their early ages
than men. Most of the surveyed participants were enrolled in bachelor degree
programmes (77%), followed by post graduate degrees (15.7%) whereas diploma
programmes had the minimal representation (1.3%). Of all participants, about
64.6% were married (138 men and 59 women), and 55.1% were government
employees. High percentage of employees portrays that the demand for flexible
continuing education is growing, as working people require updating and upgrading
of their knowledge and skills required in the global economy.
According to Komba (2009) the fact that distance education is highly subsidized by
the government provides a good opportunity for people who could not otherwise
acquire the education they long for. This applies particularly to women and other
marginalized groups. It was interesting that four of the studied participants (1.3%)
were pastors and priests, while mere students constituted 15.7%.
120
Table 1: Participants Characteristics
Males Females
Category
N
%
Age
21-30
42
22
31-40
92
48.2
41-50
40
20.9
51+
17
8.9
191
100
Year of
first
58
30.4
Study
second
43
22.5
third
15
7.9
fourth
75
39.3
191
100
Study
certificate
4
2.1
Programme
diploma
4
2.1
bachelor
170
89
post
13
6.8
graduate
191
100
Marital
single
49
25.7
Status
married
138
72.3
divorced
4
2.1
191
100
Occupation
student
27
14.1
Gvt
108
56.5
employee
Self
52
27.2
employed
pastors
4
2.1
191
100
N
54
32
27
1
114
35
%
47.4
28.1
23.7
0.9
100
30.7
N
96
124
67
18
305
93
%
31.5
40.7
22.0
5.9
100
30.5
40
16
23
114
14
35.1
14
20.2
100
12.3
83
31
98
305
18
27.2
10.2
32.1
100
5.9
0
65
35
0
57
30.7
4
235
48
1.3
77.0
15.7
114
49
100
43
305
98
100
32.1
59
6
114
21
60
51.8
5.3
100
18.4
52.6
197
10
305
48
168
64.6
3.3
100
15.7
55.1
33
28.9
85
27.9
0
114
0
100
4
305
1.3
100
Factors for Joining ODL Programmes
The study was interested to know the participants’ reasons behind enrolling into
ODL programmes. They were exposed to three options, whether their decisions to
join ODL institution were due to time constraints, schedules or flexibility of the
mode of delivery. About 63.6% of the participants joined different ODL
programmes due to the flexibility of the delivery mode which builds on self study,
as Figure 1 shows.
121
Figure 1: Factors for Enrolling to ODL Programmes
Self study being a major reason for many learners to join ODL programmes concurs
with a number of other previous studies. Komba (2009) asserts that through distance
education the learner enjoys a high degree of autonomy in deciding what, when and
how to learn. Vansteenkiste (2004) links autonomy in ODL with Self-Determination
Theory.
According to Vansteenkiste, this might be the most immediately applicable theory
to distance learners, as it emphasises the role of �Autonomous Study Motivation’.
The word �autonomy’ in this study implies that learners’ motivation depends on
them having some freedom about their study behaviour. This freedom is promoted
by choice, participation in the processes of learning and recognition of the learners;
feelings, both positive and negative. The Autonomous Study Motivation is
contradicted by deadlines, surveillance, guilt-invoking diktats and ignoring the
learners’ negative emotions.
Key Elements in Open and Distance Learning
Open and distance learning programmes were studied by investigating different
aspects, ranging from registration procedures, quality of course materials,
instructional methods, support materials and the like. Figure 2 provides a summary
of the items that were studied and their scores.
122
Figure 2: Elements of ODL programmes
Registration procedures: The first item was on the registration procedures, since
this is the first step for any learner to get into any academic system. About 92.2%
participants were comfortable with the initial procedures of getting into ODL
programmes. The procedures involved filling in and returning application forms,
course as well as examinations registrations, as one participant from Mbeya
Regional Center said:
�Nowadays the system is very simplified because we register for both
course and examinations wherever we are. Everything is done on-line, no
need for travelling several kilometers to the center for registration purposes.
Formerly we encountered several problems including filling in registration
forms now and then because they were often got lost on the way to head
quarters’.
Access to and interaction with instructors: According to Keegan (1986) and
Holmberg (1995), communication is a fundamental element of distance education,
on the grounds that the students study away from their tutor and the educational
organization. Easy access to course instructors was reported by 71.2% of
participants and 52.2% for quality of interaction with instrucutors. However,
insufficient academic staff at regional centres was also equally reported:
�You know what? It is understood that our University covers a large area
geographically, but this does not imply other places to be forgotten. The
number of academic staff is not enough at my center, and this has a very big
implication in academics’,
said one participant from Korogwe examinations centre.
The role of the distance learning instructor is ambiguous and often ill defined
(Easton, 2003). Even worse, a popular myth associated with distance learning
123
courses is that instructors are not needed at all. Research has put this myth to rest.
For example, Zirkin and Sumler (1995) examined the effects of interactivity and
learning. Their research concluded that, there is a positive relationship between the
level of course interactivity and student learning and satisfaction. The weight of
evidence from the research reviewed was that increased student involvement by
immediate interaction resulted in increased learning as reflected by test
performance, grades, and student satisfaction. In addition, the International Distance
Education Certification Center (2001) suggests that instructors provide an important
and necessary role in engaging students and providing important interactive learning
experiences.
It is portrayed that the primary reason for having tutors at centres is to provide
students with individualized academic support in their courses (Gibbs and
Durbridge, 1976). Holmberg (1989) also argues that the primary purpose of tutorials
is to provide academic and counseling services that enable the students to solve the
problems which they encounter in the course of their independent study. Stone
(1992) examines the connection between tutor contact and locus of control with
course completion rates for students enrolled in print-based, distance training
courses. However, Stone did find that students with relatively external loci of
control completed their coursework at significantly faster rates when exposed to
regular telephone cues from their tutors.
Quality and quantity of study materials: study materials appear as published text
books, compendia and course outlines. According to Mushi (1998) these materials
are normally produced by OUT; others are acquired from other universities such as
Nairobi University, Abuja University, Makerere University, the Open University of
the United Kingdom (UKOU) and Indira Ghandhi National Open University
(IGNOU). Students are provided with study materials in their registered courses
tofacilitate interactive learning. About 73.2% of participants acknowledged that the
study materials are of good quality; insufficient study materials were also reported.
However, they suggested that course materials should reach them in time and should
be made more elaborate and interesting.
�Of course the materials are good, though there are minor mistakes. We
understand that the writers are human beings, not angels so mistakes are
common to humans. The only thing I would like to share is that the
available materials, whether in hard or soft copies should reach us as soon
as we register for courses. Delaying causes a lot of inconveniences, and
interferes our preparations for exams’,
said one participant from Katavi Regional Centre.
Koul (1987) conducted a study in India and discovered that lack of sufficient course
materials was the major perceived problem that caused the withdrawal of students
from distance teacher-training programs. The same situation was found in Malawi
where the lack of financial clout in ODL initiatives has impinged upon the
availability of library resources. Furthermore, the service centres do not have
adequate book resources to satisfy demand. Most of them are under-resourced and
possess a large of quantity of old and out-dated editions.
124
One of the fundamental principles of distance education is the provision of
opportunity for students to study according to their own learning pace or speed
(Keegan, 1995). For this reason, a distance education system presupposes that every
student receives all the course materials at the beginning of the program so that
she/he can design his/her own study timetable in the light of the overall schedule of
the program. In general, the inconsistencies regarding the delivery of modules and
the arrival of part of the modules very close to the dates fixed for final examination
seems to have a negative impact upon learners’ confidence and their performance in
the overall.
Further investigations in this study have uncovered discrepancies between the
number of students registered for courses and the total number of course modules
received in the centers. In relation to this, some participants reported that students
did not receive some of the modules at all and this meant that a significant number
of them were forced to share some of the modules with other students. In a distance
education system where print medium is employed as the sole means of content
delivery, students should receive the learning materials long before the dates fixed
for tutorial programs. The intention here is to give students a reasonably sufficient
amount of time to study the materials independently, work on the assignment
questions and areas of difficulty before the actual date of the tutorial session.
In analyzing the perceptions of distance students of Andhra Pradesh Open
University (APOU), Ashalatha (1990) found that course materials and counseling
sessions were highly useful to the students.
