How to Mobilize and Diversify Resources for - K4Health

Family Planning Service Expansion and Technical Support (SEATS II)
GUIDE TO LEVERAGING
How to Mobilize and
Diversify Resources for
Reproductive Health
June 2000
The goal of the Family Planning Service Expansion and Technical
Support (SEATS) Project is to expand access to and use of high-quality,
sustainable family planning and reproductive health services.
John Snow, Inc. (JSI), an international public health management
consulting firm, heads a group of organizations implementing the
SEATS Project. These include the American College of Nurse-Midwives (ACNM), AVSC International, Initiatives, Inc., the Program for
Appropriate Technology in Health (PATH), Social Sector Development
Strategies (SSDS), World Education, and partner organizations in each
country where SEATS is active.
This publication was made possible through the support provided by
the Office of Population, United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under the terms of Contract No. CCP-C-00-94-0000410, and by John Snow, Inc. The contents and opinions expressed
herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views
of USAID or JSI.
Family Planning Service Expansion and Technical Support (SEATS II)
GUIDE TO LEVERAGING
How to Mobilize and
Diversify Resources for
Reproductive Health
June 2000
Editors
Lisa A. Hare
Technical Editor
John Snow, Inc.
Lisa Mueller
Copy Editor
John Snow, Inc.
Margaret Phillips
Technical Editor
Social Sectors Development
Strategies
Lisa Van Wagner
Copy Editor
Authors
Beth Daly
Social Sectors Development
Strategies
Lisa A. Hare
John Snow, Inc.
John Holley
Social Sectors Development
Strategies
Maggie Huff-Rousselle
Social Sectors Development
Strategies
Margaret Phillips
Social Sectors Development
Strategies
Joseph A. Sclafani
Change Management
Associates International
Acknowledgments
The conceptualization, development, and revision of the Guide to Leveraging:
How to Mobilize and Diversify Resources for Reproductive Health were made
possible by the considerable inputs provided by the following: Joy Awori, John
Snow, Inc.; Med Bouzidi, International Planned Parenthood Federation; Paula
Bryan, United States Agency for International Development; John L. Fiedler, Social
Sectors Development Strategies; Mary Lee Mantz, American College of NurseMidwives; Jill Reilly, Pact; Susan Rich, Wallace Global Fund; and Frank Webb, John
Snow, Inc.
Table of Contents
Acronyms .............................................................. xiii
Glossary.................................................................. xv
Section I|Introduction ..................................... 1
Chapter 1
Overview ......................................................................
1
What is leveraging and why is it important? ..................................... 1
Structure and use of the Guide .......................................................... 3
Who this Guide can help .................................................................... 5
Chapter 2
Successful Leveraging ...................................................
7
Exchange—The essence of leveraging ................................................. 7
A focus on clients ................................................................................ 8
Different types of exchange ................................................................ 9
Getting the right kind of exchange .................................................. 10
Applying the concepts—Exploring the idea of exchange
in your organization ...................................................................... 13
Resources ........................................................................................... 14
Section II|Potential
Sources of Leverage ......... 15
Chapter 3
Improving Organizational Efficiency—
The Internal Leveraging Source ................................... 17
What is efficiency? ............................................................................ 17
Information required to identify inefficiencies ............................... 18
Applying the concepts—Examining the efficiency of
your organization ........................................................................... 20
Resources ........................................................................................... 24
Chapter 4
Clients—A Key Source of Support ................................ 25
Introduction....................................................................................... 25
Charging individual clients—Pros and cons ..................................... 27
What fee to charge ............................................................................ 29
Understanding clients and their environment ................................. 32
Organizational clients—Who they could be ..................................... 33
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Mechanisms for charging clients ...................................................... 35
Individual clients ......................................................................... 35
Organizational clients ................................................................. 37
Commercial ventures ........................................................................ 37
Applying the concepts—Examining the appropriateness of
client fees and commercial ventures for your organization ........ 40
Applying the concepts—Who are your potential fee
paying clients? ................................................................................ 41
Resources ........................................................................................... 42
Chapter 5
The Community You Serve ......................................... 43
Introduction....................................................................................... 43
The business community as donors ................................................. 44
Individuals as donors ........................................................................ 48
Mechanisms of fundraising ............................................................... 49
Individuals as volunteers ................................................................... 52
Applying the concepts—What types of community support
are appropriate for your organization? ........................................ 54
Applying the concepts—Who are your potential
community supporters? ................................................................. 55
Resources ........................................................................................... 56
Chapter 6
Donor Agencies ........................................................... 57
Introduction....................................................................................... 57
National and local government agencies ......................................... 59
Bilateral and multilateral agencies .................................................... 60
The general picture ....................................................................... 60
How funds flow ............................................................................ 61
Donor preferences ........................................................................ 62
Foundations ....................................................................................... 64
What is a foundation? ................................................................... 64
Trends in foundation funding ...................................................... 66
What foundations look for from an RHO .................................. 67
Other donor organizations ............................................................... 68
NGOs/PVOs ................................................................................. 68
Volunteer organizations ................................................................ 69
Service organizations ..................................................................... 69
Religious organizations ................................................................. 69
Mechanisms of funding .................................................................... 69
Grants ............................................................................................ 71
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Loans ............................................................................................. 72
Endowments .................................................................................. 74
In-kind contributions .................................................................... 76
Other types of support ................................................................. 77
International volunteers ............................................................. 77
Technical assistance and training .............................................. 77
Applying the concepts—Examining the role of donor
support for your organization ...................................................... 77
Applying the concepts—Who are your potential donors? ............... 78
Resources ........................................................................................... 80
Chapter 7
Your Funding Environment ........................................ 81
Introduction....................................................................................... 81
The resource mobilization map ........................................................ 81
Client, donor, and community profiles ........................................... 82
Resource matrix ................................................................................ 84
Applying the concepts—Summarizing potential support ................. 85
Section III|Building
the Strategy ................... 89
Chapter 8
Knowing Your Organization ....................................... 91
Introduction....................................................................................... 91
Mission definition ............................................................................. 91
Organizational diagnosis ................................................................... 92
Analysis of income ............................................................................ 94
Applying the concepts—Analyzing your own organization ............. 96
Chapter 9
Defining Resource Needs............................................ 101
Introduction..................................................................................... 101
STEP 1—Planning what services to provide ...................................... 101
STEP 2—Identifying actions required to make
organizational improvements ...................................................... 103
STEP 3—Estimating the cost of planned activities ........................ 103
STEP 4—Determining additional resource needs .......................... 106
Applying the concepts—Defining your organization’s
resource needs ............................................................................. 107
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Chapter 10
Matching Sources with Resource Needs—
The Leveraging Strategy ............................................. 117
Introduction......................................................................................117
What RHOs want and how this affects the
leveraging strategy .........................................................................118
Resource requirements and financial goals .................................118
Mission compatibility .................................................................. 119
What funding sources require in return and how
this affects the leveraging strategy .............................................. 120
Dealing with unsolicited donations ............................................... 122
Applying the concepts—Matching your organization’s
needs and capacities to those of appropriate sources .............. 123
Section IV| Implementing
Your Leveraging
Strategy ..................................... 133
Chapter 11
Image and Influence ................................................... 135
The importance of organizational image ....................................... 135
Identifying influential individuals and groups ............................... 136
Developing a communications plan ............................................... 137
Resources ......................................................................................... 140
Chapter 12
Leveraging Resources from Clients ............................. 141
Establishing a user-fee system .......................................................... 141
The practice of setting prices ..................................................... 141
For which services should your RHO charge? ..................... 141
How much should your RHO charge? ................................ 142
Whom should your RHO charge? ....................................... 143
Estimating the effect of client fees on the use of services ........... 144
Estimating income from client fees ...................................... 145
Introducing a client fee system .................................................. 145
Administering the fee system .................................................... 147
Contractual agreements .................................................................. 148
Deciding what to offer .............................................................. 149
Deciding how much to charge .................................................. 150
Resources ......................................................................................... 152
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Chapter 13
Accessing Support from the Community .................... 153
Cultivating your supporters ............................................................ 153
Actively soliciting help .................................................................... 154
Holding special events .................................................................... 155
Seeking sponsorship ........................................................................ 158
Conducting raffles........................................................................... 159
Finding volunteers ........................................................................... 160
Resources ......................................................................................... 162
Chapter 14
Seeking Support from Donors—Writing a Proposal ....... 163
Deciding on the type of proposal .................................................. 163
Before writing the proposal ........................................................... 165
Writing the proposal ....................................................................... 166
The content of the proposal .......................................................... 167
Executive summary ...................................................................... 167
Introduction................................................................................. 167
Problem statement/needs assessment ....................................... 168
Goals and objectives ................................................................... 168
Strategies and activities ............................................................... 169
Monitoring and evaluation ......................................................... 170
Sustainability ................................................................................ 170
Budget .......................................................................................... 171
Annexes ........................................................................................ 172
After submitting the proposal ........................................................ 172
If the proposal gets funded ............................................................ 173
Resources .......................................................................................... 174
Resources|
Publications, Tools, Websites,
and Organizations ................................ 175
Publications and Tools.........................................................175
Websites ...... .....................................................................................185
The Electronic Resource Center (ERC) and Health
Manager’s Toolkit ........................................................................... 185
Funders Online ................................................................................ 186
The Foundation Center .................................................................. 187
Organizations ............................................................. 191
CIVICUS .......................................................................................... 191
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Institute for Development Research .............................................. 192
The International Fund Raising Group ......................................... 192
Pact ................................................................................................... 193
Vibrante International ..................................................................... 194
Leveraging Guide|Bibliography
.................... 197
Leveraging Guide|Annexes............................
A-1
Annex 1: Selected Funding Sources for RHOs .............................. A-3
Annex 2: Profile of Individual Client ............................................ A-19
Annex 3: Profile of Organizational Client .................................... A-21
Annex 4: Profile of Community Supporter ..................................A-23
Annex 5: Profile of Business Sponsor ...........................................A-25
Annex 6: Profile of Donor ............................................................ A-27
Annex 7: Self-assessment of Organizational Strengths
and Weaknesses ...........................................................................A-29
Annex 8: Analysis of Income—A Case Study ................................A-35
Annex 9: Identifying a Suitable Fee for Your Goods
and Services ................................................................................ A-37
Annex 10: Identifying Program-related Goods and
Services to Offer Organizational Clients ...................................A-39
Annex 11: Special Event Checklist—Twelve Week
Planning Guide ........................................................................... A-41
Annex 12: Checklist for Reviewing Proposals to
Donors ........................................................................................A-43
Annex 13: Proposal Budget Worksheet ........................................A-45
Annex 14: Budget Justification ...................................................... A-47
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Acronyms
AIDS
AUSAID
CBD
CEDPA
CONAPO
COWAN
CPR
CRY
CYP
DFID
EC
ERC
FEMAP
FP
FPIA
FPLM
FPMD
GTZ
HIV
ICOMP
ICPD
IEC
IFRG
IPPF
IFRG
ITM
JICA
JOICFP
JSI
KfW
MEXFAM
MHO
MOH
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Australian Agency for International Development
Community-Based Distribution/Distributor
Center for Development and Population Activities
Mexican National Population Council
Country Women’s Association of Nigeria
Contraceptive Prevalence Rate
Child Relief and You
Couple-year of Protection
United Kingdom Department for International
Development
European Commission
Electronic Resource Center
Federacion Mexicana de Associones Privadas de Salud
y Desarrollo Communitario
Family Planning
Family Planning International Assistance
Family Planning Logistics Management
Family Planning Management Development
German Technical Cooperation
Human Immunodeficiency Virus
International Council on Management of Population
Programmes
International Conference on Population and
Development
Information, Education, and Communication
International Fund Raising Group
International Planned Parenthood Federation
International Fundraising Group
Institute of Tropical Medicine
Japanese International Cooperation Agency
Japanese Organization for International Cooperation in
Family Planning
John Snow, Inc.
German Bank for Reconstruction
Fundacion Mexicana para la Planeacion Familiar
Mutual Health Organization
Ministry of Health
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MOST
MSH
NGO
NNG
OC
PACT
PATH
PCDA
PO
PPAT
PSI
PVO
RACHA
RH
RHAC
RHSA
RHO
SEATS
Sida
STD
STI
SWOT
TA
UN
UNAIDS
UNDP
UNFPA
UNICEF
USAID
VSC
VSO
WAF
WB
WHO
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Management and Organizational Sustainability Tool
Management Sciences for Health, Inc.
Nongovernmental Organization
National Network of Grantmakers
Oral Contraceptive
Private Agencies Cooperating Together
Program for Appropriate Technology in Health
Population and Community Development Association
Purchase Order
Planned Parenthood Association of Thailand
Population Services International
Private Voluntary Organization
Reproductive and Child Health Alliance
Reproductive Health
Reproductive Health Association of Cambodia
Reproductive Health Services Association
Reproductive Health Organization
Family Planning Service Expansion and Technical
Support Project
Swedish International Development Agency
Sexually Transmitted Disease
Sexually Transmitted Infection
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats
Technical Assistance
United Nations
United Nations AIDS Program
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Population Fund
United Nations Children’s Fund
United States Agency for International Development
Voluntary Surgical Contraception
Voluntary Service Organization
World AIDS Foundation
World Bank
World Health Organization
Glossary
Collateral: Something of value that is used to guarantee repayment of a
loan, i.e. a building, land, equipment. If loan repayments are not made, the
lender can legally take the item(s) used for collateral from the recipient.
Cost analysis: The examination of expenditures to determine how resources have been spent.
Cost(s): The value of a good or service.
Average cost(s): The cost per unit of outcome, computed by
dividing the total cost by the number of units of outcome, also called
unit or mean cost.
Capital cost(s): Costs of items which have a life expectancy of one
year or more, usually land, buildings, vehicles, and equipment. Also
called development costs.
Development cost(s): See “Capital cost(s).”
Direct cost(s): Costs that are directly attributable to a program,
project, product, or activity, such as the cost of gasoline used by
project vehicles for project work.
Fixed cost(s): Costs that do not vary with minor changes in program size. Examples include the cost of buildings, permanent staff,
and medical equipment.
Indirect cost(s): Costs that are not directly attributable to a program, project, product, or activity, but which are incurred in support
of those direct activities. Overhead, fringe benefits, general, and
administrative expenses are typical indirect cost categories.
Monetary cost(s): Financial expenditures incurred in purchasing a
product or service.
Non-monetary cost(s): The value of resources (or inputs) to the
program that have not been paid for. Examples are volunteer time,
donated space, and time and effort spent by clients to come to
service sites.
Operating cost(s): See “Recurrent cost(s).”
Recurrent cost(s): Costs of items that are purchased and used (or
replaced) within a period of one year or less, such as personnel
salaries, medicines and supplies, gasoline, and utilities. Also called
“Operating cost(s).”
Unit costs: See “Average cost(s).”
Variable cost(s): Costs that vary with program size. Examples
include the cost of drugs, gasoline, and vehicle maintenance.