Instructional methods: More often than not, perceptions of the open and distance
learning system in the instructional process is influenced by an individual’s beliefs
about the advantages of distance education, for him or herself (Russell, 2002). The
quality of instructional methods was moderately ranked (44.5%) in the current
study. This could be partly due to the recency of ODL delivery modes in Tanzania
as a large part of the community is used to conventional delivery methods. In order
to minimize the dominance of traditional delivery modes in the minds of the people,
Komba (2009) urges ODL institutions in Africa to build upon existing quality
assurance mechanisms in order to ensure the quality of ODL programmes and
establish network with institutions with similar interests. As education institutions in
Africa start using ICT nationally and across borders, it is important to establish links
with trustworthy quality assurance and accreditation agencies for the programmes so
that such programmes are recognized as being trustworthy and educationally
valuable.
Suzanne and Larry (1999) analyzed students’ perceptions of instructions and
instructional methods impact in terms of students’ satisfaction with the delivery at
the Pennsylvania State University. The study has shown that didactic conversation
with the instructor contributed significantly to the satisfaction of students.
Keegan (1986) and Holmberg (1995) note that the medium of communication plays
a critical role in linking the students with their instructor, providing for a two-way
communication which is considered essential for the teaching and learning medium.
125
The researcher in the current study inquired the most used instructional means of
communication between learners and instructors, as Figure 3 shows.
Figure 3: Communication between Learners and Instructors
Participants reported phones, e-mails, and face to face meetings being the
dominating means of maintaining contacts between the two sides. Due to the
advancement of modern technology, it is undeniable that phones (mobile phones)
were found to be the leading way of communication between learners and
instructors (81%). One participant from Mwanza Regional Centre added that…
�since the invention of mobile phones the life has been so easy. We don’t need to
meet our instructiros face to face when the situation does not allow. We just call
them and ask whatever questions we have’. The use of e-mails is challenging to
many participants; it is the fact that internet services are still limited to some areas
of the country. Limited internet services was the reason for the second means of
communication to be face to face meeting (63.8%).
However, use of ICT for communication in ODL institutions is very important,
though Gearhart (2001) hints on ethical issues. Gearhart suggests that the increasing
use of information technology in distance education may actually enhance unethical
behaviours because of the effects of “psychological distance,” when acts are carried
out at a distance they feel less personal because the person acted on cannot be heard
or seen in the exchange. For example, what are the ethical issues in ensuring that
assessment is fair to all interested parties (learners, and society) as a whole?
According to the findings of this study, communication with the tutor is important
for students, since they often feel the need to contact their tutor in order to guide
them in relation to the course material. The importance of quality tutor-learner
communication is underlined in several studies. Insisting on the use of ICT for
communication, Schellens and Vackle (2006) contend that the expanded use of new
126
tools related to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) facilitates
communication, cooperation and dialogue among participants in distance learning
courses, generating an increased research interest concerning collaborative learning
environments. Great significance is attributed to the role of communication within
the frame of distance education (Richardson and Swan, 2003; Jones and Issroff,
2005).
Clarity of syllabi/curriculum and course objectives: syllabi/curriculum design is no
exception to any educational institution. About 81.4% of participants in this study
reported that the course syllabi/curricula were found clear. Cummins and Sayers
(1996) insist that the design of a distance learning curriculum needs to be sensitive
and relevant to cross-national cultural experiences. The needs, the experiences and
the context of the people the curriculum is intended to serve must also be taken into
account. Dodds and Edirishingha (2000) alert us to the diverse nature of the
audience for distance education, which includes people of all ages, from young
children to ageing adults. Curriculum designers must bear in mind that the
curriculum needs to be flexible enough to accommodate the needs and experiences
of a range of people, including urban and rural dwellers; the employed, selfemployed and unemployed; learners who have the language of instruction as a first
or as another language, and other sub-groups.
However, Ramsden (1992) argues that curriculum designers need to be cognisant of
environmental constraints such as lack of infrastructure, poor access to ICTs, the
existence of multilingual and multi-cultural communities, and the absence in many
communities of a culture of reading and of learning independently.
Likewise, a good number of participants (90.1%) were confident with the clarity of
course objectives. The definition and use of the term learning objective have
become less and less precise in recent years. The term is often used interchangeably
(but loosely) with the term �learning outcomes (Harry, 1999). For the purposes of
this study learning outcomes are synonymous with learning objectives. According to
Mager (1962) an objective is an intent communicated by a statement describing a
proposed change in a learner – a statement of what the learner is to be like when he
has successfully completed a learning experience.
Examinations processes: Examinations are crucial because university study ends up
with an output, the credential. It is imperative that this credential be a result of
evaluative mechanisms that are worth their salt, that seek to objectively establish
whether or not a student has obtained the necessary knowledge and/or skill in a
subject to warrant certification and graduation (Ramsden, 1992). Clarity of
examination processes was reported by 92.2% of participants, as one from Temeke
regional centre had the following to say:, �when I joined The Open University of
Tanzania three years ago, I was told that exams here are always leaking and people
could get all papers. But things are quiet different, this is my third year and have
never seen any, even a fake paper’. The processes asked were exams registration,
invigilation and satisfaction of results. This is in accordance with the assertion made
by Lawi and Said (n.d) in their study of Examination Security in Universities in
Tanzania. According to them examination management at OUT is centrally
127
coordinated by the Directorate of Examinations Syndicate (DES) where more than
800 courses are assessed each year. Examinations handling is highly controlled and
protected by both polie and security officers. Lawi and Said add that this system is
one of the recent best systems in the country, as it is modeled to the Examination
Council of Tanzania (NECTA).
Figure 4: Examination Management Process
Source: Compiled from data obtained from Directorate of Examinations
Syndicate (DES), OUT, 2013
Online exam registration
STUDE
NTS
Sit for examinations
Timetable preparations
Printing and parking question papers
DES
Disseminating exams to centres (staff, police &
security officers)
Uploading marks and releasing results
Preparing exam questions (instructors)
ACADE
MIC
STAFF
Internal & external moderation of questions
(depart level)
Invigilating exams (staff, police & security
officers)
Collect worked scripts to DES (staff, police &
security officers)
Network resources and technical support: ODL experience indicates clearly that in
order to deal effectively with large numbers of students coming from a rich variety
of backgrounds, it is crucially important to back the teaching/learning processes
with efficient delivery and support systems (Guri-Rosenblit, n.d). The access to
128
network resources and technical support were moderately reported (61.7% and
69.2%). Good distance learning courses result from institutions that provide quality
learner support systems via effective communication for students and instructors.
Corry (2008) suggests support systems can be divided into three different areas.
Academic support, administrative support, and technical support. Academic support
involves instructors providing substantive engagement and feedback for course
activities. Administrative support involves things such as financial aid, advising,
registrar services etc. For schools using technical systems to deliver education, it is
not a matter of whether a student will have problems; it is a matter of when they will
have problems.
Generally, the study found that about 71.5% of participants ranked the overall
quality of ODL programmes in Tanzania as of high quality, and 63.6% participants
said they were very likely to recommend others to join ODL programmes while
34.8% were somewhat likely to do so. For the purposes of this study, high quality
equates to courses that receive high scores on student satisfaction surveys and other
benchmarks that measure student performance. Quality is a perception, which must
be verified. Indeed, it is easy to talk about quality, but it is much harder to put words
into action (Brennan and Shah, 2000). The findings on the high quality of open and
distance programmes are also supported by Manohar et al. (1995) who studied
learners’ perception of management programmes of distance education institutions.
A majority of students opined that the main advantage of joining the programme
was to improve qualifications followed by enhancing professional opportunities.
Gagne and Shephered (2001) study found little difference in the quality of education
received through distance learning versus conventional classroom settings. It is
explained that students taking distance learning courses perform as well as students
taking courses via traditional methods.
CONCLUSIONS
Despite the splendid role and increased popularity of the open and distance learning,
the quality of higher education via open and distance learning has been called to
question. Different people perceive the advantages of ODL differently and their
perceptions have influenced attitudes towards the acceptance and use of ODL in the
system in Tanzania and elsewhere. Out of the various problems facing distance
education today, a very important one is how it is perceived by the individuals
involved in it. This is because the success of the open and distance education system
could be affected by how it’s viewed by the individuals involved in it.
One of the important determinants of the success of distance education programs is
the perception of tutors, coordinators, learners, office staff and others towards
quality of support services. This study assessed the perceptions of learners towards
the quality ODL programmes provided by the Open University of Tanzania. The
study witnessed that the selected learners had positive perception of the registration
procedures, quality of course materials, access to instructors, clarity of syllabi and
course objectives. However, some of them made serious complaints about the
sufficiency and timely delivery of the study materials supplied to them. The
129
participants also expressed dissatisfaction over the quality of instructional methods,
the quality of interaction with instructors, number of staff in the centres and access
to internet services. The study therefore concludes that quality of higher education
via open and distance learning is achieved by demonstrating that the quality of
content, delivery, assessment and outcomes in ODL institutions is equal to, or better
than, the traditional forms of education.
Recommendations
The following are recommended in the light of the findings obtained as a result of
this study:
(i) The development and timely delivery of quality study materials to learners
should be ensured. There should also be a constant review of curricula and
study materials to meet the expectations and needs of learners and the market
accordingly.
(ii) OUT should make the provision of library and internet facilities so that
instructors and learners can avail the facilities (though few centres have
libraries).
(iii) There should be improved way of communication between the institution and
learners to avoid delay of important information. Use of students’ cell phone
numbers is favoured over students’ mails.
(iv) There should be one or two representatives of each faculty and institute in all
regional centres so that learners can get the right information from the right
personnel. At least there are some commonalities among faculties, but where
there is no staff from institutes, the Institute of Continuing Studies for example,
learners do not get the right information particularly during orientation and face
to face sessions.
(v) Face to face sessions should be increased focusing solely on academics with
few administrative issues.
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Building Competitive Advantage in Academic
Programmes in Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
Institutions: Case of The Open University of Tanzania
132
Deus D. Ngaruko15, Leonard L.W.T Fweja16, Fauzia M. Mohammed17
The Open University of Tanzania
Abstract: The determinants that affect competitiveness of ODL Higher Learning
Institutions (ODL-HLI) can loosely be lumped up as being either from within the
organization itself, or from the market. These include: student enrollment trends,
staff development, academic trends, technology trends and economic trends among
others. These challenges can be viewed and used as a way of planning ahead; and
as important pointers in assessing the institution’s performance. The determinants
should highlight where the institution is doing well and needs to guard its market
competitive advantage as well as indicate where there are weaknesses that need to
be addressed in order to gain a competitive advantage of the higher education
market. In order to maintain its market position, the paper presses greater
importance on investments in ICT enhanced education delivery and sharing systems,
improved customer service and greater publicity on all media and in particular
through improved visibility and quality of the institution’s website. The paper
however, suggests that greatest competitive advantage for ODL-HLIs such as
OUT’s is hidden in its postgraduate programmes. The paper stresses that improved
quality and completion rates of research and postgraduate students in business, law,
economics, and education and applied natural sciences should become new market
niche for ODL-HLIs.
Key words: competitive advantage, academic programmes, ODL institutions
INTRODUCTION
Since its inception, about two decades ago, The Open University of Tanzania- has to
a large extent, managed to meet its core objective of its establishment - that is, to
provide affordable higher education to as many qualified individuals all over the
country and beyond borders, through Open and Distance Mode of study and
delivery. During same period the OUT has been in existence, many private (forprofit) higher leaning institutions have also drastically increased and many more are
being registered. Irrespective of many structural differences in terms of
organisational structure, infrastructural differences, delivery mode and profile of
potential students, OUT has offered almost all programmes that one would find in
other non ODL institutions. It is high time now that OUT reflects on how it is
fairing in offering quality, affordable and sustainable education in the rather more
fragile and fragmented mix of public (non profit) and private (for profit) institutions.
This paper tries to highlight some hints on how OUT can do (and can’t do) to build
15
Corresponding author: Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences-The Open University of Tanzania:
[email protected], [email protected]
16
Faculty of Science, Technology and Environmental Studies-The Open University of Tanzania:
[email protected]
17
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences-The Open University of Tanzania: [email protected]
133
competitive advantage in its academic programmes. We did this through
documentary reviews - and where necessary, through informal interviews with key
stakeholders to complement the documentary reviews. We applied both thematic
and systematic content analysis of documents we came across. We, however, do
confess that our own experiences as OUT academic staff have played a significant
role in some arguments posed in the discussions of the thematic issues presented in
this paper. The paper is divided into five main parts. We begin with the introduction
in section one followed by the literature review on the concept of competitive
advantage as used in market economies in section two. Section three outlines the
profile of the providers and users of higher education in Tanzania. The potential
determinants of OUT’s competitiveness is covered in section four. We finally
conclude our paper with an outline of some recommendations in section five.
THE CONCEPT OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
Theoretical meaning from the economics and business schools
What exactly is competitive advantage? And how, if at all, does it relate to and
interact with comparative advantage18? One possible answer is that it is something
to do with more competitive markets: lower barriers to entry or simply a large
number of firms may give an industry an advantage in competing with foreign
rivals. A different answer is that competitive advantage is just a synonym for
absolute advantage: some natural or policy-induced superiority (such as lower taxes
or greater labour market flexibility) which reduces in-house operational costs for all
functions. A different approach to understanding competitive advantage exemplified by Porter (1990), is to use a case-study evidence to identify the factors
which encourage a nation’s firms to achieve high world market shares in their
industries. Following Porter’s development of the concept of competitive advantage,
voluminous literature has mushroomed on the subject. The interested reader is
referred to Hoffman (2000) and references cited therein for an excellent survey of
developments on competitive advantage. However, there is no unanimity on the
meaning and/or the sources of competitive advantage. Porter (1985) emphasizes
competitiveness at the level of a firm in terms of competitive strategies such as low
cost and/or product differentiation. However, his description of competitiveness do
not entail a formal conceptual definition. As noted by Cho (1998), “Despite all
discussions on competitiveness however, no clear definition or model has yet been
developed. There is even ongoing debate about the “entity” of competitiveness.”
Hoffman (2000) developed a definition of sustainable competitive advantage (SCA)
based on Barney (1991) together with dictionary meanings of each term as “An
SCA is a prolonged benefit of implementing some unique value-creating strategy
18
In economics, the principle of comparative advantage refers to the ability of a party (an individual,
a firm, or a country) to produce a particular good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another
party. It is the ability to produce a product most efficiently given all the other products that could be
produced. It can be contrasted with absolute advantage which refers to the ability of a party to
produce a particular good at a lower absolute cost than another. Comparative advantage explains how
trade can create value for both parties even when one can produce all goods with fewer resources than
the other. The net benefits of such an outcome are called gains from trade. It is the main concept of the
pure theory of international trade.
134
not simultaneously implemented by any current or potential competitors along with
the inability to duplicate the benefits of this strategy.” Obviously, this definition
emphasizes competitive advantage of a firm based on firm-specific factors and thus
ignores macro aspects of comparative advantage.
A number of writers on competitive advantage have focused on the
determinants/sources of competitive advantage such as important attributes of the
firm: rareness, value, inability to be imitated, and inability to be substituted (Barney,
1991); important potential resources classified as financial, physical, legal, human,
organizational, informational, and rational (Hunt and Morgan, 1995); ability in
developing superior core competencies in combining their skills and resources
(Prahalad and Hamel, 1990); a set of dynamic capabilities—capabilities of
possessing and allocating and upgrading distinctive resources (Luo, 2000). A
number of studies have also analysed the role of individual factors such as
intellectual property rights, trade secrets, data bases, the culture of organization, etc.
(Hall, 1993), corporate reputation (Ljubojevic, 2003), diversity in workplace
(Lattimer, 2003) and corporate philanthropy (Porter and Kramer, 2002). The central
focus of these contributions is still on firm-specific factors of competitive
advantage.
Companies gain advantage against the world’s best competitors because of pressure
and challenge in such aspects like having strong domestic rivals, aggressive homebased suppliers, and demanding local customers.” (Porter, 1990a). Innovation in
every sphere of a firm’s activities plays the central role in awarding competitive
advantage to a firm and therefore the industry.
Factor conditions do not refer to the conventional pool of resources, such as land,
labour, capital, raw materials, but rather those “created” and continually upgraded
such as highly specialized skilled labour, and world-class scientific institutions most
suited to the industry’s needs. The demand conditions refer to, not the size, but the
character of home market demand- the sophisticated and demanding buyers who can
signal the future pattern of demand and can pressure the companies to innovate
faster compared to competitors elsewhere. Related and supporting industries that are
internationally competitive, and in particular, actively engaged in innovation and
upgrading are more promising in creating competitive advantage rather than the
mere existence of raw material and/or component producing industries. Firm
strategies, structure and rivalry refer to managerial, organizational as well as the
existence of competitive forces/challenges from other firms within the industry.
The past decade or so has witnessed a revitalization of distance education as the
world of academia. Some institutions have established and many more institutions
in Tanzania are currently planning to establish distance learning programmes and
online degrees within the next few years. The OUT’s competitive advantage of its
academic programmes will rely heavily on the institution-specific factors such as
“created” factors, “created” demand for the products, and internal economies
achieved through innovation. In the next section we review the profile of higher
learning institutions and assess the position of OUT’s competitive advantage in
offering higher education in Tanzania.