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Earmark: To set aside or reserve resources for a specific purpose. These
resources may only be used for the purpose indicated. For example, a
grant earmarked for building and operating a clinic could not be used to
send staff overseas for graduate level training.
Effectiveness: The degree to which objectives (desired outcomes) are
achieved. For example, if a program’s objective is to reach 10,000
women, it would be 90 percent effective if it reached 9,000 women.
Efficiency: The achievement of objectives without wasting resources; the
relationship of output to input. For example, in two programs that use the
same amount of resources, program A, which screens 10 mothers/day, is
more efficient than program B, which screens five mothers/day.
Expenditures: The amount of money spent.
Grace period: A period of time during which loan payments do not need
to be made. Interest on the loan may continue to accrue.
Income: Funds received from contributions, donations, allotments, and/
or sales of products and services. Sometimes called “Revenue.”
Inputs: Resources (human, materials and supplies, equipment and
facilities, information, and money) used to generate outputs.
Leverage: The ability of an organization to use its existing organizational
assets (staff, quality services, buildings and equipment) to mobilize additional resources.
Management: The art and science of getting things done through
people.
Marketing: A systematic process that creates and facilitates exchanges that
help satisfy individual and organizational needs. It involves identifying the
needs and wants of the clients, and delivering them more effectively and
efficiently than alternative providers.
Outputs: Products and services provided by a program.
Revenue: Money received. See “Income.”
Social Capital: The relationships developed with individuals and organizations in the community.
Sustainability: The capacity of an organization to continue the provision
of high quality services to its intended population at a steady or growing
level while lessening dependence on external support.
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Adapted from: Cost Analysis – Module 8 User’s Guide: Primary Health Care Management Advancement Programme (Washington, DC: Aga Khan Foundation, 1993), pp. 95-96.
SECTION I
Chapter 1
Overview
What is leveraging and why is it important?
Many reproductive health organizations (RHOs) are struggling to meet
the growing demand for their services in the face of these diminishing
resources. They recognize that failure to attract adequate resources
threatens the quality and level of the services they can provide. It can
even jeopardize the very survival of their organization. RHOs have been
forced to reassess both their use of resources and their funding portfolio. Some have been notably successful (see box on “A leveraging
success story”).
Donor support
for reproductive
health activities
has fallen in
recent years.
INTRODUCTION
Funding for reproductive health activities has fallen significantly in
recent years. Even the fanfare following the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo has not helped to
reverse this trend. Population development aid fell some 18 percent
between 1995 and 1996 (excluding World Bank loans). This decline is
happening at the same time as the population in developing countries
and the need for reproductive health services are expanding.
This Guide is designed to help organizations tackle the difficult task of
securing the financial support needed to ensure their future. The term
“leveraging” is used to describe this process of mobilizing additional
resources to support the provision of services. It can be applied to a
whole range of different resources including cash grants, in-kind
donations, and technical advice.
A “leveraging” success story
The Reproductive Health Association of Cambodia (RHAC) has had considerable success in generating additional financial support for its operations using
many of the leveraging tools and approaches discussed in this Guide. RHAC
began in 1994 as a project funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and managed by Family Planning International
Assistance (FPIA), registering as a locally managed and staffed non-governmental organization (NGO) in 1996. In 1997, it embarked on a comprehensive program of systematic organizational strengthening as a foundation for its
ambitious leveraging strategy. The result was significant growth and diversification of the organization’s resource base. By 1999, USAID support was
reduced to less than 60 percent of the organization’s total costs as more than a
half-dozen new local and international donors now provide financial and inkind support for various RHAC programs.
SEATS II
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1
to Leveraging
Section I1
| Introduction
“Leveraging” conveys something important about the process—namely
that tools and techniques can be used to “lever” these additional resources from existing assets. Figure 1.1 depicts this relationship simplifying, like all models, what is a complex and often messy reality.
Figure 1.1 Model of leveraging
EXIS TI
ORGA NG
ASSET NIZATIONA
S
L
Efficie
n
Quality t Operation
s
Comm Services
Organ unity Orient
iz
Track ation Linka ation
Record
ges
L
Fundin EVERS
g Pr op
o
Cost C Contractin sals
g
ontr ol
a
nd
Local
Fundra Recover y
ising
ADDIT
I O NA
L
R
In-kind ESOURCES
Donati
ons
Train
C
Comm ing/Technic
al Sup a s h
unity/P
po
olitica
l Supp rt
ort
“Leveraging” involves
the use of existing
organizational assets
to mobilize additional
resources.
в–І
Less appropriate
в–І
STRATEGY
More appropriate
The assets that an organization can exploit in leveraging new resources
can include a range of things---material assets such as property or capital
equipment, the skills, knowledge, and networks of its staff, and even its
reputation for quality services. These assets influence the process of
leveraging. They represent the “weight” an organization can bring to
bear. The more impressive an organization’s existing assets, the easier it
is for an organization to access further support.
But Figure 1.1 reveals a key point about leveraging that can be easily
overlooked. Whatever the advantages an organization has in terms of
existing assets, these can only really be realized with a properly positioned lever and fulcrum—in other words an appropriate selection of
tools and a good leveraging strategy. The more appropriate the choice
of strategy---the better it “fits” or reflects the RHO’s mission, strengths,
resource needs, and operating environment---the more successful the
leveraging process is likely to be.
A leveraging tool can take many forms. It could be a new service or
product that generates client fees. Or it may be an increase in the price
that clients pay. It can be a networking contact made by the RHO
Director at a conference with a trustee of a foundation or a grant
proposal that builds on that initial contact. It can be collaboration with a
local organization to extend access to services. Or it may take the form
of a local fundraising raffle and dance. Adopting cost-saving measures
that make service delivery more efficient is yet another approach.
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Guide
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to Leveraging
Chapter 11
It is possible for an RHO to expand its funding and the scope of operations too quickly. The demands of multiple funding agencies together
with expanded activities can threaten the quality of service delivery and
ultimately undermine an organization’s reputation. But this is a problem
few RHOs are fortunate enough to face. Most are struggling with too few
rather than too many resources. Helping RHOs to develop an appropriate leveraging strategy for their particular organization is the purpose of
this Guide.
RHAC’s experience of the leveraging trade-offs
Af
ver
aging ef
ts, RHA
C ffound
ound itself wit
h an ambiAftt er its successful le
lev
eraging
efffor
orts,
RHAC
with
tf
olio of activities. A ne
w clinic, eexpansion
xpansion of a small adolescent
portf
tfolio
new
tious por
pr
og
o tthr
hr
ee cities and six pr
ovinces, assis
or tw
o
prog
ogrram in one city tto
hree
pro
assistt ance ffor
two
xpansion and
GOs wit
h adolescent pr
og
int
er
national N
ogrrams, and eexpansion
inter
ernational
NGOs
with
prog
w
he
community
-based
dis
tr
ibution
pr
og
r
am.
All tthese
hese ne
over
haul
of
t
ogr
new
erhaul
the community-based distr
tribution prog
xpansion of RHA
C’
aining,
eq
uir
ed signif
icant eexpansion
pr
og
training,
uired
significant
RHAC’
C’ss tr
prog
ogrram activities rreq
equir
resear
k e ting, and inf
or
mation, education, and communication
esearcc h, mar
mark
infor
ormation,
(IEC) depar
tments, and also placed consider
able pr
essur
departments,
considerable
pressur
essuree on accounting
and adminis
tr
ation
depar
tments.
administr
tration departments.
| Overview
An organization’s assets,
no matter how substantial,
can only be effective in
leveraging additional
resources if an
appropriate leveraging
strategy is in place.
An added pr
oblem w
as div
er
sion of tthe
he att
ention of tthe
he mos
problem
was
diver
ersion
attention
mostt senior (and
mos
C sstt af
way fr
om int
er
nal pr
og
mostt skilled) RHA
RHAC
afff aaw
from
inter
ernal
prog
ogrram planning and
manag
ement matt
er
he or
ound
management
matter
erss and tthe
orgganization
anization’’s mission. These sstt af
afff ffound
themsel
v
es
de
v
o
ting
muc
h
of
t
heir
time
r
esponding
t
o
t
he
r
eq
ues
ts
hemselv dev
much
their
responding to the req
eques
uests of
man
encies ffor
or inf
or
mation.
manyy funding ag
agencies
infor
ormation.
Structure and use of the Guide
This Guide consists of 14 chapters organized into four sections:
! Section I---Introduction---describes the principles of leveraging
and introduces the idea of leveraging as an “exchange” process
posing marketing challenges.
! Section II---Potential Sources of Leverage---describes in detail the
features of each of the four main sources of funding with an opportunity for the reader to apply the concepts to their own organization
at the end of each chapter: internal sources (Chapter 3), clients
(Chapter 4), community (Chapter 5), and donors (Chapter 6).
Chapter 7 provides several exercises designed to help the reader
to map out the broad financing options available to their organization, and to collect some basic information on each of these.
! Section III---Building the Strategy---focuses on the organization
that is seeking to leverage additional resources. This section
explains how to conduct three key pieces of organizational
analysis---preparing/revising a mission statement, doing an
SEATS II
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Section I1
| Introduction
Additional resources
This guide pr
ovides a com
pr
epro
compr
prehensiv
e, no
xhaus
tiv
e,
hensive,
nott eexhaus
xhaustiv
tive,
discussion of tthe
he ttopics
opics rrelat
elat
ed
elated
ver
aging. T
o supplement
t o le
To
lev
eraging.
he Guide
the main tteext, tthe
includes:
Resources: An anno
annottat
ated
ed
ref
er
ence tto
o additional sour
ces
efer
erence
sources
of inf
or
mation, ttools,
ools, w
ebsit
es,
infor
ormation,
websit
ebsites,
and or
orgganizations.
or
mation necessar
Annexes: Inf
Infor
ormation
necessaryy
he le
ver
aging conapplyy tthe
lev
eraging
t o appl
cep
ts pr
esent
ed tto
o an or
cepts
present
esented
orgganization. Includes cont
act inf
or
macontact
infor
ormation ffor
or a number of bilat
er
al
bilater
eral
and multilat
er
al donor
s,
multilater
eral
donors,
foundations, int
er
national
inter
ernational
NGOs, vvolunt
olunt
eer or
olunteer
orgganizations, and int
er
mediar
ies
inter
ermediar
mediaries
(Anne
(Annexx 1).
organization diagnosis, and analyzing the existing income base
(Chapter 8). It then outlines a procedure for determining what
are the amounts and kind of resources that need to be leveraged
(Chapter 9). It concludes by bringing together the material from
these two chapters with the resource matrix from Chapter 7 to
guide the reader on how to make a good match between the
potential sources of support and organizational needs (Chapter
10). This forms the basis for an appropriate leveraging strategy.
! Section IV---Implementing Your Leveraging Strategy---discusses the
importance of “image” for an organization (Chapter 11) and
examines practical aspects of accessing the required resources
from the sources that have been identified as appropriate---client
fees (Chapter 12), community support (Chapter 13), and donor
proposals (Chapter 14).
Each chapter ends with a list of key references to other sources of
information the reader can consult for more in-depth or technical
discussion of the issues presented in the Guide. These references are
annotated and consolidated in the Resources section that follows the
last chapter.
Some of the sections are primarily devoted to providing information.
This is true of Sections II and IV that describe respectively the nature of
the sources of funding and procedures for accessing them. The emphasis in Section III is rather different. Most of this section presents the
analytical procedures for developing a leveraging strategy. So, while
each chapter in the Guide concludes with an exercise to help the reader
apply the concepts and techniques to his or her own organization, the
exercises in Section III are particularly important.
It is possible to use the Guide in many ways—reading through the whole
text to get the flavor of the approach, consulting it periodically for
specific information, or using it as a reference in a training setting.
Whatever the approach, we would strongly recommend doing the
exercises, even if initially in rather a superficial way. Most of the exercises are linked---the results of one being used as inputs to another.
Working systematically through the Guide will lead the reader by the
end of Section III to the development of a leveraging strategy that is
tailored to his or her own organization.
Many organizations will already have prepared some of the documentation and analysis described in the Guide as part of their normal planning
and management procedures. They can use the exercises as an opportunity to update or confirm that existing documentation.
SEATS II
Guide
4
to Leveraging
Chapter 11
| Overview
Who this Guide can help
This Guide should prove useful to reproductive health organizations in
many different circumstances. This would include any RHO which:
! Receives most of its financial support from just one or two
external agencies
! Is seen more as the implementing agency of donor projects than
as an independent RHO
! Is considering implementing a program (e.g., safe abortions,
adolescent program on sexuality) that is viewed as controversial
by its major funding source
! Is not collaborating widely with government departments and
NGOs
! Does not know what products and services its clients are most
willing to pay for and how much they are willing and able to pay
! Receives aid from multilateral or bilateral donors who are likely
to reduce their support in the future
! Is facing a rapidly changing political, economic, or demographic
situation
! Is not receiving service contracts or contributions from the local
business community
! Does not have an advisory or governing body that assists in
mobilizing and diversifying resources.
This Guide, with its basic discussions of leveraging principles, its many
exercises, and its extensive list of references, should also prove useful to
those who work as advisors and consultants to the managers and senior
leadership of these RHOs.
SEATS II
Guide
5
to Leveraging
Section I1
| Introduction
SEATS II
Guide
6
to Leveraging
Chapter 2
Successful Leveraging
Exchange–The essence of leveraging
Leveraging is first and foremost a marketing challenge. To attract resources to your organization you need to offer something in exchange.
What you offer needs to be of value to those providing the resources.
There can be no leverage where there is no demand for the services that
you offer. This is most obvious when the resources are the fees that
clients pay for the services they receive, but it also holds true in the case
of technical or financial resources that are obtained from third parties
such as government and donor organizations.
To leverage additional
resources you need to
offer something of value
in exchange.
“Marketing” involves identifying the needs and wants of the clients you
wish to serve, and delivering them more effectively and efficiently than
alternative providers. It is the key to achieving organizational goals and
objectives. Exchange is the basis---the essence---of marketing. Two or more
parties offer something of value to each other---something that satisfies their
respective needs.
Anything that is valued by the other party, tangible or intangible, can be
exchanged. Health and family planning products and services are
tangible benefits valued by clients for which they may be prepared to
pay money to the provider. Intangible benefits, including enhanced
power, prestige, or reputation, are also valued and may be sought by
either providers or their clients. Sometimes what is requested in exchange is information or acknowledgment, sometimes in an unusual
form (see box below).
Using information in an exchange
When assis
ak
es tthe
he ffor
or
m of ttangible
angible pr
oducts tthat
hat can be used dir
ectl
assisttance ttak
akes
orm
products
directl
ectlyy
b y int
ended
clients
--e.g.