135
The Sustainability of Competitive Advantage
Sustainable competitive advantage creates flexibility and alternatives in the sources
and means of production. How does one gain and maintain sustainable competitive
advantages?
a) Maintain systems that monitor the environment for change
The number one factor associated with the loss of competitive advantage is change
in the forms of:
· Competitor-induced change—e.g. new products and technologies
· Environment-induced change—e.g. demographic changes or random events
В· Evolutionary vs spontaneous erosion of competitive advantage.
Which Market? Which Segemnet?
What Is Value to Customer?
Key Competences Required to Deliver Value at
Low Cost?
Re-Think
Target
Market
Institution’s Core Competences
NOT OK
NO
OK
Can Gap Be Closed
YES
International Development
Partnership with other institutions
Acquisition of Greenfield/other institutions
Figure 1 Deriving A University’s Competitive Advantage
Source: Adapted from Devinney (1997)
b) Develop internal systems that adapt to change quickly and effectively
Management is generally adverse to change and most management systems reward
consistency. This tends to lead to the slow erosion of competitive advantage. This
requires the development of an internal reward structure that values new ideas and
rewards experimentation (whether it succeeds or fails)
136
c) Work at protecting, expanding, and building upon the unique assets and
strengths of the university
This requires using the environmental monitors to look for opportunities to expand
the institution’s expertise or bring new expertise into the institution.
d) Creating and Sustaining Advantage Using Customer Value by Creating the Gap
between you and your competitors by clarifying target customers, knowing what
target customers value, delivering the value efficiently. Figure 1 illustrates how the
university can derive a sustainable position of its market competitive advantage.
THE PROFILE OF HIGHER LEARNING INSTITUTIONS IN TANZANIA
Growth trend
The education system in Tanzania has grown from only one institution of higher
education (The University of DSM, by then The University College of Tanganyika)
in 1961 to about 30 universities by December 2006, composed of 11 public
universities and university colleges and 19 private universities and university
colleges (Msolla, n.d.). The growing number of higher learning institutions reflects
increasing demands for personnel with higher education background from both the
public and private sectors. By 1990 when the then Ministry of Science, Technology
and Higher Education was established there were only two public Universities, the
University of DSM with Muhimbili University College of Health Sciences as its
constituent College and the Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoro, and
there was no private higher learning institution, however the situation changed by
December 2006, universities totaling to 30 (Msolla, n.d.). Table 1 summarizes the
universities currently registered in the country, their ownership and their current
registration status. Other higher learning institutions are registered and accredited
under the Nation Council for Technical Education (NACTE), however for the sake
of the present paper only universities have been sampled.
Enrolment trend in public and private universities
The then Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MSTHE)
published the National Science and Technology Policy for Tanzania in 1996. The
formulation of the national policy on science and technology rose out of the
recognition that the country needed a suitable policy instrument to guide it in
sourcing and applying new technologies and creating endogenous technological
capacity. The ministry’s vision is to transform Tanzania into a competitive,
knowledgeable, scientific and technologically anchored society among the
community of Nations (Madikizela, n.d.). Therefore many of the higher education
institutions in the country in general, have been established in the wake of the
implementation of the MSTHE policy to meet the rising market demand for higher
education. This is demonstrated by the rise in enrollment from 23,126 in 2002/2003
to 49,967 in 2006/2007 (Tables 2 and 3).
Although there is great demand among students for places to pursue higher
education, the mushrooming of higher education institutions means that there are
many options from which students can choose to study. Hence, there is keen
competition for the student market, bearing in mind that competitors come in many
different types and forms, including public and private higher institutions of
137
learning. From the government’s standpoint, the purpose of private institutions is to
complement and supplement its efforts to provide higher education.
Table 1: Shows TCU registered Universities, their ownership and current registration
status
S/N
Name of Institution
1.
University of DSM(UDSM)
2.
Sokoine University of
Agriculture (SUA)
Open University of Tanzania
(OUT)
Hubert Kairuki Memorial
University (HKMU)
Tumaini University (TU)
Muhimbili University of Health
and Allied Sciences (MUHAS)
3.
4.
5.
6.
Location
Owners
hip
Status
DSM, Mlimani
Campus
Public
Accredited and
Chartered
Accredited and
Chartered
Accredited and
Chartered
Morogoro
Public
DSM (with centres
in all regions)
Public
Mikocheni, DSM
Private
Accredited
Moshi, Municipal
Private
Upanga, DSM
Public
Accredited
Accredited and
Chartered
Accredited and
Chartered
Full Registration and
Chartered
7.
Ardhi University (ARU)
DSM, Survey Area
Public
8.
University of Dodoma
Dodoma
Public
9.
Saint John's University of
Tanzania
Stefano Moshi Memorial
University
Saint Augustine University of
Tanzania (SAUT)
Mzumbe University (MU)
State University of Zanzibar
(SUZA)
International Medical and
Technological University
(IMTU)
Zanzibar University (ZU)
Aga Khan University- Tanzania
Institute of Higher Education
(AKU-TIHE)
Mount Meru University
(MMU)
University of Arusha(UoA)
Muslim University of Morogoro
(MUM)
Teofilo Kisanji University
(TEKU)
Dodoma
Private
Full Registration
Moshi, Kilimanjaro
Private
Full Registration
Nyegezi, Mwanza
Private
Accredited
Mzumbe, Morogoro
Mnazi Mmoja,
Zanzibar
Public
Full Registration
Public
Full Registration
Mbezi Beach, DSM
Private
Full Registration
Tunguu, Zanzibar
Private
Full Registration
Upanga, DSM
Private
Full Registration
Ngaramtoni, Arusha
Private
Full Registration
Usa River, Arusha
Private
Full Registration
Msamvu, Morogoro
Private
Full Registration
Mwanjelwa, Mbeya
Private
Full Registration
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Source: http://www.tcu.go.tz/statistics.html
However, this purpose can only be meaningfully realized if all of the established
higher learning institutions can compete well, survive and ultimately prosper. It is
from this point of view, that OUT as one of the higher learning institutions (HLIs) is
not cushioned from this competition and therefore needs to establish its own
competitive advantage strategies. Table 2 and Table 3 summarize the enrollment in
138
public and private universities respectively from 2002/2003 to 2006/2007 academic
years. Although OUT stands second in the number of students enrolled after UDSM,
there has been a declining trend while the reverse is true for most of the other
universities.
Table 2: Students Enrollment in Public Universities 2002/2003 - 2006/2007
2002/03
2003/04
2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
1
2
No
University of DSM
Muhimbili Univ.Col.of Health Sc.
10148
1155
10866
1833
12144
2017
15081
2056
15609
2530
3
4
Univ.Col of Lands & Arch.Studies
Sokoine Univ.Col of Agriculture
884
2341
967
2520
1035
2480
1194
2286
1358
2393
5
6
7
8
9
10
Open University of Tanzania
Mzumbe University
State University of Zanzibar
Moshi Univ.Col.of Co-op.& Bus.St
DSM University College (DUCE)
Mkwawa University College
(MUCE)
CoET
IJMC
Total
5683
718
56
349
0
0
10313
1669
186
556
0
0
12945
2550
207
735
0
0
9232
3210
260
866
527
1006
7142
3474
424
1104
1483
917
0
0
21334
0
0
28910
0
0
34113
0
0
35718
2483
301
39218
Table 3: Students Enrolled in Private Universities 2002/2003 - 2006/2007
No
Institution
2002/03 2003/04 2004/05
2005/06
2006/07
11
12
Institution
Source: http://www.tcu.go.tz/statistics.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
St.Augustine Univ.of Tanzania
Tumaini Univ.KCMC
Tumaini Univ.Iringa
Tumaini Univ.Makumira
Tumaini Univ.DSM
University of Arusha
Hubert Kairuki Memorial Univ
International Med.& Techn.Univ
Univn Col. of Education Zanzibar
Zanzibar University
Bugando College of Health Sc
The Aga Khan University
Mount Meru University
Ruaha University College
Muslim University of Morogoro
Teofilo Kisanji University
Mwenge University College
Total
405
192
344
141
0
185
86
0
439
0
0
0
0
473
256
599
154
126
161
135
0
438
291
10
88
33
657
241
698
147
286
205
191
25
485
363
35
138
83
1344
220
1308
271
264
154
109
172
485
143
35
123
164
221
167
62
33
2665
228
2042
325
1350
514
109
371
1241
155
155
187
236
446
326
274
125
1792
2764
3554
5275
10749
Source: http://www.tcu.go.tz/statistics.html
The mushrooming of HLIs can be one of the reasons, but other factors need be
considered as well. While the contribution of both public and private sectors in
widening access to higher education can be tacitly acknowledged and explicitly
encouraged the challenge remains to individual institution to ensure their
sustainability.