,
w
at
er
pum
ps,
bicy
cles,
sc
hool
supplie
s--donor
s
ma
intended clients-----e.g.
e.g., wat
ater pumps, bicycles, school supplies--s---donor
donors mayy
req
uir
e, in eexx c hang
e, de
or
mation whic
h tthe
he
hen use ffor
or
equir
uire,
hange,
dett ailed inf
infor
ormation
which
heyy can tthen
vided
RHA
C
wit
h
continued fundr
aising
ef
f
or
ts.
F
or
e
x
am
ple,
a
donor
pr
o
pro
RHAC with
fundraising efforts. For example,
250 bicy
cles tto
o suppor
-based outr
eac
h activities. It rreq
eq
uir
ed in
outreac
each
equir
uired
bicycles
supportt community
community-based
og
r
aph
of
eac
h
r
ecipient
r
eceiving
one
of
t
he
bicy
cles
and
a
exchang
e
a
pho
t
each recipient receiving
the bicycles
hange photogr
no
eciation tto
o eac
h of tthe
he cities tthat
hat donat
ed tthe
he bicy
cles.
nott e of appr
appreciation
each
donated
bicycles.
SEATS II
Guide
7
to Leveraging
Section I1
| Introduction
A focus on clients
Marketing is a systematic process that creates and facilitates exchanges
that help satisfy individual and organizational needs. It does this by
being client-focused. Everything a market-oriented health care provider
does---from delivering services to populations to approaching local and
international donors for various types of support---is done with the client
in mind.
Everything a marketoriented RHO does
has the client in mind,
whether the client is
someone seeking reproductive health
services or a donor
seeking to fulfill its
objectives.
This is a different way of thinking from the product-oriented approach
where the provider decides what products and services best meet the
needs of clients. With such an approach, the emphasis will be on
clinical quality and little importance will be attached to aspects such as
cost and convenience to the client.
A marketing approach also leads organizations to think differently about
traditional sources of financial and technical support. Such support is
often taken for granted and is assumed to be a natural and reliable
response to the social benefits implied in an organization’s mission. But
the sources of this support have missions and objectives of their own.
Local governmental authorities, not-for-profit organizations, wealthy or
influential private individuals, and international development organizations all have their own expectations and interests regarding such issues
as financial accountability, program efficiency, clients to be served, and
the types and sustainability of services to be provided.
To be successful in today’s increasingly competitive funding environment, it is not enough simply to present proposals to as many local and
international organizations as possible in the hope that one or more will
respond with the needed resources. It is essential to be aware of the
individual requirements and interests of each potential donor and orient
your approach to each accordingly.
SEATS II
Guide
8
to Leveraging
Chapter 21
| Successful Leveraging
Different types of exchange
The most common types of exchange between a reproductive health
organization and its various clients are represented below in Figure 2.1:
RHO exchange relationships. This depicts the RHO as a social enterprise, an organization with both a social mission (to contribute to the
common good) and business objectives (to ensure scarce resources are
used efficiently). Both aspects of the RHO need to be addressed when
thinking strategically about resource leveraging.
The left side of Figure 2.1 reflects the exchange relationship between
the RHO and those it provides with reproductive health or other services and products. The RHO is responding to the needs and wants of
its clients. In exchange it realizes two sets of benefits for itself. First, by
effectively meeting as many of the mission-relevant needs of as many
people as possible, it helps satisfy its social mission. Second, if it recovers some portion of the costs from the recipients of the products and
services, it contributes to its business objectives.
In a market exchange an
RHO needs to address
both its social mission
and business objectives.
In the case of individual clients, this exchange is recognizable as the feefor-service model that has traditionally been associated with the private
sector provision of health services. But it is also possible that the clients
served are other organizations, not individuals. For example, other notfor-profit organizations may pay tuition fees to send their staff to an
Figure 2.1 RHO exchange relationships
в–І
e
Cr
Im
es
at
pa
Social
Mission
D
ct
ev
elo
pm
en
tO
bj
ec
tiv
es
в–І
Meets Needs
в–І
Accountability
в–І
Donors
в–І
RHO
Technical &
Financial Resources
в–І
or
Se
rv
ice
s
Business
Objectives
Re
d
f
ys
Pa
uc
(E ed D
xit
St epe
ra n
te de
gy n
) cy
Satisfies Wants
в–І
Clients
в–І
Adapted from Exchanging Value for Value. Dunford, Christopher. (Sustainable Development Services
Project, 1998).
SEATS II
Guide
9
to Leveraging
Section I1
| Introduction
RHO’s training program; or a commercial organization may be willing
to purchase analytical services or to pay for access to an existing distribution network that it could use for its own products or services. The
basis for this transaction, however, is essentially the same as for individual clients—a mutually beneficial exchange.
As a service business, an organization needs to consider the marketing
issues involved in charging fees to recipients of its goods or services.
The organization needs to know enough about its intended population
to be able to tailor its products and services to their specific needs and
wants, a process which may require providing different services for
different subgroups.
Most organizations that provide health and family planning services
cannot generate all the revenues they need through user fees. Some
revenue will need to come from other sources, usually donors, who
subsidize the services provided by the organization to its intended
populations. The RHO’s relationship with donor clients is reflected in
the exchange depicted on the right side of Figure 2.1. Donor clients may
be local governments, private organizations, individuals, or international
organizations. In exchange for the technical or financial resources they
provide, the RHO offers them two kinds of benefits:
! The first benefit is the RHO’s programmatic impact that the
donor is able to facilitate through its support. For example,
through the RHO the donor may be able to reach a particular
population group—such as adolescents, or populations located
in a particular country or setting—which its own mission mandates it to serve.
! The second benefit is an accurate and timely reporting of how
the assistance received was used. Funding agencies see their
support as an investment made on behalf of their own supporters. They want to demonstrate to their supporters what has been
accomplished with their funds. They also hope to learn from the
experience of the RHO. The ability to satisfy a funding agency’s
requirements for accountability and information is a key element
in any leveraging strategy.
The box on the next page describes the network of exchanges involved
in the provision of oral contraceptives (OCs) to individual clients in a
hypothetical example.
Getting the right kind of exchange
Developing an effective leveraging strategy involves identifying and
pursuing the right kind of exchanges—those where the costs of the
demands made from the funding source do not outweigh the resource
benefits to the RHO.
SEATS II
Guide
10
to Leveraging
Chapter 21
| Successful Leveraging
Network of exchanges with the provision
of oral contraceptives
ovision of fr
al contr
acep
tiv
es (OCs) rref
ef
lects its
Donor: The donor
donor’’s pr
pro
free
oral
contracep
aceptiv
tives
eflects
ee or
o tthe
he goals of tthe
he Cair
o Conf
er
ence, and addr
esses
Cairo
Confer
erence,
addresses
public commitment tto
the concer
ns of im
por
tic political int
er
es
epor
ts
concerns
impor
portt ant domes
domestic
inter
eres
estt ggrroups. The rrepor
eports
at
hat tthis
his commitment
it rreq
eq
uir
es fr
om tthe
he RHO ar
o demons
tr
equir
uires
from
aree used tto
demonstr
trat
atee tthat
is, in ffact,
act, being honor
ed. A
he same time, bbyy rreq
eq
uir
ing tthat
hat tthe
he OCs
equir
uiring
honored.
Att tthe
he donor
be sold and tthe
he pr
oceeds used tto
o pr
ocur
eplacement supplies, tthe
proceeds
procur
ocuree rreplacement
contr
ibut
es tto
o its o
wn de
velopment objectiv
omo
ting tthe
he
contribut
ibutes
own
dev
objectivee of pr
promo
omoting
sus
educing its suppor
ver
sustt ainability of its RHO clients, and of ggrraduall
aduallyy rreducing
supportt o
ov
time.
or rresale
esale tto
o its clients contr
ibut
es bo
o
RHO: The rreceip
eceiptt of fr
free
contribut
ibutes
botth tto
eceip
ee OCs ffor
o mee
he rrepr
epr
oductiv
h needs of its clients, as
RHO’ss ability tto
meett tthe
eproductiv
oductivee healt
health
the RHO’
well as tto
o tthe
he ac
hie
vement of its o
wn long-t
er
m objectiv
achie
hiev
own
long-ter
erm
objectivee of enhancing its
financial sus
n, tthe
he RHO has de
veloped and mainsustt ainability
ainability.. In rreetur
turn,
dev
t ained an ef
or
mation sy
hat pr
ovides its donor
h
efffectiv
ectivee inf
infor
ormation
sysst em tthat
pro
donorss wit
with
accur
at
epor
ts on its ffinancial
inancial and pr
og
ations.
accurat
atee and timel
timelyy rrepor
eports
prog
ogrram oper
operations.
An appropriate leveraging
strategy requires the
right exchange, one
where the benefits
are greater than the
costs of acquiring the
resources.
vailability of af
dable OCs adds tto
o a client
ang
Individual Clients: The aav
afffor
ordable
client’’s rrang
angee
hoice, par
ticular
or tthose
hose int
er
es
olling tthe
he
metthod cchoice,
particular
ticularlly ffor
inter
eres
estted in contr
controlling
of me
spacing of ttheir
heir bir
esponsiv
eness and cour
he RHO’
birtths. The rresponsiv
esponsiveness
courttesy of tthe
RHO’ss
clinical ssttaf
essing client qques
ues
tions and concer
ns is suf
afff in addr
addressing
uestions
concerns
suffficientl
icientlyy
dif
ent fr
om tthe
he eexper
xper
ience in public clinics tthat
hat clients ar
epar
ed tto
o
difffer
erent
from
xperience
aree pr
prepar
epared
pa
or tthis
his ser
vice.
payy ffor
service.
To make a good judgment about the kind of exchanges that are appropriate to pursue, an RHO needs to know what potential funding sources
can provide and what they will, in turn, demand. Section II identifies the
kind of information an RHO needs to have on funding sources, describes some of this information, and provides advice on how to get
further details.
An RHO also needs to know itself well, particularly its needs (in terms of
resources, and satisfying its mission and financial goals), and its capacity
to respond to the demands of funding sources. Section III provides
guidance on how to obtain that information, and then match the organization with suitable funding sources—i.e., identifying suitable exchanges.
Making these exchange possibilities a reality requires following certain
procedures and principles. Section IV details some of the most important of
these.
Identifying the right kind of exchanges as well as the right funding
sources and mechanisms is something that each RHO has to do for
itself by working through the kind of analytical procedure set out in this
Guide. There are, however, some general guiding principles that can
SEATS II
Guide
11
to Leveraging
Section I1
| Introduction
The cost of donations
RHA
C accep
he donation of eq
uipment and supplies ffor
or a sstt er
ilization
RHAC
acceptt ed tthe
equipment
erilization
unit along wit
h tr
aining ffor
or pr
ovider
s. This w
as wit
hin tthe
he scope of tthe
he
with
training
pro
viders.
was
within
or
he im
plications w
er
ed.
orgganization
anization’’s mission but tthe
implications
wer
eree no
nott full
fullyy consider
considered.
eq
uir
ed an additional US$1
5,000 fr
om
Ins
he eq
uipment rreq
uired
US$15,000
from
Instt allation of tthe
equipment
equir
el
RHA
C’
wn funds. Ev
en wit
h tthat
hat in
ves
tment, tthe
he unit w
as rrelativ
elativ
own
Even
with
inv
estment,
was
elativel
elyy
RHAC’
C’ss o
he absence of demand ffor
or tthe
he pr
ocedur
he lac
k of
idle due tto
o tthe
procedur
oceduree and tthe
lack
pr
eliminar
k et rresear
esear
o plan an ef
omo
tional cam
paign.
preliminar
eliminaryy mar
mark
esearcc h tto
efffectiv
ectivee pr
promo
omotional
campaign.
Satisfy your donor’s
needs, but avoid being
donor-driven.
assist in this process. With these principles in mind, continue reading
through the Guide to learn how to build a successful leveraging strategy:
! Avoid the temptation to accept every donation that comes
along. Review an offer of funding carefully to determine the contribution it would make to the organization, the additional costs implied, and the constraints or demands it imposes.
! Avoid being donor-driven. Changing program objectives in order to attract donor interest rather than satisfy community demand is detrimental to long-term viability.
! Seek funding that does not depend too heavily on “project”
funding. Project funding is typically narrowly focused, time limited, and tightly controlled by donors. It can restrict an
organization’s flexibility in responding to changes in the environment and can limit the ability to plan over the long term.
! Strive for an appropriate level of funding diversification. An organization with very few funding sources is particularly vulnerable
should any funding source be withdrawn, and can, as a result, lose
some of its decision-making freedom. Diversification of funding
provides a more secure financial base.
! Seek funding that does not demand too much from your organization in relation to the benefits it offers. Would the reporting and documentation demands of a grant distract you from
your key program activities? Are the risks of the repayment demands of a loan worthwhile? Are the relatively small amounts of a
foundation’s funding worth the effort of accessing it?
SEATS II
Guide
12
to Leveraging
Chapter 21
| Successful Leveraging
Applying the concepts—Exploring the idea of exchange in your organization
Select one reproductive health product or service that you currently provide. Identify the parties to the
exchanges involved in the provision of this product or service and record them in Table 2.1 below. Briefly
note what each of these parties provides, and what benefit(s) each derives from its participation in these
exchanges in Table 2.1.
Product/Service:
Table 2.1: Exchange in your organization
Exchange participants
Your RHO . . .
Receives the following benefits:
In exchange for providing:
Donors:
Clients:
Community:
Other individuals/
Organizations:
SEATS II
Guide
13
to Leveraging
Section I1
| Introduction
Resources
Essentials of Health Care Marketing. Eric N. Berkowitz. (Gaithersburg,
MD: Aspen Publishers, Inc., 1996).
Social Marketing: Strategies for Changing Public Behavior. Philip Kotler
and Eduardo Roberto. (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1989).
Strategic Marketing for Nonprofit Organizations. 5th ed. Philip Kotler and
Alan Andreasen. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995).
SEATS II
Guide
14
to Leveraging
SECTION II
T
POTENTIAL SOURCES OF LEVERAGE
here are many potential sources of leverage—national and local
governments, bilateral and multilateral organizations, foundations
and trusts, individuals, local and multinational business, NGOs,
and private voluntary organizations (PVOs) (see Figure). They differ in
the way they provide resources: some through intermediaries, others
directly; some purchasing services, others investing in the program or
organization. They also differ in what they value, their motives for
giving, and the demands they make of funding recipients. The more you
know about potential funders, their funding priorities, and their constraints the better able you will be to mobilize resources.
External sources of funds can be grouped into three segments, the
members of which are broadly similar in their needs and in their likely
responses to what you offer:
! Individuals or organizations who use the services or products you
provide
! Agencies whose purpose is to support other organizations
! Individuals and organizations who are not direct users of your
services but who support your organization.
Figure: Potential sources of support
SEATS II
Guide
15
to Leveraging
Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
In this Guide the term “clients” is generally used to describe the first
group, “donor agencies” to describe the second, and “community” to
describe the third. Occasionally, and purposefully, the Guide uses these
terms in other ways. It can, for example, be helpful to recognize that all
these groups are in some sense “clients”—deriving benefits from the
support they provide even if it is not the direct benefits of the goods
and services offered by the RHO. Similarly, “community” can readily
and usefully be seen to embrace the subset of donors and clients. And
all these groups are, in a sense, by definition “donors”—providing
support. In general, however, the terms “clients,” “community,” and
“donors” will be used as shorthand for the three groups identified
above.