139
Qualification of teaching staff at HLIs
Teaching staff is one of the internal resources of a HLI that is more influential in
determining the competitive strategy for the same than an understanding and
management of its external environment. It is one of the strategic resources that can
make a difference in the performance of an institution. Well qualified staff are
central to writing quality course materials, quality delivery and interaction with
learners and in offering quality support services (academic, administrative). Table 4
and Table 5 present the number of teaching staff at public and private universities
respectively based on their academic qualifications.
As one would expect, the number of academic staff has been increasing yearly.
OUT Facts and &Figures (OUT, 2009) indicate that in 2008 OUT had 207 full time
academic staff and 189 administrative staff and hence a total of 396 (Table 6).
Academic staff account for 52.3% of total OUT workforce. However, apart from the
growing number of staff the main challenge that remains is centered on the
academic development of most of the staff in all HLIs. By 2005/06 OUT had about
32% Ph.D holders (out of 119 academic staff) and the remaining academic staff
were at the levels of bachelor and masters degrees.
Table 4: Teaching staff by Qualifications in Public Universities 2005/2006
No
Institution
1
University of DSM
2
Muhimbili Univ.Col.of
Ph.D
Masters
PGD
Bachelors
Others
469
216
0
0
0
Grand
Total
685
63
113
5
33
0
214
41
54
0
22
0
117
176
72
0
17
0
265
38
78
0
3
0
119
Health Sc.
3
Univ.Col of Lands &
Arch.Studies
4
Sokoine Univ.Col of
Agriculture
5
Open University of
Tanzania
6
Mzumbe University
25
106
1
49
0
181
7
State University of Zanzibar
8
18
0
2
0
28
8
Moshi Univ.Col.of Co-op.&
4
59
0
3
0
66
824
716
6
129
Bus.St
Total
1675
Source: http://www.tcu.go.tz/statistics.html
Table 5: Teaching staff by Qualifications in Private universities 2005/2006
No
Institution
Ph.D
Masters
PGD
Bachelors
Others
Grand
Total
1
St.Augustine Univ.of
11
29
140
0
7
4
51
Tanzania
2
Tumaini Univ.KCMC
8
27
0
24
1
60
3
Tumaini Univ.Iringa
6
35
0
16
0
57
4
Tumaini Univ.Makumira
9
9
0
0
1
19
5
Tumaini Univ.DSM
1
11
2
3
0
17
6
University of Arusha
2
13
0
1
0
16
7
Hubert Kairuki Memorial
0
0
0
0
0
67
3
20
0
2
3
28
10
7
0
0
0
17
Univ
8
International Med.&
Techn.Univ
9
Univn Col. of Education
Zanzibar
10
Zanzibar University
4
17
0
0
0
21
11
Bugando College of Health
8
11
0
7
0
26
Sc
12
The aga Khan University
1
21
0
4
0
26
13
Mount Meru University
6
8
0
4
2
20
14
Ruaha University College
4
8
1
0
13
15
Muslim University of
7
15
0
0
0
22
Morogoro
16
Teofilo Kisanji University
4
13
0
7
0
24
17
Mwenge University College
1
6
0
4
2
13
Total
85
250
2
80
13
497
Source: http://www.tcu.go.tz/statistics.html
Profile of Academic staff at OUT
There has been a more than two fold increase in the number of academic staff from
76 in 2003 to 207 in 2008. By 2008, 53 academic staff (25.6%) had PhDs, 97
(46.9%) had masters and 57 (27.5) had first degrees. In the same year UDSM had
45.1% of all academic staff with PhDs. Whereas in 2005/06 32% out of 119
academicians had Ph.Ds (Table 4), the 25.6% registered in 2008 as Ph.D holders
lead to two assumptions. First, the pace in staff development is declining; and
second, the rate of recruitment has picked up tremendously. All in all regardless of
either of the two assumptions, OUT’s pace in staff development should tally its
expansion demands.
Table 6: Academic Staff by Qualification
Year
2001
2002
PhD
18
21
Masters
57
55
141
First Degree
1
0
Total
76
76
28
2003
33
2004
37
2005
37
2006
50
2007
53
2008
% Total Aca/staff in
25.6
2008
Source: OUT Facts and Figures (2009)
48
52
71
82
94
97
0
0
1
2
28
57
46.9
27.5
76
85
109
121
172
207
100
Student Staff Ratio at OUT & UDSM
Student staff ratio (SSR) is a reasonable indicator of academic staff workload.
OUT’s SSR is by far very high compared to UDSM. In 2007/08 for example, every
OUT academic staff served on average 103 students whereas at UDSM each lecturer
was serving only 19 students in the same year.
Table 7: The trend of OUT’s Student Staff Ratio: 1994 - 2009
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Cumulati
ve No. of
enrolled
students*
No. of
active
students*
*
Full
Time
1
766
1504
2833
3811
4809
5689
6738
8645
10710
13238
14577
2
459
902
1700
2287
2885
3413
4043
5187
6426
7942
8454
3
1
13
22
35
44
31
22
28
76
76
75
4
4
4
3
24
25
35
30
37
37
40
53
5
5
17
25
59
69
66
52
65
113
116
128
Active
Students/
Lecturer
(Column
2/column 5)
6
92
53
68
39
42
52
78
80
57
68
66
10584
13142
18191
20564
26459
117
166
121
172
207
57
39
40
28
39
174
205
161
200
246
61
64
113
103
108
No. of academic staff
Total
Full Time
academic
equivalent
Staff
UDSM*
**
15
Table 7 continues
2005
2006
2007
2007/08
2008/09
17871
22057
30319
34274
40099
19
17
16
19
*Excludes number of students graduated, deregistered and those who died in the
respective academic year
**Estimated 60% of total enrolment
*** UDSM F&Fs 2007/08
Source: OUT SRP 2006/07 – 2010/11 and OUT F&Fs (January, 2009)
Implications on OUT’s delivery of quality teaching, research, publications and
consultancy are obvious given the prevailing SSR. For example, inclusion of tutor
comments in the timed tests may be an impossible task to carry out when the
workload in terms of marking is exceedingly high. This will obviously affect
students learning process and the overall delivery quality.
142
Degree Programmes Offered by different Universities
Quality of the various academic programmes offered by a HLI is one among several
factors that are likely to affect the quality of education for the students, the
marketability of the institution and therefore its competitive advantage among a set
of competing HLI that utilize similar resources or attract similar clients, and that
produce similar products and services. Competitive academic programmes are those
which are demand driven, which are developed by first identifying the target
customers and what they value and deliver the value efficiently. Based on the
dynamism in the job market the current trend of most employers and students who
are customers of the HLI products, their interests are geared towards subject specific
degree programmes (verbal communication). Such programmes attract students with
several professional interests resulting into market success. According to Lambat
(2007), market success for a HEI is reflected in terms of the overall growth in
student enrollments, favourable financial benefits from student recruitment, excess
demand for places of study, and a level of optimism for growth in student
enrollment for the next academic years.
A list of various degree programmes offered in some of the TCU’s HLI which are
also offered in many other non TCU institutions within the country are presented in
Appendix 1. The list reveals that most of the degree programmes offered by the
OUT are too general and do not reflect the area of professionalism / specialization
of a student e.g. Home Economics and Human Nutrition which is a subject specific
degree programme does not stand on its own but falls under BSc general. The
nomenclature of this sort is likely to affect the marketability of the various
programmes and also lowers the options available to students from which to choose.
DETERMINANTS OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES OF OUT’S ACADEMIC
PROGRAMMES
An article in the distance-learning journal by Howell, et al (2003) identifies thirty-two
trends affecting distance education at present. The OUT can identify with some of
the issues mentioned in this article. On student enrollment trends, they argue that the
current higher education infrastructure promotes distance education programmes.
While the OUT enjoyed market monopoly as the only provider of distance
education in Tanzania, this advantage is threatened by the entrance into the market
of higher learning institutions which also predominantly offer distance learning.
This move is in response to the growing market demand that has led to the
establishment of institutions such as Kampala International University (KIU) which
also offers distance education programmes. The Open University needs to analyze
its competitors’ strategies and do SWOT analysis in order to design proper
marketing strategies that will ensure it of a place in the competitive market. Other
institutions of higher learning now offer scalable distance education models on top
of their face to face teaching just to satisfy the growing demand for the service.
OUT needs to develop mechanisms that retain their students. The University also
needs to create alternative programmes that will sustain it when student enrollments
are low.
143
Demand Driven Courses
More distance learners are looking for flexible programme structures that
accommodate their job and family responsibilities (Howell et al., 2003; Devinney,
1997). These market demands are forcing OUT to plan and organize their academic
programmes beyond the traditional demographic and economic predictions. The
university’s competitive advantage here includes courses tailored for local
conditions. The introduction of the post graduate programmes such as the MCED,
MBA, LLM (IT &T), Master of Social Work, demand driven short courses as well
as the licensed teacher programme are examples of programmes that cater for
learners who are more autonomous, self-directed with goal and relevancy oriented
who need to know the rational of what they are learning. Consequently the mode of
instruction is changing from transmission model to become more learner-centered,
non-linear and self directed; constructivist, socio-cultural and metacognitive models
(Eckert, 2003). In view of striving to wards a competitive advantage, OUT needs to
create more demand driven, efficiently run academic programmes that cater for the
current market trends.
Human Resource Capacity Development and Retention
OUT needs to analyze and manage both its external and internal resources and
environment in order to position itself in a situation that enables it to gain and
sustain a competitive advantage and achieve market success. To gain competitive
advantage in this angle it needs to improve its staff capacity as they adapt new roles.
As has already been earlier mentioned, the staff/student ratio at OUT is already
very high- with every academic staff on average serving 103 students. Staff
availability, motivation, retention and skills are other constraints affecting The Open
University of Tanzania academic programmes competitive advantage. Howell,
Williams and Lindsay (2003) argue that staff members of distance education require
specialized skills and strategies in order to adapt to the changing clientele. �They
need to be facilitators, teachers, organizers, graders, mentors, role models,
counselors, coaches, supervisors, problem solvers and liaison on top of
administrative responsibilities’(ibid:5 ). The new roles coupled with the high
staff/student ratio, challenges the traditional staff roles. This scenario can result in
staff dissatisfaction, isolation, demands for reduced workload, increased
compensation and even resignation. Some departments have a low number of staff
which tremendously increases workload pressure hence resulting in inadequately
run academic programmes.
Marketing Strategy and Use of Technology
The Open University can attain sustainable competitive advantage in the market if
there are strategies that continuously monitor the environment for change that could
either be competitor-induced, environment-induced or even spontaneous (Devinney,
1997). There are constraints both within the organization and in the market that
must be overcome to attain this competitive advantage. Organization constraints
such as technology use (IT, E-learning, internet connectivity) can affect Open
University’s competitive advantage. The development and advancement of
technology is a challenge facing distance education programmes (West, 1999).
Computers are becoming faster and cheaper, fax, mobile phones, videoconferencing,
and interactive television are becoming more resourceful. The growing use of the
144
internet and unlimited information encourages more online courses hence posing a
challenge to OUT’s mode of using study materials as the main source of
information. Likewise, technological advancement also threatens not only the
employment of staff that are not computer literate, but also calls for continuous
training and retraining of its staff so as to keep abreast with the changing
technological advancement. OUT may not be in a position of competitive advantage
at present but stands a good chance of achieving this if it makes use of its wide
network of regional centers that are spread out all over Tanzania. Developing this
internal system to adapt to change quickly and effectively will deter it from a
process of slow erosion of this competitive advantage it has over other institutions
striving towards distance education programmes, but lack a structure like that of
OUT. Networking is an important factor which the University must emphasize on in
order to achieve the competitive advantage. It will help the University to build a
relationship both locally and internationally with different universities, stakeholders
and donors who might result in acquiring projects, knowledge, experience and
funds.
Improved Infrastructural Facilities
The University infrastructural facility is another constraint which needs to be
addressed; the nature and quality of services available in the regional centers may
act as a hindrance to enrollment rates for example inaccessible, un-user friendly
facilities can deter existing and potential students from benefiting from the academic
programmes offered by the University. Renting office facilities in certain areas may
affect the brand recognition of the University which is an important aspect of
indirect marketing.
Affordability
The provision of cheaply affordable quality academic programmes is another
competitive advantage that OUT has in the higher education market at the moment.
The current economic trends of fewer resources and rising cost of higher education
have prompted residential universities to consider distance learning as a possible
solution to the dilemma of rising university and enrollment costs (Howell et al.,
2003; Devinney, 1997). This scenario posses a challenge to OUT’s competitive
advantage hence it should strive to sustain its dominance in the market. To achieve
this, OUT should improve its learning environment by continuing to provide cheap
affordable education programmes that support fundamental skills and knowledge of
its customers lest market based strategies take hold and create opportunities for
competitors to fill the supply gap. Management commitment is another very
important aspect which The Open University must address if it needs to attain and
sustain competitive advantage. The management needs to make correct and timely
decisions to ensure operations are not affected.
Customer Service
The last but not least determinant of OUT’s competitive advantage is the quality of
customer service. This is the heart of all OUT organization constraints. It is very
important to put students first and deliver efficient value to our customers. The
quality of service has a direct relationship with performance, and satisfaction. Hence
it is the responsibility of everyone at The Open University including the supporting
145
staff to ensure that our customers receive the best care and treatment available in
order to the University’s academic programmes, reputation and brand name of
offering quality open and distance education, research and public service for
sustainable and equitable social economic development of Tanzania and the rest of
Africa.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The design and nomenclature of degree programmes have great impact on the
attraction of students to join any particular institution. Degree programmes that are
specifically designed to meet the needs of employers and employees and whose
nomenclature reflects its specificity without the need of going into the details of the
curriculum will create a niche for OUT in this aspect. Thus, OUT should aim at such
kind of designated degree programmes in order to offer a variety of quality
accelerated degree programmes specificically focusing on reinforcing its
competitive advantage. Nomenclature of degree programmes should reflect the
prevailing market needs. For instance, the case of MSc CED changing to MCED
has had negative impact as some students and student employers were disappointed
by the name change since many had been attracted by the former name. As a result
there are some who withdrew from the programme and looked for enrollment
elsewhere. At OUT there has been a tendency to refer to the commonly used degree
names by its predecessor, UDSM, irrespective of the real market needs. Traditional
names like LLB, BA (General), BBA (General), MAs, MBAs etc, could change
their names to reflect prevailing market forces without necessarily jeopardizing the
quality of outputs. Mzumbe University has used this approach whereby many of the
would be BA (General) students studying economics at OUT have moved to
Mzumbe University just because the name of the programme reads BSc Economics
(personal communication with students).
OUT started with a competitive edge (ODL delivery mode) that was not ICT
enhanced, however in the current competitive environment, OUT must eventually
employ some form of leading edge technology to establish its ability to perform key
strategic actions necessary for survival in the higher education industry. Establishing
a distinctive competence in innovative ICT enhanced knowledge delivery and
sharing can be important to maximizing the growth potential of OUT. If OUT is
generally perceived as successful at using new technology as a way of obtaining a
sustainable competitive advantage, it can readily attract both capital and customers.
Technology is an important factor in achieving competitive advantage but is
worthless without the knowledge and talent of the operators using it. Therefore
attention should also be given to the human resource which is crucial to making a
difference in the performance of OUT and in providing the essential ingredient for
its competitive advantage.
One of the most important indicators of the quality of universities in the world is the
competition rate for both undergraduate and postgraduate programmes but more so
for postgraduate programmes. OUT needs to make a scrupulous move towards
improving its record keeping system especially students academic records as well as
fast-tracking research supervision for postgraduate students. This will allow for an
increased completion rate among students who often have problems with marks and
146
research supervision which often delay their graduation. When many complete their
courses of study within agreeable time frame, many more will be encouraged to join
the University hence increasing both enrollment and completion rates. This will also
instill OUT’s market share in attracting highly qualified students as well as other
stakeholder like employers, donors, partners in course delivery, research grants etc.
OUT needs to embark on an aggressive marketing mechanism of its academic
programmes. It should particularly emphasize on its popular post-graduate academic
programmes that seem to be competing well in the present market conditions. It
should also seek mechanisms that will market other less attractive academic
programmes with a view of making them popular as well as more competitive. OUT
needs to use various means to market itself such as brochures, fliers, news bulletins,
TV and Radio programmes and even introduce an annual open day where members
of the public are welcome to learn as much as they can about OUT and its
programmes and abilities. This can act as an eye opener to many who either are
unaware of OUT or have vaguely heard about it.