This section of the book introduces these three categories—clients
(Chapter 4), community (Chapter 5), and donors (Chapter 6)—to stimulate you to explore possibilities not seriously considered or pursued
before. Chapter 7 presents a framework to help you draw on the information from Chapters 4, 5, and 6 to develop your own resource
map—the specific leveraging possibilities that exist for your particular
organization.
But first we start by identifying a very important and often overlooked
potential source of resources—the organization itself. Making more
efficient use of the resources an organization already has is, perhaps,
the first task of any organization that is looking for ways to leverage
resources. This topic is discussed in Chapter 3.
SEATS II
Guide
16
to Leveraging
Chapter 3
Improving Organizational
Efficiency—The Internal
Leveraging Source
What is efficiency?
Organizations often overlook assets within their own structure when it
comes to leveraging resources. Most organizations have the potential
either to increase the services they provide within the resource constraints they currently have, or to reduce their costs without harming
their output. In other words, most organizations could become more
efficient.
Improving efficiency is a very desirable way to leverage for two reasons.
Firstly, organizations have more control over their own management
than they do over decisions made by donors or clients. Secondly,
improving efficiency makes organizations more attractive to donors and
clients.
Most organizations could
use their own resources
more efficiently.
Being efficient is not equivalent to cutting costs. It refers to increasing
the outputs per unit of input. A cut in costs that disproportionately
undermines quality and reduces the desired output is not efficient,
Examples of attempts to improve efficiency
A number of RHA
C’
wer clinics had lo
w client vvolumes,
olumes, rresulting
esulting in
RHAC’
C’ss ne
new
low
st af
ving qquit
uit
ee time when tthe
he
er
afff ha
having
uitee a lo
lott of fr
free
heyy w
wer
eree no
nott seeing patients.
To ttak
ak
ant
ag
his eexx cess capacity
C had tthese
hese sstt af
heir
akee adv
advant
antag
agee of tthis
capacity,, RHA
RHAC
afff use ttheir
h activities. FFor
or no
fr
ee time tto
o conduct some community outr
eac
free
outreac
each
C w
as able tto
o pr
ovide neighbor
ing communities
additional cos
t, RHA
cost,
RHAC
was
pro
neighboring
wit
h healt
h education.
with
health
An or
he number of
orgganization in Ecuador paid its ph
phyysicians based on tthe
he
w. This meant sstt af
ts w
er
ar
iable and could be kkep
ep
heyy sa
saw
afff cos
costs
wer
eree vvar
ariable
eptt
clients tthe
lo
w when tther
her
er
ying clients.
low
heree w
wer
eree no
nott man
manyy pa
paying
A ph
her
n Nig
er
ia beg
an pur
maphyysicians
sicians’’ association in Sout
Souther
hern
Niger
eria
began
purcchasing phar
pharmaor its member
s. Ev
en af
ver
ing tthe
he cos
ocur
emembers.
Even
aftt er co
cov
ering
costt of pr
procur
ocureceuticals in bulk ffor
ment, dis
tr
ibution, and a small ffee,
ee, tthe
he member
till rrealized
ealized a sa
ving of
tribution,
memberss sstill
saving
distr
15 per
cent.
percent.
SEATS II
Guide
17
to Leveraging
Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
whereas trimming back in areas that are not performing well may increase efficiency. More resources can mean greater efficiency. An organization that increases coverage with minimal additional investment, for example, has become more efficient.
There are some standard strategies designed to increase an
organization’s efficiency by reducing costs without jeopardizing the
services. These include:1
! Buying supplies and commodities in bulk. Bulk purchasing can
be particularly effective if several organizations get together to
do “group purchasing” and negotiate for even better rates for
the larger quantities;
! Developing partnerships with either government or NGOs to
share facilities or staff;
! Using volunteers. This option involves some costs but generally
less than paying staff salaries and benefits;
! Getting three bids when purchasing supplies or services of any
value and telling each supplier that it is competing against at
least two others;
! Subletting unused office space. This can be source of revenue
without additional costs.
Information required to identify inefficiencies
Although it is possible to generalize about some strategies that are likely
to improve the efficiency of most organizations (see above), most
solutions to inefficiency are organization-specific.
Efficiency requires
reliable information on
program activities and
financial expenditures.
To determine what the specific strategies might be, an organization
must analyze the nature of the costs it incurs.
The first way to break down costs is into different inputs distinguishing,
in particular, those inputs that have a life expectancy of greater than a
year (capital costs) and those that are purchased and used (or replaced)
within a period of one year or less (operating or recurrent costs). Capital
costs include buildings, vehicles, and equipment (and these are common subcategories that are used). Operating costs include personnel,
supplies, and utilities.
An efficient organization requires a good balance between capital and
operating costs. It is inefficient, for example, to have valuable equipment lying idle because there are not the resources (manpower, fuel) to
operate or maintain it. A good balance within recurrent costs is also
required. An organization that is spending a high proportion of its
resources on materials and very little on staff is possibly not operating
efficiently.
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1
Saving Money in Nonprofit Organizations. Dabel, Gregory J. (Jossey-Bass: San Francisco. 1998).
Chapter 31
| Improving Organizational
Efficiency
Inputs that consume large amounts of resources should be examined
closely as they offer the most potential if improvements in the way they
are managed can be found. Even a small improvement in the use of an
input that accounts for, say, 50 percent of costs could make a significant
overall difference. One input that is likely to account for a large share of
costs is staff. Using staff appropriately is crucial to achieving an efficient
organization. This does not only mean looking for ways to streamline
staff costs. It is also possible that investing a little more in the support
required for staff to do their jobs well---training and supervision, for
example---would be an efficient strategy.
A second way to break down costs is by allocating them to basic activity categories. There are no standardized activity categories---each RHO
can make up its own. Running a clinic, management, information
systems, training, transport, and publicity are all possible categories. It
makes sense to define the categories based on the priorities and purpose of the organization so that it is possible to assess how balanced
the organization’s resources are in relation to its purpose. If providing
contraceptive services to rural women is the basic mission of an RHO
and yet 40 percent of resources are expended in urban clinics, questions should be raised as to how efficiently or effectively it is using its
resources for its intended purpose. As with inputs, those activities which
consume large amounts of resources are the ones to focus on when
looking for efficiency improvements.
More generally, when breaking down costs by activities it makes sense to
distinguish between so-called “direct” and “indirect” costs. Direct costs are
those incurred in providing program goods and services to clients. Examples of direct costs might be the salaries of clinic staff and the costs of
contraceptives. Indirect costs (or overhead) are those associated with
general administration and management, such as the salaries of
central management and administrative staff that cannot be attributed
to a particular project or activity. Finding, for example, that 80 percent of
resources were devoted to “indirect” costs, should prompt an RHO to
consider whether there may be more efficient ways to run the organization. It is also possible to have too little management support, so a very low
overhead might also be cause for concern.
A third important way to look at costs is to distinguish between those
costs that increase when services increase (and decrease when the
volume of activities decreases)---“variable” costs---and those that remain
largely unchanged---“fixed” costs. Fixed costs might include such items
as a nurse’s salary or the rent on a clinic building. Variable costs would
be such things as drugs and supplies. It is worth looking closely at fixed
costs to see how much spare capacity exists. If the buildings or staff are
being under-utilized there may be opportunities to increase outputs and
expand services without increasing total costs very much. Another
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strategy could be to see if it is possible to transform these fixed costs so
that they become more responsive to output and can be more finely
tuned to the needs of the organization. For example, if the building is
underutilized, is it possible to rent a few rooms rather than the whole
building? If staff are not very busy, but dismissal of staff is not feasible, is
there scope for performance-related payments rather than a fixed
annual salary (see box on page 17 for an example).
In addition to breaking down costs in different ways to look at their patterns
and levels, costs can be combined with information on outputs. This can be
very revealing especially if used to compare different delivery points or
strategies or even performance over time. By tracking cost/visit (total
expenditure divided by the number of people served) over time it may,
for example, be possible to identify certain ways of doing business that
are more efficient.
Applying the concepts—Examining the efficiency
of your organization
One way to obtain information on the level and pattern of costs in an
organization is to have a cost-based accounting system---one that
allocates costs to specific program areas such as clinical services and
administration, or activities within those program areas. Alternatively, it
is possible to conduct a one-time cost study to determine how much is
spent for specific activities or on particular inputs. Both types of cost
information gathering require effort and expertise. The more sophisticated the system or study, the more effort and expertise is required. But
even a relatively simple database on costs can be very revealing.
The steps below provide an opportunity to apply the concepts discussed in this chapter to your own organization. Once you complete
the steps you will have some clear ideas about areas in which you might
improve your efficiency.
Step 1: Summarize your organization’s costs over the last three to five
years
Prepare one table which breaks the costs down by input type and
calculates the percentage of costs devoted to each input category
(Table 3.1). Prepare a second table that breaks the costs down by
activity and calculates the percentage of costs devoted to each activity
(Table 3.2).
Step 2: Analyze your input costs
Make sure that all costs, whatever the source of support, are included.
Sometimes records for expenditure of money from different sources or
for different purposes (e.g., for operating and capital costs) are kept
separately and need to be pulled together. Include an estimate of the
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| Improving Organizational
Efficiency
value of goods or services provided in-kind. The total cost in any one year
should be the same for the two tables.
Look at the first table (3.1) and consider whether the balance of input
costs seems reasonable. Identify the inputs that consume more than 25
percent of the organization’s resources and give some thought to ways
those inputs might be more efficiently used.
Step 3: Analyze your activity costs
Look at the second table (3.2) and consider whether the balance of
activity costs seems reasonable. Identify the activities that consume
more than 25 percent of the organization’s resources and give some
thought to ways those activities might be more efficiently done.
Common Efficiency Ratios
Cost per couple-year of
protection (CYP)
Cost per new user
Step 4: Analyze the cost-effectiveness of your organization
Identify a suitable (and measurable) outcome indicator and calculate
the cost per unit of that output (see sidebar for some common ratios)
for (a) each of the last few years and (b) each different service outlet(s)
you have. Consider whether any differences in cost per unit are due to
inefficiencies and propose measures to improve the situation.
These steps should provide you with some preliminary ideas on how to
leverage internal resources by improving your efficiency. No attempt has
been made in this Guide to cover this topic comprehensively, as the
focus is on leveraging external resources. Further detailed explanations
on how to analyze efficiency can be found in other guides referenced
below and described in more detail in the resource section.
Cost per revisit
Cost per community-based
distributor (CBD) visit
Cost per clinic visit
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Table 3.1 Expenditure by types of inputs
EXPENDITURE (ABSOLUTE AND AS A PERCENTAGE OF YEAR'S TOTAL)
TYPES OF
INPUTS
CAPITAL
B u ild in g s
E q u ip m e n t
Vehicles
RECURRENT
St a f f
S u p p lie s
U tilitie s
O ther
TOTAL
5 yr s a g o
$
%
4 yr s a g o
$
%
3 yr s a g o
$
%
2 yr s a g o
$
%
1 yr a g o
$
%
Last 5 yrs
$
%
Table 3.2 Expenditure by types of activities
EXPENDITURE (ABSOLUTE
5 yr s ago
KEY ACTIVITIES
4 yr s ago
AND AS A PERCENTAGE OF YEAR'S TOTAL)
3 yr s ago
2 yr s ago
1 yr ago
Las t 5 yr s
%
CLINIC OPERATIONS
TRAINING
CBD PROGRAM
ADMINISTRATION
OTHER
TOTAL
Chapter 31
|
Improving
Organizational
Efficiency
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Resources
CORE: A Tool for Cost and Revenue Analysis. Management Sciences for
Health. 1998.
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. Jack Reynolds and K.C. Gaspari. (PRICOR
Monograph Series: Issues Paper 2, 1985).
Methods for Costing Family Planning Services. Barbara Janowitz and
John Bratt. (Research Triangle Park, NC: Family Health International,
1994).
Saving Money in Nonprofit Organizations. Gregory J. Dabel. (San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1998).
SEATS II
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Chapter 4
Clients—
A Key Source of Support
Introduction
Clients can be either individuals or organizations. They may use the
health-related services and products that constitute the RHO’s strategic
mission or other program-related services. Whoever they are, clients
satisfy a perceived need, getting something they want, through the
products or services they use. Because they value these goods and
services they may be prepared to pay for them. Charging fees is a
source of revenue RHOs should consider in developing their leveraging
strategy.
Charging clients is a
source of revenue that all
RHOs should consider.
This chapter explores the potential of clients—both individuals and
organizations—as a key source of financial support. It examines the
factors that influence both the demand for services and revenue generation, and draws attention to the dilemma that individual-client fee
systems face in trying to generate income while remaining committed to
serving all clients. The discussion of organizational clients highlights the
potential of selling services to other organizations—including contracting with an employer to provide reproductive health services to employees and opening up formerly in-house training activities to staff of other
RHOs.
The chapter then discusses a different kind of client, one for whom a
service is devised with the explicit goal of making money. While sharing
some of the basic features of other, client-based leveraging strategies,
these commercial ventures tend to divert resources and attention away
from the organization’s original and primary goal. Ways of reducing the
risk of pursuing commercial ventures are briefly reviewed.
The chapter closes with several questions about the appropriateness of
the various client-based approaches for your organization, and provides
the opportunity to begin identifying your potential clients.
Figure 4.1 summarizes some key features of the three different clientbased approaches, which are discussed in more detail in the text.
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Figure 4.1 Characteristics of client-based resources
C h a r a c te r i s t i c s
M is s io n c o m p a tib ility ;
impact on ability to
achieve primar y
pu r pose
F in a n c ia l c o s ts o f
leveraging system
Q u a n tity o f r e s o u r c e s
that can be leveraged
F in a n c ia l r is k
F lex ib ility a n d
r e lia b ility o f s o u r c e s
of leveraging
S p i n - o f f e f fe c t s
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M i s s i o n - r e l a te d a c t i v i t i e s
C h a r g in g in d iv id u a ls
C h a r g in g o r g a n iz a tio n s
N o n -m is s io n a c tiv itie s
Commercial venture
Clients may be
The products being sold Could divert attention
discouraged from
are clearly consistent
from organization's core
attending the facility, and with organizational
a c t iv it ie s
may go against this
mission and objectives
m is s io n
May distract from ser ving
intended population
Requires system for
receipt of payments
Builds on existing
c a p a c it y a n d ex p e r t is e
Requires monitoring of
client preferences
May make use of
u n d e r u t iliz e d h u m a n o r
physical resources
May require system for
determining client's
ability to pay
Often requires substantial
investment
May require investment
to tailor ser vice before
revenue is realized to
suit the market
Often less than cost of
providing the ser vices
Varies. Typically covers
the cost of the ser vices
plus some margin
Varies. Often less than 5
percent of total revenues
is available to subsidize
s o c ia l m is s io n
Limited: costs and
income are directly
related (through use of
t h e fa c i l i t y )
Limited, using excess
c a p a c it y
H ig h
Unrestricted use of funds
Unrestricted use of funds Unrestricted use of funds
Revenues hard to predict Revenue flows may be
var ying with economic
hard to predict var ying
conditions and degree of with economic
competition
c o n d it io n s , f in a n c ia l
strength of contracting
organization, and degree
of competition from
other organizations
Revenue flows may be
hard to predict var ying
w it h e c o n o m ic
conditions, and degree of
competition from other
organizations
May stimulate improved
q u a lit y
Develops social capital
Improves business skills
May improve
management skills
May improve management of core mission
a c t iv it ie s
May improve
management skills
May improve ef ficiency
(reduce frivolous use and
sensitize clients and staf f
to costs)
Chapter 41
| Clients—A Key Source
of Support
Charging individual clients—Pros and cons
Commercial enterprises survive financially by charging clients the full
cost of producing the goods and services they offer. Until recently, this
has not been the approach of most RHOs who have instead looked to
international agencies for support or have tried other ways to get
financial support. The reluctance to charge fees has often stemmed
from a concern that this would conflict with the RHO’s mission, preventing them from serving the poor who were their intended population. In some cases, government policy prohibits them from charging for
services and products.
This situation is changing. More and more RHOs now charge for the
services they offer and this has become the norm in the public sector as
well. They do this for a number of reasons, financial survival being an
important one. Competition for limited donor funds is steadily increasing, and many donors now require that their local partners recover at
least some of their operating costs in order to be eligible for continued
donor support.
Many RHOs do not see
themselves as having
clients. Instead they
“serve beneficiaries,
target groups, or patients”. But “clients” is
simply another name for
all of these.
Generating resources by charging fees to individual clients has important advantages. These are shown below in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Advantages of cost recovery
Enhances Income
Generation and
Financial Sustainability
Influences the Flow
and Utilization of
Services
Cost Recovery
Makes Organization
Increasingly Clientoriented
Creates Incentives for
Improved Monitoring
and Control of Costs
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Clients are unlikely to pay
for a good or service if
they can find it elsewhere
at a lower price or of
superior quality.
Income from client fees contributes to an RHO’s overall financial
sustainability. Each time the RHO provides a service it uses some of its
resources and thus incurs costs. By charging fees the organization
ensures that the visit also generates income that can pay for all or part
of the costs. This income is therefore closely tied to the RHO’s success
in addressing the needs and wants of its clients: clients will only pay for
what they value. To attract clients it is necessary to continually respond
to what they want. This requires some kind of monitoring of client
satisfaction which may be done directly (e.g., through exit interviews at
facilities) or indirectly (e.g., through an analysis of revenues and trends).
On the other hand, lengthy justifications to funding agencies are
avoided—only the clients need be satisfied. Donor dependency falls and
autonomy increases.
An important characteristic of fee income is its flexibility. Typically there
are no externally imposed restrictions on the use of this income and it
can usually be spent as the organization sees fit2 including filling in the
gaps where donors are unwilling to invest resources, or supporting
activities which are not self-sustaining.
Charging fees not only
helps RHOs survive
financially, it also
provides a flexible form
of income and may
promote improved
efficiency.
Charging fees can have important positive benefits in addition to
generating income. Foremost among these is the impact that charging
fees is likely to have on efficiency. Charging fees confronts both clients
and staff with the reality that services do have costs. Charging discourages clients from over-using services that they do not value. Patients will
seek care up to the point where the benefits they anticipate outweigh
the costs. When services are free, on the other hand, patients are
encouraged to use them even when the value to them is very small,
taking away valuable staff time and other resources from more important services. Introducing fees discourages frivolous use of services and
can promote improved client compliance with treatment protocols for
which they pay.
Charging fees can also alert staff to the cost implications of their actions, and provide an incentive for the close monitoring and control of
organizational costs. In the process of developing a cost recovery
system, organizations become aware of the nature of their costs and
how these might be changed by management actions. Staff come to
understand that each encounter with a client generates both costs and
revenues and this enhances the organization’s ability to keep its costs
under control.
Finally, charging fees may raise the awareness of the need to improve
quality to continue attracting and retaining clients.
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to Leveraging
2
Public sector institutions have generally had less flexibility in the utilization of income, often being required to
submit funds to a central level treasury. As neither the staff nor the patients perceive any benefits from the fees
charged, there is no incentive to continue charging, and the fee system usually falls into disuse. Fortunately,
many governments have come to appreciate that funds are best retained and managed at the local level.
Chapter 41
Charging individual clients also has its disadvantages. One is that revenues generated through client fees come with no guarantees. The
RHO has to be continually assessing and adapting to client preferences
if it is to be successful in raising funds this way. Additional professional
staff and other technical resources may be required to develop the
RHO’s capacity to be responsive. Other costs are involved too. Even the
simplest cost-recovery mechanism needs a system for the receipt and
register of the amount paid and the exemptions allowed. This will
require new staff if it is not to cut into existing staff’s clinical time.
The imposition of fees can also raise client expectations. Additional
investments to upgrade facilities, equipment, and staff skills may be
required to respond to this. If these additional investments exceed
currently available resources, the RHO may find that fees are counterproductive as a leveraging strategy.
| Clients—A Key Source of
Support
Charging fees costs
money. It can also discourage the poor from
using the services.
Perhaps the most serious of the disadvantages of fee systems is that
some individuals will almost certainly be initially discouraged from using
the services. If there is a flat fee, it is likely to be the poorest—those that
are often the target for the RHO—who are least able to pay and will be
most discouraged. Just how much of a deterrent fees will be depends
very much not only on who the clients are but also on how the fee
paying structure is designed as well as how the fee paying arrangement
is introduced and marketed (see Chapter 12).
What fee to charge
Deciding on the fee (or fees) to charge clients is a difficult task because
of the problem of reconciling the two objectives of (i) generating
income and (ii) equity—making services as widely available as possible
to the intended population, often the poor. The problem is that as soon
as any fee at all is charged in an effort to gain income, some clients will
be deterred from using the service. The fee structure that maximizes
income is unlikely to be the fee structure that maximizes demand for
the services. Some kind of compromise between revenue raising and
equity will almost certainly be required.
The main reason for introducing (or increasing) fees is usually to recover
at least some of the costs of providing services and to help keep an
organization afloat financially. But establishing and running a fee system
itself requires resources and imposes costs on the organization. Clearly
it is not worth introducing fees (or raising them) if the cost of managing
the fee system is greater than the financial returns in fees.
Knowing the cost of establishing and running the user fee system is
therefore essential. It will identify the minimum level of prices that must
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| Potential Sources of
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be charged to ensure that positive net revenues are generated. The
higher the cost of the system itself, the higher the fees must be in order
to generate minimally adequate income. If even these low prices result
in less use of the services than an RHO is prepared to accept, client fees
are probably not a leveraging strategy the organization should pursue.
But most RHOs will be aiming for more than simply not losing money
by introducing a fee system. While they are unlikely to be in the business of maximizing their income, they would be attracted to the possibility of recovering all the costs of providing the service and improving
their chances of long-term survival. For most RHOs, however, this is an
unrealistic objective. The fees that would have to be charged to fully
recover costs would be well above the amount many clients, particularly the poor, could afford to pay. This is particularly true of inpatient
services where the costs may be several times the value of the
individual’s monthly income. Clients would either be discouraged from
using the services or else the pressure to resolve a life-threatening
problem could send a family deeper into poverty.3
Charging the better-off
clients higher fees is one
way RHOs can continue
to serve the poor and
still generate income.
One possible response to this is to establish a price level within the
reach of the majority of the population. The problem is that this might
severely limit the RHOs capacity to raise income. An alternative, which
enables the RHO to be more ambitious in raising income while still
protecting the interests of the most vulnerable, is to establish a sliding
scale of fees based on the ability of the client to pay. Those who are
better off pay more than the poor. For example, wealthy patients,
insurance companies, and social security institutes could be charged a
price that covers the entire cost of the service and perhaps even more
in order to subsidize the care of the poor. Another alternative is to set
up a system with a single fixed fee schedule but with exemptions for
disadvantaged groups who would pay nothing. Or different prices could
be charged at different service sites—prices being higher in those
locations where the population is better off. There are a number of
approaches to identifying which are the clients who should pay more
and which less and some of these methods for “means testing” are
discussed in Chapter 12.
Discriminating between different kinds of clients and services is a way
to reconcile the objectives of income generation and equity. The
problem is that those systems that do this best—that more accurately
identify those in need and more specifically target the fees—are also
likely to be the most costly to administer.
How the balance should be struck between revenue and equity objectives depends on the amount of financial pressure felt by the organization or the degree of financial autonomy the organization desires. It can
3
SEATS II
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30
to Leveraging
Nevertheless, costs can serve as a useful benchmark, fees being higher for services that cost more to provide.
There are limits, however, to how worthwhile it is to discriminate between more and less expensive services.
It is easier to manage a system that has fewer categories of charges.
Chapter 41
| Clients—A Key Source
of Support
What happens when fees are introduced?
Experiences vary . . .
In Belize, ffees
ees ar
har
ver
nment ffacilities
acilities ffor
or in
patient and
aree cchar
hargged at go
gov
ernment
inpatient
specialized outpatient car
e. All rreevenues fr
om ffees
ees ar
o tthe
he T
care.
from
aree sent tto
Trreasur
om go
ver
nment ffacilities
acilities ar
w, tto
ot aling 2.4 per
cent
suryy. R
Reevenues fr
from
gov
ernment
aree lo
low
percent
al and tthe
he six dis
tr
ict hospit
als. The
of rrecur
ecur
ts at tthe
he centr
al hospit
distr
trict
hospitals.
ecurrrent cos
costs
central
hospital
ices, inef
lo
w le
vel of cos
eco
ver
ibut
ed tto
o lo
w pr
ectivee means
costt rreco
ecov
eryy is attr
attribut
ibuted
low
prices,
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low
lev
t es
ting, inadeq
uat
ocedur
es, and a lac
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esting,
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procedur
ocedures,
lack
afff
mo
tiv
ation tto
o collect ffees.
ees.
motiv
tivation
In Camer
oon, when decentr
alization and local ffee
ee rreet ention w
er
oCameroon,
decentralization
wer
eree intr
introh ffacilities
acilities in one ar
ea, an incr
ease in utilization of tthe
he
health
area,
increase
duced at healt
ser
vices w
as seen mor
he poor tthan
han tthe
he rric
ic
h. In
ves
tig
at
or
services
was
moree among tthe
ich.
Inv
estig
tigat
ator
orss
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hat tthe
he user
ceiv
ed a qquality
uality dif
ence af
ee collection
userss per
perceiv
ceived
difffer
erence
aftt er ffee
and rree t ention beg
an.
began.
In Sw
aziland, go
iv
at
h ffacilities
acilities bo
har
ees
Swaziland,
gov
ernment
priv
ivat
atee healt
health
botth cchar
hargge ffees
ver
nment and pr
vices. Collection rrat
at
es in go
ver
nment ffacilities
acilities ar
services.
ates
gov
ernment
aree subs
substt antiall
antiallyy
for ser
lo
wer tthan
han at pr
iv
at
acilities, bo
opor
tion of eexpenditur
xpenditur
low
priv
ivat
atee ffacilities,
botth as a pr
propor
oportion
xpendituree and
in tter
er
ms of rreevenue per patient. Some of tthis
his is eexplained
xplained bbyy tthe
he ffact
act tthat
hat
erms
pr
iv
at
acilities cchar
har
ees and cchar
har
or mor
vices. But an
priv
ivat
atee ffacilities
hargge higher ffees
hargge ffor
moree ser
services.
under
act
or is belie
ved tto
o be rrelat
elat
ed tto
o tthe
he incentiv
es.
underllying ffact
actor
believ
elated
incentives.
be useful to set quantitative financial targets—either in terms of the
amount of money that needs to be generated or in terms of a proportion of total anticipated expenditure that the organization is striving to
self-finance.
Even when the trade-off between income and equity has been agreed
on there remains the practical problem of predicting the effect a new or
changed fee will have on the demand for the service and therefore on
both revenue generation and equity.
It may seem obvious that increasing the fees charged will generate more
revenue or income. But it is not that simple. Revenues depend not only
on the fees charged but also on the number of people who pay. When
fees go up, the number of people using the service is likely to go down4.
Individuals either forego the service or seek an alternative, probably in
the public sector for the poor and in the commercial sector for those
with money. So it is quite possible that income could actually fall with
certain increases in fees if these were too high and, as a consequence, the
number of clients discouraged from using the service was too great.
4
It is possible that, over a certain range, an increase in price could actually encourage greater use of
services. Clients may see prices as an indicator of quality---a sign that the service is worth something--–and
attending the facility as giving them status. There may also be some price ranges over which there is no
change in demand. For example, when fees are low, reducing them further may haver no effect on
demand.
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Understanding clients and their environment
To effectively mobilize resources from individuals through the sale of
products and services requires an understanding of who these individuals are and what they want and appreciate. Without this knowledge it is
difficult to make the right decisions about important issues such as
whether to introduce a fee system, what price to charge, and what
products or services to offer.
The extent to which an
RHO’s services will be
used depends on many
factors but particularly
the price and quality of
the RHO’s products in
relation to the price and
quality offered by alternative providers.
The way clients in general respond to prices has been discussed in the
previous section. But prices are not the only factor to affect utilization.
Even if the services or goods cost nothing, not everyone, even of those
who could benefit, will make full use of them. The factors that influence
the level of demand are the same ones that will moderate how clients
respond to a change in the fee charged. It is important to understand
what these factors are in order to predict the effect of introducing or
increasing fees, and design strategies for moderating the deterrent
effect.
One characteristic of individual clients that is clearly important
to know is their financial circumstances. The less income individuals
have the fewer their possibilities for purchasing anything including
reproductive health services. The poor have relatively little “discretionary income”—income not already required for housing, food, clothing,
and other basic necessities. If fees eat significantly into this discretionary
income, individuals have no choice but to either withdraw from the
service or perhaps go into debt or sell important income-generating
assets and jeopardize their long-term well-being. In some rural areas,
even when the population is not extremely poor, there may be little
cash available and that makes any fee system difficult to operate. It is
often not easy to ask directly about an individual’s financial circumstances but age, sex, residence, and employment provide useful indicators of capacity to pay. This information is often available from published
secondary data sources such as demographic and health surveys. Staff
can also be a valuable source of information.
Another set of information that is important to know concerns the price
and quality of other, similar services available to clients. All things
being equal, clients will generally choose the service they perceive as
less expensive. The prices other organizations charge for similar goods
or services provide a useful upper guide to the prices an RHO might
charge. Some simple market research on competitors is usually worthwhile. The experience clients have had of paying fees can also be
relevant. Clients who are not accustomed to paying for health and other
related services may resist the introduction of fees, especially if they do
not understand the need for cost recovery. Clients’ experience of and
attitudes toward paying any fees need to be understood and used to
guide the process of implementing a fee system.