The visibility and quality of OUT website must be maintained high. In the most
recent ranking of the 100 Universities in Africa includes UDSM (10th) and SUA
(45th) as the only Universities from Tanzania in that group19. Similar web ranking of
the world universities in 2010 by Webomatrics.com20 based on quality of the
visibility done in 2010 did not have a mention of OUT in the list in which UDSM
was placed 24th and SUA 82nd in the top 100 universities in Africa. The power of
the internet as an advertising tool in this day and age era is inevitable for OUT’s
programmes and activities to be recognized by the world of academia. The website
must also clearly show the research and consultancy activities undertaken and those
still going on, profile of academic staff and where possible staff VCs and individual
web pages should be easily accessible on the internet.
Lastly but not least, it is our view that OUT’s emerging market niche in higher
education should be postgraduate and research degree programmes in applied
natural and social sciences, law, economics and business administration, and
education. This unique and important positioning strategy will certainly expand our
market and locates our programmes within the central mission of OUT. The strategy
has strength because it builds on upon the good things OUT is known for: enabling
one to work while studying. This is mainly due to OUT’s potential to attract many
postgraduate students whose work schedules cannot give room for timed tests and
examinations at some point in time. It should be pointed out that it is not our
intention to undermine emphasis on undergraduate programmes, but experience has
shown that conventional universities are more competitive than OUT in effective
undergraduate teaching for fresh young “A” level leavers in the country. However,
failure to overcome some challenges outlined in this paper such as manpower
development and attractive staff retention schemes may pose significant threats that
may severely limit to expand into new market segments.
19
20
http://www.4icu.org/topAfrica/
http://www.webometrics.info/index.html
147
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Howell, S. L, Williams, P. B and Lindsay, N. K (2003). �Thirty-two Trends
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148
West, G.B. (1999). Teaching and technology in higher education: Changes and
challenges. Adult Learning,16-18.
Appendix 1: List of undergraduate degree programmes in Selected Universities
PROGRAMMEME
UDSM SUA
B.A. in Archaeology (B.A. Archae.)
в€љ
B.A. in Culture and Heritage (B.A. Cult. & Her.)
в€љ
B.A. in Fine and Performing Arts (B.A. FPA)
в€љ
B.A. in Language Studies (B.A. L. Studies)
в€љ
B.A. in Literature and Language (B.A. Lit. &
в€љ
Lang.)
B.A. in History (B.A. Hist.)
в€љ
B.A. in History and Archaeology (B.A. Hist. &
в€љ
Archae.)
B.A. in Economics (B.A. Econ.)
в€љ
B.A. in Economics and Geography (B.A. Econ. &
в€љ
Geog.)
B.A. in Economics and Sociology (B.A. Econ. &
в€љ
Soc.)
B.A. in Economics and Statistics (B.A. Econ. &
в€љ
Stat.)
B.A. in Geography and Archaeology (B.A. Geog.
в€љ
& Archae.)
B.A. in Geography and Environmental Studies
в€љ
(B.A. GES)
B.A. in Geography and Statistics (B.A. Geog. &
в€љ
Stat.)
B.A. in History and Political Science (B.A. Hist.
в€љ
& PS)
B.A. in Political Science and Economics (B.A.
в€љ
PS & Econ.)
B.A. in Political Science and a Language e.g.
в€љ
French (B.A. PS & L)
B.A. in Political Science and Philosophy (B.A.
в€љ
PS & Phil.)
B.A. in Political Science and Public
в€љ
Administration (B.A. PS & PA)
B.A. in Political Science and Sociology (B.A. PS
в€љ
& Soc.)
B.A. in Sociology (B.A. Soc.)
в€љ
B.A. in Sociology and Philosophy (B.A. Soc. &
в€љ
Phil.)
B.A. in Statistics (B.A. Stat.)
в€љ
B.A. with Education (B.A. Ed.)
в€љ
B.A. in Journalism (B.A. Journ)
в€љ
Appendix 1 continues
B.A. in Mass Communication (B.A. MC)
в€љ
B.A. in Public Relations and Advertising (B.A.
в€љ
PRA)
B.A
B.A Tourism studies
B. Com. in Accounting (B.Com. Acc.)
в€љ
B. Com. in Banking and Financial Services
в€љ
(B.Com. BFS)
B. Com. in Finance (B.Com. Finance)
в€љ
B. Com. in Human Resources Management
в€љ
149
OUT
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
KCMC
Mzumbe
(B.Com. HRM)
B. Com. in Marketing (B.Com. Market.)
B. Com. in Tourism and Hospitality Management
(B.Com. THM)
B. Com
B.Com with Education (B.Com.Ed)
B. Business Administration (BBA)
B. Business Administration with Education
(BBA. Ed)
B.Ed. in Adult and Community Education (B.Ed.
ACE)
B.Ed. in Commerce (B.Ed. Com.)
B.Ed. in Commerce and Accounting
B.Ed. in Language and Management
B.Ed. in Early Childhood Education (B.Ed. ECE)
B.Ed. in Physical Education and Sport Sciences
(B.Ed. PESS)
B.Ed. in Psychology (B.Ed. Psych.)
B.Ed. in Economics and mathematics (BEEM)
BSc. in Applied Statistics
BSc. in Production and Operations Management
(BSc. POM)
B.Sc. in Chemical and Process Engineering
(B.Sc. CPE)
B.Sc. in Civil and Structural Engineering (B.Sc.
CSE)
B.Sc. in Civil and Transportation Engineering
(B.Sc. CTE)
B.Sc. in Civil and Water Resources Engineering
(B.Sc. CWE)
B.Sc. in Computer Eng. and Information
Technology (B.Sc. Comp. Eng. & IT)
B.Sc. Information & Communication Technology
(B.Sc. ICT)
B.Sc. Information & Communication Technology
Management (B.Sc. ICTM)
B.Sc. in Electrical Engineering (B.Sc. Electr.
Eng.)
B.Sc. in Electrical Power Engineering (B.Sc.
Electr. Power. Eng.)
B.Sc. in Electro-Mechanical Engineering (B.Sc.
Electromech. Eng.)
B.Sc. in Food and Biochemical Engineering
(B.Sc. Food & Bio. Eng.)
B.Sc. in Industrial Engineering and Management
(B.Sc. Ind. Eng. & Mngt)
B.Sc. in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
(B.Sc. Mech. & Ind. Eng.)
B.Sc. in Mineral Processing Engineering (B.Sc.
Min. Process Eng.)
B.Sc. in Mining Engineering (B.Sc. Mining Eng.)
B.Sc. in Telecommunications Engineering (B.Sc.
Telecom. Eng.)
Bachelor of Laws (LL.B)
B.A. in Law Enforcement (BALE)
B.Sc. in Aquatic Environmental Sci and
150
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
Conservation (B.Sc. AES & Conserv.)
B.Sc. in Fisheries and Aquaculture (B.Sc. Fish. &
в€љ
Aquac.)
B.Sc. in Applied Zoology (B.Sc. Ap. Zool.)
в€љ
B.Sc. in Botanical Sciences (B.Sc. Bot. Sc.)
в€љ
B.Sc. in Chemistry (B.Sc. Chemistry)
в€љ
B.Sc. in Geology (B.Sc. Geol.)
в€љ
B.Sc. with Geology (B.Sc. with Geol.)
в€љ
B.Sc. in Engineering Geology (B.Sc. Eng. Geol.)
в€љ
B.Sc. General (B.Sc. Gen.)
в€љ
B.Sc. in Microbiology (B.Sc. Microbiology)
в€љ
B.Sc. in Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
в€љ
(B.Sc. MBB)
B.Sc. in Wildlife Science and Conservation
в€љ
(B.Sc. Wildlife)
B.Sc. with Education (B.Sc. Ed.)
в€љ
B.Sc. in Computer Science (B.Sc. Comp. Sc.)
в€љ
B.Sc. with Computer Science (B.Sc. with Comp.
в€љ
Sc.)
B.Sc. in Electronic Science and Communication
в€љ
(B.Sc. ESC)
B.A. with Education (B.A. Ed.)
в€љ
B.Ed. in Arts (B.Ed. Arts)
в€љ
B.Ed. in Science (B.Ed. Sc.)
в€љ
B.Sc. with Education (B.Sc. Ed.)
в€љ
B.A. with Education (B.A. Ed.)
в€љ
B.Ed. in Arts (B.Ed. Arts)
в€љ
B.Ed. in Science (B.Ed. Sc.)