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Chapter 41
| Clients—A Key Source
of Support
Perhaps most importantly of all, it is useful to know clients’ wants and
needs and their perceptions of the goods and services being offered
to them. Unlike the other factors mentioned above, this is something
the organization itself has some control over and can respond to directly. Knowing what clients value enables the organization to provide
services that satisfy clients (and for which they may be willing to pay). In
particular, it is important to know what their reproductive health needs
are and what services they want.
Clients look for “quality” in the goods and services they use. In critical
situations they will seek the highest quality of care they feel they can afford. Quality is usually assessed not simply in terms of technical clinical
improvements---the addition of a new diagnostic device, for example. Indeed patients may not even be aware of or appreciate such features. Instead they may be more concerned about issues such as the care and attention they receive.
Clients choose to go to a certain provider not only because of the
specific goods and services they provide but also because of the
circumstances and conditions of obtaining them. The amount of time
they have to wait, or the availability of drugs, or the appearance or
comfort of the health facility can all be important. Clients may have
preferences about the type of health staff they want, perhaps preferring
doctors to nurses or female rather than male staff, or vice versa. Accessibility in terms of the distance and time to reach the facility and the
opening hours of the service can also influence a client’s assessment
and utilization of a service.
An organization that can respond appropriately to the preferences its
clients express is in a better position to charge for its services.
Organizational clients—Who they could be
Individuals are not the only clients an RHO can have. Services or
products can also be marketed to organizations. This is another potential source of revenue for RHOs, and should be explored in developing
a leveraging strategy.
RHOs can, for example, sell to other organizations the reproductive
health services they provide. Ministries of health are often looking for
organizations to provide, under contract to them, reproductive health
services that they are not in a position to provide themselves. Commercial
organizations might also be interested in purchasing reproductive health
services or products. Perhaps they recognize the value to their own
organization of a healthier, more productive staff with reduced absenteeism and turnover. Or they may be mandated by law or labor or union
agreements to provide a certain level of health services to employees
and their dependents. Whatever their motivation, one option could be
to contract with an RHO to run a clinic in their factory, or to provide
their employees with off-site health services.
Organizations make good
clients. They can often
afford to pay the full costs
and they buy in bulk.
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
But there is also a market for other kinds of services---ones that RHOs
may typically think of as internal services that support their own
organization’s programs or administrative activities. These differ from
the health services and products that constitute the RHO’s strategic
mission, and from other products and services provided as a separate
commercial venture (the subject of the next section in this chapter).
For example, other organizations may be interested in, and willing to
pay for, information on the needs, preferences, and health-seeking
behaviors of various population segments. Similarly, access to an RHO’s
distribution structure in rural areas is a valuable asset to a commercial
organization seeking to extend its market reach beyond urban centers.
Organizations working in fields similar to the RHO might be interested
in paying for access to laboratory analyses and specialized diagnostic
equipment, or in purchasing places on training courses offered to the
RHO’s own staff. Initially these efforts could consist of inviting a handful
of additional trainees from other organizations to participate in what
had, up until that time, been a training session for just the RHO’s own
employees. This is a low risk, low cost way of testing the market. If there
is sufficient interest, additional sessions could be provided. Once
resources are being dedicated to meeting the needs of other organizations it is particularly important to track costs and charge for these
services to ensure that they are not financial liabilities.
Not-for-profit organizations are often overlooked as possible purchasers
of RHO services. But as resources become tighter this will have to
change and collaboration through joint courses, sharing facilities, etc.
will become increasingly important. Not-for-profits may have difficulty
paying the full cost of the service. But donors are sometimes willing to
subsidize the cost of the service either through a direct grant to the
RHO or as a grant to the grassroots organization so that it can pay the
full price.
Sale of program-related goods and services
C pr
ovides ffamil
amil
epr
oductiv
h tr
aining tto
o
! RHA
RHAC
pro
amilyy planning and rrepr
eproductiv
oductivee healt
health
training
!
!
!
SEATS II
Guide
34
to Leveraging
ot her N
GOs;
NGOs;
STOP
AIDS pr
ovides AIDS education w
or
k shops and ttalk
alk
or
OPAIDS
pro
wor
ork
alkss ffor
var
ious cor
por
ations in Nig
er
ia;
arious
corpor
porations
Niger
eria;
The Dhak
a Community Hospit
al is paid bbyy a number of ffact
act
or
ies tto
o
Dhaka
Hospital
actor
ories
pr
ovide consult
ations tto
o ffact
act
or
or
k er
s;
ork
ers;
pro
consultations
actor
oryy w
wor
Rxinn T’name
or
med an ag
h tthe
he Minis
tr
h
T’namett ffor
ormed
agrreement wit
with
Ministr
tryy of Healt
Health
(MOH) tto
o pr
ovide healt
h ser
vices tto
o an indig
enous population in
pro
health
services
indigenous
Guat
emala whic
h w
as under
ser
ved bbyy tthe
he MOH.
Guatemala
which
was
underser
serv
Chapter 41
| Clients—A Key Source
of Support
A private-public sector partnership
A par
tner
ship be
maceutical manuf
actur
er Sc
her
ing A
.G.,
partner
tnership
betw
tween
pharmaceutical
manufactur
acturer
Scher
hering
A.G.,
tw
een tthe
he phar
xican National P
opulation Council (C
ON
APO), and tw
o ffamil
amil
Mexican
Population
(CON
ONAPO),
two
amilyy
the Me
planning N
GOs—MEXF
AM and FEMAP—w
as es
o incr
ease
NGOs—MEXF
GOs—MEXFAM
FEMAP—was
estt ablished tto
increase
o or
al contr
acep
tiv
es in small rrur
ur
al tto
owns
financial and ph
oral
contracep
aceptiv
tives
ural
phyysical access tto
her
ing A
.G. sells its lo
w -dose or
al contr
acepin ffour
our Me
xican sstt at
es. Sc
oral
contracepMexican
ates.
Scher
hering
A.G.
low
tiv
educed pr
ice wit
h a speciall
k ed pac
k tto
o
price
with
speciallyy mar
mark
pack
tivee Microgynon at a rreduced
MEXF
AM and FEMAP
h sociall
k et tthe
he pills using ttheir
heir
MEXFAM
FEMAP,, whic
which
sociallyy mar
mark
e xis
ting dis
tr
ibution ne
tw
or
k s tto
o rreac
eac
h rrur
ur
al and per
i-urban phar
macies.
xisting
distr
tribution
netw
twor
ork
each
ural
peri-urban
pharmacies.
There are a number of reasons why commercial or not-for-profit organizations might look to RHOs for reproductive health and related services. These include:
! Obtaining a service at a lower cost than the organization could
provide the service for themselves
! Accessing expertise the organization does not have in its own
organization
! Lessening the organization’s management burden
! Increasing the organization’s staff’s skills
Knowing what organizations are seeking by
becoming clients helps
an RHO to target its
services more appropriately.
! Reaching a population the organization has not been able to
reach directly.
Organizations obviously differ in what it is they expect from an RHO. To
discover what they want requires active investigation, including talking
to managers of these organizations about their operations and needs.
The more that is known about the organization, the more targeted can
be any proposals for helping them.
Mechanisms for charging clients
Individual clients
There are a number of mechanisms for charging clients. The most
common is the direct fee for service, where the clients pay for the
services or products at the time they receive the service. However,
other mechanisms exist which may make it easier for clients to pay. Two
of the simpler ones include:
Credit schemes give clients a longer period of time to pay for the
services they receive. Deferred payment benefits the client but
creates a burden for the RHO that needs both to track how much is
owed and to develop a mechanism for collecting overdue debt.
Pre-payment plans require clients to pay a certain amount on a
prescribed schedule (i.e., weekly, monthly, or quarterly). Any care
SEATS II
Guide
35
to Leveraging
Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
clients receive is paid for out of the contributions they have already
made. Clients benefit by being able to budget for their reproductive
health care in a planned way and with small regular payments. The
RHO must keep track of both the deposits made by clients and the
deductions made for services received. This mechanism can work
particularly well with medical conditions such as childbirth that can
be anticipated and where the clients know that they will eventually
use the services for which they are pre-paying.
The next three mechanisms are more complicated and typically require
partnering with other organizations, so they will suit only some RHOs.
Health savings and loans involve clients regularly contributing to a
savings account that can only be used to pay for health-related
services and products. If clients use more services than they have
saved for, they can get a loan, often with a grace period of several
months, to pay the difference.
Third-party payments involve someone else besides the client or a
family member paying for services. Usually the third party is an
employer or an insurance provider. Most third-party payers have
restrictions on the total amount they will pay or how much they will
pay for specific services. The client must pay any excess. Third-party
payment relieves the client of at least part of the fee burden. It can
add to the burden of the RHO, however. Third-party payers sometimes take many months to review claims, may disallow payment for
some services or products, or have an unreasonably low fee schedule.
Mutual health organizations (MHO) function as a cross between
pre-payment and a third party payer. They are community-based,
non-profit organizations established to give their members access to
quality health services through members’ own financial contributions. They use different financing mechanisms including pre-payment,
soft loans, and insurance. Bringing together large numbers of people
pools the risk, making services affordable for the membership.
MHOs are complex and difficult to manage, often taking several
years before they are a viable source of health financing.
Country Women’s Association of Nigeria
Countr
omen
er
ia (C
OWAN), a micr
o-cr
edit
Countryy W
Women
omen’’s Association of Nig
Niger
eria
(CO
micro-cr
o-credit
hw
es
n Nig
er
ia, ffor
or
med a Healt
h De
velopment FFund
und
pr
og
prog
ogrram in sout
southw
hwes
estt er
ern
Niger
eria,
ormed
Health
Dev
using a por
tion of tthe
he member
heir sa
vingsportion
memberss’ annual dues. Member
Memberss of ttheir
savingsts of cat
as
tr
ophic
and-cr
edit pr
og
eceiv
o co
ver tthe
he cos
catas
astr
trophic
prog
ogrram could rreceiv
eceivee a loan tto
cov
costs
and-credit
illness ffor
or tthemsel
hemsel
ves or ttheir
heir ffamil
amil
h ggrrace
hemselv
amilyy. The loan had a six-mont
six-month
h member
o sstt ar
ying int
er
es
t.
per
iod af
artt pa
paying
inter
eres
est.
period
aftt er whic
which
memberss had tto
SEATS II
Guide
36
to Leveraging
Chapter 41
| Clients—A Key Source
of Support
Organizational clients
Providing goods and services to organizations is usually done through a
contract—an agreement, typically written, among two or more parties to
do something in return for money. There are several different types of
contracts, and they differ in size and complexity:
Purchase orders (POs) are simple contracts whereby the purchaser
offers a fixed sum of money in exchange for a service or product
provided by an agreed-upon delivery date. They are typically used to
procure a tangible product such as contraceptive commodities, a
place in a seminar, or a written product such as a training curriculum
or workshop report. It would be unusual to receive a PO for, say,
continuing professional services with no identifiable “deliverable.”
Fixed price contracts also offer a fixed sum of money in exchange
for products or services, but ones that may be difficult to package as
easily identifiable “deliverables.” For example, an agreement to
provide a smaller RHO with accounting services over a specified
period of time for a fixed monthly fee might be written as a fixed
price contract. These agreements can become quite complicated
depending on the nature of the services to be provided. They can
also be dangerous—a fixed price based on unrealistically low cost
estimates can result in a net financial loss.
Cost reimbursement contracts reimburse the provider for the costs
incurred in providing the purchaser with a product or service. Typically, the client will ask for a budget for the work to be done. That
budget is then subject to negotiation with the organizational client.
This negotiation will include identification of the costs that will be
“allowed” for reimbursement under the contract.
The choice of contractual mechanism depends on the nature of the
products or services to be provided, the preferences and procurement
policies of the organizational client, and the RHO’s own capacities and
objectives. For an RHO with a well-developed cost accounting system,
the administrative convenience of a purchase order or the apparently
straightforward nature of a simple fixed price contract are attractive and
profitable mechanisms.
Regardless of the contractual mechanism used, professional legal advice
should always be obtained before signing an agreement.
Commercial ventures
Many RHOs find the idea of developing small commercial enterprises
and other income-generating activities an appealing option for mobilizing additional resources for their organization. For one thing, funds from
this source have few, if any, restrictions on their use.
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
Commercial ventures might appear to be a natural extension of the idea
of selling program-related goods and services. However, there is a big
difference between marketing activities an organization is already
undertaking to a wider clientele, and embarking on an unrelated
moneymaking concern. Experience has shown that these commercial
enterprises often fail. Even in the U.S.A.’s resource-rich and businessfriendly environment, between 75–90 percent of small businesses fail
within the first two years5.
Even when they don’t fail, the amount of profit generated is often very
small. A realistic estimate of net profits generated from most businesses
is five percent6. Given that only a portion of these profits would be
available to subsidize nonprofit activities, it would have to be a large
business indeed to make a significant contribution. For example, to
receive a net profit of US$25,000, an RHO would need to generate gross
revenues of approximately one-half million dollars! In addition, it would
probably take some time before the business showed any profit at all.
Commercial ventures are
appealing because of the
unrestricted income they
generate. But they often fail,
sometimes divert
staff attention away from
core activities, and may
have unfavorable tax
implications.
Commercial, income-generating activities can also present serious nonfinancial risks. They can divert limited managerial and technical resources from the core mission of the organization, or provoke internal
divisions among staff making it difficult to retain dedicated technical
staff opposed to commercial involvement, or to attract and hold qualified
managers for the commercial operation. Commercial income-generating
activities can also have unfavorable tax implications.