в€љ
B.Sc. Agriculture General
B.Sc. (Horticulture)
B.Sc. Animal Science
B.Sc. Range Management
B.Sc. Agronomy
Appendix 1 continues
B.Sc. Agricultural Economics And Agribusiness
B.Sc. Agricultural Education And Extension
B.Sc. Food Science And Technology
B.Sc. Home Economics And Human Nutrition
B.Sc. Agricultural Engineering
B.Sc. Aquaculture
B.Sc. Forestry
B.Sc. Wildlife Management
Bachelor Of Tourism Management
Bachelor Of Veterinary Medicine
Bachelor Of Science In Biotech And Laboratory
Sciences
B.Sc. Environmental Sciences And Management
B.Sc. Informatics
B.Sc. (Education)
Bachelor Of Arts In Rural Development
Doctor of Medicine (MD)
Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSc.N)
Bachelor of Science in Prosthetics and Orthotics
Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy
Bachelor of Science in Health Laboratory
Sciences
151
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
BSc. Economics (Economic Policy and Planning)
BSc. Economics (Project Planning and Mngt)
BSc. Economics (Population and Development)
Bachelor of Public Administration (Human
Resource Mngt)
Bachelor of Public Administration (Public
Service Mngt)
Bachelor of Public Administration (Local Gvt
Mngt)
Bachelor of Public Administration (Health
Services Mngt)
Bachelor of Business Administration (Marketing
Mngt)
Bachelor of Business Administration
(Entrepreneurship Dvpt)
Bachelor of Business Administration (Production
and Logistic Mngt)
Bachelor of Accounting and Finance (Business
Accounting & Finance)
Bachelor of Accounting and Finance(Local Gvt
Accounting & Finance)
Bachelor of Acc and Finance (Public Sector Acc,
Fin and Investigation)
152
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
в€љ
Guide for Authors
Scope
Huria Jounal is an international journal that publishes original research papers of
academic interest (theoretical, applied and general), targeting tertiary institutions
and researchers and is therefore hospitable to scholarly writing on a variety of
academic topics. The types of contribution range from original research papers,
review articles and technical notes.
Original research articles: Research articles that make a substantial original
contribution to research practice or policy in any research area. Research articles are
contributions that have the purpose of publication of original unpublished research
which may be reproduced and generalized. They should be between 3000 and 8000
words. Excluding tables. Figures and references. The original research article should
follow the conventional structure: Introduction, materials and methods, Results and
Discussion.
Short communication: Short communications are intended to provide preliminary
research results or unpublished hypotheses of public relevance. Short
communications may contain an abstract, and can be organized either along the lines
of a regular manuscript, or without subdivisions. The accompanying abstract should
not exceed 200 words. Authors may also consider combining the results and
discussion sections. They should be up to 2500 words and include a table or figure
and preferably not more than five references.
Letters to the editor: These include letters which seek to discuss recent articles
published in Huria Journal or report on original research or significant findings.
They should not exceed 600 words and five references.
Reviews: Huria Journal welcomes papers relating to any research themes. Reviews
should emphasize the implication of reviewed literature for future practical
applications and policy implications. A review paper should not exceed 8,000
words.
Submission of Manuscripts
Manuscripts must be submitted with a cover letter stating that all authors (in case of
multiple authors) agree with the content and approve of its submission to the
journal. Only materials that have never been published or being submitted for
publication elsewhere will be considered. All submissions will be critically peerreviewed by at least two anonymous reviewers who will be looking for originality,
relevance, clarity, appropriateness of the methods, validity of data, reasonability of
the conclusion and support from data.
153
Manuscripts that are written in clear and grammatical English should be submitted
in both electronic and hard copy to:
Editor-in-Chief
Huria Journal
The Open University of Tanzania
P. O. Box 23409
Dar es Salaam
TANZANIA
Tel: 255+ (022) 2668820
(022) 2668445
Fax: 255+ (022) 2668759
e-mail: [email protected]
and/or [email protected]
There are no submission fees or page charges.
The Editorial Board reserves the right to accept or reject any manuscript and also
reserves the right to edit the manuscripts as it sees fit. Authors may be contacted for
clarification when necessary.
Manuscript Preparation
Page format
Page set-up of the manuscripts should be on A4 or 8.5” x 11 “paper, typed doublespaced (24-26 lines per page), with margins of top 25mm, bottom 25mm left 40mm
and right 20mm.
Font
The font size of main text shall be 12 in Times New Roman
Depending on the areas of specialization, manuscripts should be arranged in the
order of: title page, abstract (structured summary) including up to six key words,
main text, acknowledgements, references, tables figures, and figure legends.
In case of science/experimental-based submissions, the order should be: title page,
abstract,
introduction,
materials
and
methods,
results,
discussion,
acknowledgements, references, figure legends, tables, and illustrations. Under this
category, results and discussion sections may be combined if appropriate.
Title Page
This page must include the following information:
В· The title of the manuscript which should be concise, specific, informative and
clear.
В· Should be in bold, using font 14.
В· The names (spelled out in full) of the author(s) of the manuscript including their
corresponding affiliation(s) should be indicated immediately below the title.
В· A complete mailing address (including the e-mail) of the person to whom all
correspondence regarding the manuscript should be addressed and must also be
154
indicated.
Abstract
The first page following the title page should contain an abstract. Abstract should
contain up to 250 words mainly of the object and main findings of the paper. Three
to five key words representing concepts of the paper may be written at the end of the
abstract. The Abstract shall be in italics.
Main Text
In the main text:
Introduction: Should describe the objective of the reported work and
provide relevant background information.
Materials and methods (Where the study/research dictates):this part
should identify the population, area of study, procedure employed and any other
relevant input to the realization of the study.
Results: Thissection should explain all the important findings and provide
information about the reliability of the results. Here, the use of tables and figures is
allowed, but the use of text to emphasize important points is encouraged.
Discussion:it should describe the implications of the findings and any
conclusions based on the findings.
Abbreviations in the body of the paper should be used after having been initially
explained. If statistical analysis is applicable, it is important that the procedure is
carried out following appropriate methods.
Tables
Tables should be as close as possible to the text explaining the concept. Tables
should be numbered in the order in which they are mentioned in the text. A Table
caption must be presented in upper case at the top. Explain in footnotes all nonstandard abbreviations used in each table.
Figures
Figures must be clearly drawn, placed as close as possible to the related text. All
Figures must be numbered according to the order in which they appear in the text. A
Figure caption should be typed in bold immediately below the Figure.
Pagination
The page numbers should appear at the centre of the bottom edge of the page.
References
All references to books, monographs, articles, and statistical sources must be
identified at appropriate point in text by author’s last name and publication year.
The use of author’s name, year of publication and pagination in text citations
remains optional, but not really encouraged. When author’s name is in text, cite
(Williams, 2005). References should be cited in the text using (name, Year) style,
in the text. The list of references should be presented at end of the paper, in
alphabetical order.
155
Journal papers:
Author(s), (year). Article title, Name of journal, Volume Number, Issue Number,
page range.
With dual authorship, give both names; for three or more, use et al., With more than
one reference to an author in one year, distinguish them by use of letter (a, b)
attached to publication year (2006a). For instance, (Agnes, 2000a; 2000b). Enclose
a series of references within one pair of parenthesis, separated by semicolons, e.g.,
{Cornelia, 2001; Emmanuel, 2003; Juma et al., 2004; Pembe and Owino, 2005}.
On the page of references, list all the cited references alphabetically by author and,
within author, by publication year. Examples of common references follow.
Print, M. (2000), Curriculum Development and design. Allen and Uwin, London;
Hellen, S., Joyce, K., and John, R. (2005), Schooling in Capitalist America. New
York: Basic Books. p. 99;
Holleran, E.A., Karki, S., Holzbaur, E.L.F. (1998), :The Role of the Dynactin
Complex” in Intracellular Motility. In Jeon, K.W. (Ed.) International
Review of Cytology. Vol. 182. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 69-109;
Gao, S., McGarry M., Latham, K.E., Wilmut, I. (2003), Cloning of Mice by Nuclear
Transfer. Cloning stem Cells, 5: 287-294;
Tanzania Bureau of Statistics (2002), Country Census data Book. Dar es Salaam:
Government Printing Office.
Conference Proceedings:
Author(s), (year). Article title, Name of conference, Location of conference, page
range.
Internet sources
Name of Author(s) or company or organisation, (year), Title of article, URL, date
found.
Footnotes
They should be kept to a minimum. Two or more consecutive references to the
same source should, where possible, be grouped in the same note; the reader should
be able to follow the article without referring to the notes.
156

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