Experience with commercial ventures is mixed
Two midwif
ica—one an association and tthe
he o
midwifee or
orgganizations in Afr
Africa—one
ott her a
ent eexper
xper
iences wit
h commer
cial vventur
entur
es:
pr
iv
at
as
tl
priv
ivat
atee clinic—had vvas
astl
tlyy dif
difffer
erent
xperiences
with
commercial
entures:
•
•
SEATS II
Guide
38
to Leveraging
5
The association ttook
ook out a loan tto
o pur
ending tto
o
purcchase a bus, int
intending
gener
at
ating a tr
anspor
vice. Because of
enerat
atee income bbyy oper
operating
transpor
ansportt ser
service.
hat did no
un w
ell.
ine
xper
ience, ho
wever
er,, it pur
purcc hased a bus tthat
nott rrun
well.
inexper
xperience,
how
ak
o account tthe
he cos
ts of tthe
he
The association also ffailed
ailed tto
o ttak
akee int
into
costs
as
dr
iv
er
epair
or tthe
he bus. Ev
en when tthe
he bus w
was
iver
er’’s salar
salaryy or rrepair
epairss ffor
Even
driv
oper
ational, whic
h w
as no
he amount ear
ned w
as insuf
operational,
which
was
nott of
oftt en, tthe
earned
was
insuffficient tto
o co
ver tthe
he int
er
es
yments ffor
or tthe
he loan and tthe
he association
cov
inter
eres
estt pa
payments
was losing mone
er
es
yments on tthe
he loan ggrrew so lar
moneyy. The int
inter
eres
estt pa
payments
largge
that tthe
he association sold tthe
he bus tto
o pa
wed in int
er
es
t. It
payy what it o
ow
inter
eres
est.
is sstill
till rrepa
epa
ying tthe
he loan.
epaying
The clinic, whic
h pr
ovides basic healt
h and ffamil
amil
vices,
which
pro
health
amilyy planning ser
services,
lear
ned tthat
hat its clients w
ant
ed mor
tic healt
h ser
vices. In
learned
want
anted
moree holis
holistic
health
services.
response, tthe
he midwif
lor
midwifee opened a gym and beauty par
parlor
lor.. These
ser
vices no
o cur
act
ed
services
nott onl
onlyy appealed tto
currrent clinic clients but also attr
attract
acted
additional clients. The ser
vices ha
ve been so successful tthat
hat addiservices
hav
tional sstt af
plo
o subsidize
afff ar
aree being em
emplo
ployyed and it has been possible tto
a second clinic in a lo
w -income ar
ea.
low
area.
Successful Business Ventures for Non-Profit Organizations. Cagnon, Charles. (The Northern Rockies Action
Group, June 1984)
6
Ibid.
Chapter 41
| Clients—A Key Source
of Support
Some organizations have, nonetheless, been able to successfully operate separate commercial enterprises including ventures as varied as:
! threshing machines
! fish farms
! office cleaning services
! beauty services
! taxi and minibus services
! business centers
! fitness centers
! dyeing and weaving
! furniture making
! restaurants and canteens
These organizations have achieved success by building on strong
leadership, organizational flexibility, solid accounting and financial
controls, and a commitment to self-sufficiency. Understanding their
market and product, planning thoroughly, and being prepared to take
calculated risks have also contributed to their success.
Any RHO embarking on commercial ventures would do well to bear in
mind the following:
! Build the enterprise around the organization’s core expertise or
hire staff who have the necessary experience.
! Hire managers from the for-profit sector. Most RHO staff are
inexperienced in business. It is critical to bring business skills to
an enterprise operating a commercial venture.
! Be entrepreneurial in approach. Be prepared to react quickly to
perceived opportunities, keep overhead costs as low as possible,
encourage open communication up and down the organizational structure and across functional areas, and tie individual
rewards directly to outcomes.
! Remain responsive to changing market conditions. The nature
and intensity of competition and the general political and economic environment within which the organization operates are
constantly changing. Track and analyze these changes and be
prepared to adjust the services provided.
! Manage the commercial venture separately. The commercial
venture should have its own staff and procedures, and its management should be free to make independent operational
decisions in pursuit of its financial goals.
! A single board of directors should oversee both the for-profit and
not-for-profit operations. The board is responsible for ensuring
that each operation contributes to the achievement of the
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
organization’s overall program goals. It is important for board
members to include individuals who have commercial experience.
This Guide provides only an introduction to commercial ventures. There
are many books and materials that cover this topic in more depth. Some
of these are listed at the end of this chapter.
Applying the concepts—Examining the appropriateness of
client fees and commercial ventures for your organization
Step 1: Determine whether client fees are a possible source of support
for your organization
Charging fees is a leveraging strategy that warrants serious consideration from most RHOs because of its potential to increase organizational autonomy and sustainability. However, it is probably not an
appropriate approach for those RHOs answering “yes” to the following
questions:
! Are there government or donor regulations that would prevent
your RHO from charging fees?
Governments may have regulatory restrictions on the services you
propose to “sell” to individual clients. One of the conditions
donors may place on supporting your organization is that you do
not charge fees for health or family planning products that are
provided to your RHO at no or subsidized cost.
! Does the political and religious climate limit your ability to
market your goods and services?
If the services and products you offer are sensitive, as family
planning often is, you may not be able to market them. Or, the
environment may accept the marketing of free products and
services, but not the marketing of the same products and services
for a fee. Such restrictions on advertising and promotion can
doom this leveraging approach, particularly when you are in
competition with other providers.
! Are there government regulations or tax laws that would make
selling products and services to other organizations prohibitive?
Does your status as a not-for-profit raise tax liability issues? In
some cases, selling products may mean that an organization may
lose its not-for-profit status.
If fees for individual or organizational clients are not ruled out for your
organization, use Chapters 10 and 12 to help judge just how feasible
this option is for you. Chapter 12 provides guidance regarding the
establishment of a client-fee system as a leveraging strategy---deciding
what services to charge for, who to charge, and what amount to charge.
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Chapter 41
| Clients—A Key Source
of Support
Step 2: Determine whether commercial ventures are a possible source
of support for your organization
The risks of embarking on commercial ventures are great and the
returns may be small, so it is wise to be cautious particularly if:
! You are unwilling to bear the risks associated with operating a
commercial venture.
! There are government or donor regulations prohibiting you from
undertaking commercial activities.
! The tax laws governing for-profit enterprises are harsh.
! You do not have access to start-up capital or people with the
business experience necessary to develop a business plan and
manage for-profit operations.
If, after thinking about these issues, you remain interested in a commercial venture, you should explore your specific idea through market
research, and consult the references at the end of this chapter.
Applying the concepts—Who are your potential fee-paying
clients?
Step 1: Identify potential individual fee-paying clients
Your current clients are all potential fee payers. Can you identify other
potential clients who might also be potential fee payers? Discuss this
with other staff and list your potential fee paying clients.
Step 2: Identify potential organizational clients
In identifying possible organizational clients (and the services they might
be interested in) you could consider the following questions:
! What are the kinds of program-related goods and services your
organization might sell to other organizations (e.g., training,
diagnostic services)? Who are the potential purchasers of such
goods and services? List these organizations.
! Do you know of companies that maintain on-site health clinics that
might be interested in contracting with your organization to operate these clinics or supplement the services they offer with your
own? Add these organizations to your list.
! Do you know companies that depend on skilled young female
workers? Such workers are expensive to train and there may be
some demand for appropriate reproductive health services that
reduce absenteeism and illness in this group. Add these organizations to your list.
You will revisit your lists of potential clients in Chapter 7, where you will
have the opportunity to develop profiles of them to learn more about
their needs and demands.
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
Resources
Enterprise in the Nonprofit Sector. J.C. Crimmins and M. Keil. (New York:
Rockefeller Brothers Fund, 1983).
Family Planning Manager’s Handbook: Basic Skills and Tools for Managing Family Planning Programs. ed. J. Wolff, L. Suttenfield, S. Binzen.
(West Hartford: Kumarian Press, Inc., 1991).
Issues in Cost Recovery. J. Holley, M. Huff-Rouselle, and A. De Mattos.
(Boston: Social Sectors Development Strategies, Inc., 1998).
Managing for Profit in the Nonprofit World. Paul B. Firstenberg. (New
York: The Foundation Center, 1986).
Successful Business Ventures for Non-Profit Organizations. Charles
Cagnon. (Hartsdale, NY: Public Service Materials Center, Inc., 1984).
Towards Greater Financial Autonomy. F. Vincent and P. Campbell.
(Geneva: Development Innovations and Networks, September 1989).
User Fees for Sustainable Family Planning Services: Background Discussion for the Handbook for Program Managers, revised edition. Laurence
M. Day. (Washington, DC: Family Planning Service Expansion and
Technical Support Project [SEATS], 1993).
The Worldwide Fundraiser’s Handbook. Michael Norton. (London: The
Directory of Social Change in association with the International Fund
Raising Group, 1998).
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Chapter 5
The Community You Serve
Introduction
RHOs are a community resource. They provide their local community
with reproductive health services, access to resource networks, employment, and a pool of expertise that local policy makers can draw on for
guidance. As consumers and taxpayers, they are a source of revenue for
local merchants and government authorities.
However, this is only one side of the relationship RHOs maintain with
their community. Individuals and businesses in the community can also
provide resources for RHOs. Some resources such as staff and essential
public services may have to be paid for, but others, such as volunteers
and local merchants’ products, can be provided as voluntary services or
donations.
Recognizing the reciprocal nature of the relationship that can be nurtured between an RHO and its community is the key to successfully tapping into community support. RHOs must understand which community needs they are able to satisfy and what they can offer the
community in exchange for their support. Only then will they be able to
convince individuals and businesses in the community of the value they
derive from the RHO and its work. Leveraging resources from the community is as much a marketing challenge as leveraging from clients.
Local community can be
a major source of financial and political support
for any RHO.
“Community” can be defined in many different ways. It may be those individuals who live or work in the neighborhood. It may be organizations
that share similar principles—for example, helping the poor or providing
health care for all—or individuals within those organizations. Or, it may
be businesses that do not explicitly share an RHO’s mission but have
similar goals, such as keeping their employees healthy.
Communications make it possible to define functional communities that
exist outside the local geographic and political boundaries, in the national or global environment (Figure 5.1). The next chapter explores the
leveraging potential of donors who operate in this wider community.
This chapter focuses on the local community and discusses the nature
of the exchange between the local community and RHOs and the
mechanisms that may be appropriate for raising funds from this potential source. It closes with several questions that help you to explore the
potential of community support in your organization.
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| Potential Sources of
Leverage
Managing existing relationships within this community, as well as
developing and maintaining new relationships, are important elements
of an overall resource leveraging strategy.
Figure 5.1 Levels of community and available resources
The business community as donors
Businesses give to their
communities in order to:
• Promote their products
• Improve their image
• Keep up with the
competition
• Purchase something
of value
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Businesses make donations for many different reasons. The reasons may
be clearly commercial—for example, to promote the company’s products and services, to introduce these products to a new set of clients, or
to derive tax benefits associated with charitable giving— or, they may be
less directly self-interested. Donations are one way to improve public image or affiliate with an area of interest, such as when a pharmaceutical
company donates to health programs or sponsors “health fairs,” or a toy
company sponsors events for a children’s hospital. Sometimes a donation may, in effect, be the purchase of a valued service such as, for example, when a company which is losing some of its workforce to AIDS
supports HIV education. Occasionally, the reason for giving is more personal: a key individual in the company may have an interest in a certain
cause and promote it over others. Other times the mere fact that other
businesses are supporting a cause can be motivation enough—businesses like to keep up with the competition even in charitable activities.
Chapter 51
| The Community
You Serve
Although the reasons for giving are varied, in general businesses like to
support:
! Projects in their own community or where they have
business interests
! Projects that have significant community support
! Activities that use their products
! High-visibility events
! Economic development projects
! Initiatives that have the backing of those people perceived to be
“important.”
Businesses are not keen to support:
! Purely religious appeals
! Mass market solicitations
! Controversial causes that may bring them bad publicity.
Many multinational corporations have well-defined charitable programs,
sometimes managed at headquarters but, more frequently, at the
national level. In the more established programs there are often policy
guidelines about the type and level of donations that can be provided.
Support from local companies is likely to be more ad hoc. But local
companies do have the advantage of potentially closer ties with the
Corporate / NGO
fundraising partnerships
Unit
ed Nations Childr
en
und ((UNICEF
UNICEF
eat
ed man
cial
nited
Children
en’’s FFund
UNICEF)) has cr
creat
eated
manyy commer
commercial
e. Its “Chang
or
pr
iv
at
or alliances tthat
hat aid its fundr
aising dr
iv
priv
ivat
atee sect
sector
fundraising
driv
ive.
“Changee ffor
Good” pr
og
h Br
itish Air
ways, is one eexxam
ple. A br
ief
prog
ogrram, an alliance wit
with
British
Airw
ample.
brief
video on UNICEF is scr
eened in-f
light and en
velopes, int
o whic
h donations
into
which
screened
in-flight
env
s, pr
oviding a
in an
tr
ibut
ed tto
o passeng
er
passenger
ers,
pro
anyy cur
currrency can be put, ar
aree dis
distr
tribut
ibuted
venient w
ay tto
o dispose of ffor
or
eign coins or small bills. UNICEF also has
con
conv
wa
oreign
an alliance wit
h a ho
hain. Ho
ts ar
elcomed wit
h a br
ief
with
hottel cchain.
Hottel gues
guests
aree w
welcomed
with
brief
video on UNICEF when tthe
he
ir
n on tthe
he ttele
ele
visions in ttheir
heir rrooms.
ooms. A
heyy ffir
irsst tur
turn
elevisions
one-dollar cchar
har
h tthe
he gues
o tthe
he rroom
oom bill as
hargge, whic
which
guestt can decline, is added tto
a donation tto
o UNICEF
UNICEF..
Per
haps inspir
ed bbyy tthe
he UNICEF initiativ
e, tthe
he Amar
he Bangk
ok
erhaps
inspired
initiative,
Amarii Ho
Hott el in tthe
Bangkok
air
por
or a Be
tt
er Lif
e” pr
og
ting tthe
he Duang
airpor
portt has a “Baht ffor
Bett
tter
Life”
prog
ogrram suppor
supporting
Pr
at
eep FFoundation
oundation whic
h helps needy cchildr
hildr
en in Thailand. The contr
iPrat
ateep
which
hildren
contribution en
velope lef
ooms rreads:
eads: ““Y
Your small cchang
hang
env
leftt in rrooms
hangee could mak
makee a
big cchang
hang
o someone
e.
hangee tto
someone’’s lif
life.
e.””
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Leverage
community and a better understanding of the local environment. On
the other hand, local companies are affected by economic downturns
in a way that multinationals, with their broader revenue base, are not.
When an RHO is most likely to need outside funding, local businesses
may also be struggling to survive.
Small companies are
more likely to provide inkind donations while
larger companies often
provide grants.
Sponsorship has considerable potential as a fundraising tool. Many
businesses want to distinguish themselves from the competition and set
themselves apart as community sponsors. They like sponsorship because it is a cost-effective advertising vehicle, reaches its target audience, and allies the business with a good cause. Sponsorship of specific
programs or special events is an increasingly common method for
businesses to support NGOs.
Companies provide different kinds of support and there is room for
RHOs to be creative in what they ask for:
! Cash gifts. This can include direct donations which may be
unrestricted or earmarked for a building, project, or new initiative. For example, a business might be prepared to provide an
award for outstanding community service to someone in a
specific RHO. A more attractive option for business is when
there is a more tangible benefit to themselves. For example, a
business might purchase special event or raffle tickets and then
give these away to business customers. Or it might agree to pay
an RHO a percentage of its sales and, through its association
with the RHO, boost sales.
! Material support. Businesses often donate the products they
manufacture. If not directly useful to the RHO, these can be a
good source of prizes for special events, raffles, or volunteer
incentive programs.
! Services. Some businesses are willing to provide services free.
For example, a business with regular mailings, such as the local
telephone company which sends monthly billing statements,
might allow an RHO to include literature about its organization
in one of their mailings. Or a business might, through its business
contacts, agree to help an RHO negotiate new office space,
clinic sites, and other physical plant needs. Or it might provide
training opportunities for volunteers or outreach workers.
! People. Businesses have a pool of expertise—financial management, marketing, legal, and accounting skills—and employers
often encourage their employees to volunteer, sometimes by
providing paid time off work. They may also “loan” one of their
employees for a special event or marketing project. This pro
bono work can lead people to become board members or
committed donors.
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| The Community
You Serve
! Physical facilities. Business-owned conference rooms, auditoriums, or cafeterias are all possible locations for special events,
meetings, and training and may be made available free of charge.
! Lobbying. Businesses might be persuaded to lobby for national
and local legislation that provides increased funding for RHOs or
to support legislation that encourages charitable giving by
individuals and business. Or they may agree to sponsor a meeting to encourage local business involvement in the NGO community.
The mechanisms businesses use to support NGOs vary depending to a
large extent on the size and organizational structure of the business.
Large companies are more likely to donate funds to local projects while
smaller companies generally are more able to provide in-kind contributions such as equipment or subsidized services. For example, a neighborhood store, where the owner usually makes all the decisions, might
allow an RHO to leave a collection canister by the cash register; a local
bank manager may offer the bank’s window or lobby for a display
highlighting the organization’s work.
Local fundraising not
only raises funds. It helps
develop strong links
between an RHO and its
community.
While business sponsorship can be directed to helping RHOs in many
different ways, one of the most common is in the promotion of the
RHO or its events (see box below).
Potential roles for business in promotion
and publicity for an RHO
Helping RHOs tto
o pr
omo
hemsel
ves or ttheir
heir cause is some
promo
omott e tthemsel
hemselv
sometthing
o tthemsel
hemsel
ves.
whic
h businesses of
elativ
el
which
oftt en can do at rrelativ
elativel
elyy little cos
costt tto
hemselv
For eexx am
ple, businesses can:
ample,
•
•
•
•
•
tion ar
or
mation on an RHO in tthe
he lobb
he rrecep
ecep
exhibit inf
infor
ormation
lobbyy, tthe
eception
areas,
eas,
plo
es
emplo
ployyee loung
lounges
or em
pr
ovide space on in-house bulle
tin boar
ds or in ne
wsle
tt
er
o
new
slett
tter
erss tto
pro
bulletin
boards
publicize special eev
vents
de
vot e windo
w space ffor
or tthe
he pr
omo
tion of an RHO
dev
window
promo
omotion
per
mit an RHO tto
o solicit individuals at tthe
he w
or
kplace
permit
wor
orkplace
in
vit
o giv
esent
ation tto
o em
plo
he
invit
vitee an RHO tto
givee a pr
present
esentation
emplo
ployyees about tthe
or
orgganization
The
epar
ed tto
o of
t. FFor
or
Theyy might also be pr
prepar
epared
offfer mor
moree subs
substt antial suppor
support.
e x am
ple, tthe
he
ample,
heyy might
might::
•
•
•
pr
int calendar
vents and dis
tr
ibut
hem tto
o all cus
print
calendarss of RHO eev
distr
tribut
ibutee tthem
custtomer
endor
erss and vvendor
endorss
contr
ibut
er
tising, mar
k e ting, and pr
omo
tional sstt af
o
contribut
ibutee adv
adver
ertising,
mark
promo
omotional
afff tto
cr
eat
er
ials
creat
eatee mat
mater
erials
pa
or adv
er
tising ffor
or an RHO in ne
wspaper
azines or
payy ffor
adver
ertising
new
spaperss or mag
magazines
on rradio
adio or ttele
ele
vision
elevision
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| Potential Sources of
Leverage
Individuals as donors
Individual donors are an important potential source of leverage. In the
United States, for example, over 80 percent of all charitable donations
come from individual gifts. Although some of these donors are wealthy,
many are people of very modest means.
Fundraising invites
the community to
become partners with
the organization.
People donate money for many different reasons, both noble and selfserving. Tradition or religious imperative may be involved for some,
while others give to further a personal cause or to gain power and status. Fundraising is not begging. It is an invitation to the community to
become partners with the organization. It provides an opportunity for
people in the community to make something of value happen, to be
part of the helping community.
All fundraisers agree that people give when they view themselves as
part of a community, no matter how that community is defined. An
RHO can create a sense of community among its individual supporters
by keeping individual donors informed about the organization and its
work (even when funds are not being actively solicited). Ways to do this
include sending them newspaper clippings about the RHO’s work and
inviting them to public events that involve the RHO.
When people give donations, they want to believe that their gift made a
difference. They like to receive letters of thanks and information on how
their support was used, not so much in organizational terms (e.g., paying
staff) but in human terms—what happened to the people served.
Any RHO can raise money from individuals. The process can be expensive and risky, but there are many reasons why it is worth considering:
! In some countries, there are specific laws requiring an organization to obtain a percentage of total revenue from individual support in order to register as an NGO. Some donors will only fund
organizations that have clear evidence of public support. Many
donors judge how effective a program is in addressing a
population’s needs by its level of local public support.
! Local fundraising is an effective way of raising awareness of an
organization’s programs and of developing links between an organization and the public. It does this in at least two ways: (1) The
board of directors, staff, and volunteers are better able to communicate the organizational mission to the public as a result of
their involvement in fundraising activities; (2) When an RHO
raises funds to support an issue, it is also raising the profile of the
issue, which is a very effective way to engage a new audience.
! Compared with leveraging resources from donors, local
fundraising gives RHOs greater control over both the process
and the use of any funds.
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Chapter 51
| The Community
You Serve
Any organization moving toward becoming independent and sustainable must consider the local community as a major source of financial and “social capital” support. “Social capital” describes the set of
relationships developed with individuals and organizations in the
community.
Mechanisms of fundraising
Personal solicitation is a method of raising funds from individuals by
meeting them in person, calling them on the telephone, or writing a
personal letter. This is a most effective way to raise money from individuals—more than half of all fundraising requests in the world are done
in person—but it is also one of the most difficult strategies to implement.
Direct mail involves soliciting individuals by mail, and requires sending
letters to large numbers of people. This method is expensive and difficult. It
takes time, money, and effort to build a list of supporters. Although
many established fundraising programs are quite successful in raising
funds through direct mail, it is not recommended for most newly-established RHOs. Scaled-down versions of this approach, using existing mailings or other communication devices, are more feasible: for example, including a small envelope for donations with a newsletter or along with
any response to a request for information.
There are several
approaches to raising
funds: visiting potential
donors, direct mail,
special events such as
dinners or dances, collections, membership,
and raffles.
The goal is to make it as easy as possible for someone to make
a donation.
HelpAge India solicitation by mail
HelpA
or
k s tto
o im
pr
ove tthe
he w
elf
ar
he elder
hr
oughout
HelpAgge India w
wor
ork
impr
pro
welf
elfar
aree of tthe
elderlly tthr
hroughout
al public. Or
the countr
om tthe
he ggener
ener
countryy. Mos
Mostt of its funding comes fr
from
eneral
Orgganizer
an a dir
ect mail cam
paign in 11990
990 wit
h a com
put
er
ized lis
nizerss beg
began
direct
campaign
with
comput
puter
erized
listt of
ed, and eexpanded
xpanded fr
om ne
wspaper
300 people. These w
er
at
her
ed, updat
wer
eree ggat
ather
hered,
updated,
from
new
adv
er
tisements and special eev
vents lis
ts, and b
ading lis
ts wit
h o
GOs.
trading
lists
with
otther N
NGOs.
adver
ertisements
lists,
byy tr
eq
ues
ting suppor
o a small audience. If mor
Trial le
supportt ar
aree mailed tto
moree
lett
tter
erss rreq
eques
uesting
tt
er
o per
cent rrespond,
espond, a lar
ollo
w -up wit
h tthe
he
two
percent
largger mailing is done. FFollo
ollow
with
than tw
fir
hr
ough sending ne
wsle
tt
er
s, annual rrepor
epor
ts, br
oc
hur
es,
irsst time donor
donor,, tthr
hrough
new
slett
tter
ers,
eports,
broc
ochur
hures,
pr
oject lis
ts, and man
sonal le
tt
er
s, is cr
itical tto
o tthe
he success of tthis
his
project
lists,
manyy per
personal
lett
tter
ers,
critical
e x er
cise.
ercise.
The aim is tto
o kkeep
eep donor
or
med of tthe
he w
or
k and tto
o de
velop a
donorss inf
infor
ormed
wor
ork
dev
“per
sonal” rrelationship
elationship wit
h tthem.
hem. The budg
tr
ictl
or
ed and
“personal”
with
budgeet is sstr
trictl
ictlyy monit
monitor
ored
mos
he w
or
k is done in-house. In 1199
99
7, 115
5 per
cent of HelpA
mostt of tthe
wor
ork
997
percent
HelpAgge
India
as fr
om dir
ect mail. Cons
es
ting le
tt
er
s,
India’’s funding w
was
from
direct
Constt ant planning, ttes
esting
lett
tter
ers,
and att
ention tto
o cos
he kkee ys tto
o success.
attention
costt ar
aree tthe
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Section II1
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Leverage
Ideas for special events
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dances – ffor
or
mal tto
o casual
ormal
Dinner
at
Dinnerss – celebr
celebrat
atee an
anniv
er
sar
anniver
ersar
saryy or honor a
gues
guestt
Music or Cultur
al Ev
ents
Cultural
Events
Lectur
ies
Series
Lecturee Ser
Phonat
hons or T
ele
Phonathons
Tele
elett hons—
cont
acting donor
contacting
donorss bbyy
t elephone or bbyy
answ
er
ing ttelephones
elephones at
answer
ering
t ele
vision sstudios
tudios
elevision
Str
ee
air
niv
als
tree
eett FFair
airss or Car
Carniv
nivals
Spor
ting Ev
ents
Sporting
Events
R aces
icy
cle, rrun,
un, w
alk
aces---bicy
icycle,
walk
or o
ace” type
otther “r
“race”
e v ents
Car W
ashes
Washes
Bak
Bakee Sales
Casino Nights
A uctions
Puppe
ws
Puppett Sho
Show
Fashion Sho
ws
Show
Special events can be planned to attract publicity, gain new supporters,
educate the public, and make money. They are an opportunity to
promote the work of the RHO, enhance its image, and create excitement about the organization and its work. They can provide an opportunity for staff, board members, supporters, and the community to
celebrate. This reinforces their identification with the organization. Or,
they can provide a time to thank and reward volunteers and financial
contributors. Special events may not themselves make much money but
they are an opportunity to broaden future public support and indirectly
leverage resources.
Organizing special events involves many people—staff, volunteers, and
board members—working many hours to plan, implement, and evaluate
the events. Costs can escalate quickly unless there is good planning and
careful budgeting beforehand.
A special event should center on something that people want to do, which
requires some understanding of the target audience and its preferences.
There can be advantages in designing an event that will be repeated year
after year and become an important part of the community’s calendar.
Choosing a good time of year is important—a holiday period, or during
events that people celebrate anyway, can work well. Special events can
take many different forms (see sidebar for examples).
Public collections are a good way to reach large segments of the
population at low cost. They also can be an effective way to educate
individuals and promote causes. The downside is the possibility of theft or
fraud if the program is not properly administered.
Examples of special events
C ARE, tthe
he int
er
national de
ency
o Sho
w”
inter
ernational
dev
agency
ency,, holds a “N
“No
Show”
velopment ag
ue
he U
nit
ed SSttat
es. The in
vit
ation sa
You ar
vit
ed, but
banque
uett in tthe
Unit
nited
ates.
invit
vitation
sayys, ““Y
aree in
invit
vited,
banq
please don
o sstt ay home and contr
ibut
don’’t come.
come.”” CARE ask
askss people tto
contribut
ibutee in
ee cat
egor
ies: $1
00: “Count on me. Her
ibution ffor
or tthe
he
thr
hree
categor
egories:
$100:
Heree is my contr
contribution
he banq
ue
t.
Thank goodness I
w outf
it I don
ve tto
o buy ffor
or tthe
ne
new
outfit
don’’t ha
hav
banque
uet.
t.”” $50: ““Thank
don
ve tto
o eat ano
hic
k en dinner
Thank yyou
ou ffor
or
hick
dinner..” $25: ““Thank
don’’t ha
hav
anotther bad cchic
in
viting me. I w
ould be gglad
lad no
o come so tthat
hat C
ARE can pr
ovide
inviting
would
nott tto
CARE
pro
assis
o tthose
hose sstr
tr
ugg
ling ffor
or dail
viv
al.
ticular eev
vent
assistt ance tto
trugg
uggling
dailyy sur
surviv
vival.
al.”” This par
particular
appeals tto
o Amer
icans who ar
ed tto
o att
end special dinner
s, but
Americans
aree of
oftt en ask
asked
attend
dinners,
it can be adap
o o
adaptt ed tto
otther communities.
A w
omen
we holds an annual golf ttour
our
nament
women
omen’’s association in Zimbab
Zimbabw
ournament
wit
h local celebr
ities and politicians. The golf club donat
es tthe
he use of tthe
he
with
celebrities
donates
golf cour
se, and tthe
he mone
o pla
h tthe
he celebr
ities
course,
moneyy paid bbyy people tto
playy wit
with
celebrities
goes tto
o tthe
he association.
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Successful collections depend on having a strong volunteer program,
good printed materials, and well-designed collection boxes, particularly
if education or promotion is part of the purpose. It also helps to publicize a collection ahead of time either in the newspaper or via outdoor
advertising.
Collections can be done in different locations:
! House to house collections require a group of volunteers who
understand the organization and can articulate what the RHO is
doing. Choosing the right neighborhood and preparing materials
to leave with each prospective donor is crucial.
Collections can be
a way to publicize an
organization or its cause.
! Street collections require volunteers to be aggressive in soliciting the donation. They must be willing to engage people on the
streets and to place themselves in view of those walking by.
Collections at street fairs or other public gatherings are usually
successful and require only permission from the event planners
and enthusiastic volunteers. Promotional or educational materials can be handed out to each individual who makes a donation.
! Placing collection boxes at businesses is the easiest way to use
collection boxes, but it requires diligence in collecting the
donations, as well as volunteers to count the money. Hotels,
restaurants, or other businesses will often allow charitable
organizations to leave a canister on the counter where people
can deposit change.
Membership systems involve formally affiliating donors to an organization. They have a number of advantages. They give an organization an
indication of how broadly-based its support is and which groups really
care about its mission; they enable the organization to increase its
political power through increased membership; and they provide a
potential source of new volunteers and future funding.
Creating a membership program provides donors with an easy way to
give and a sense of belonging which is likely to lead to more commitment and longer-term support. Annual membership fees are a reliable
source of income and provide opportunities for the organization to ask
for other donations.
Membership programs require good organization and attention to
individual records. The key to a successful program is renewing each
member annually and using the information collected to identify future
opportunities. Members can become valuable volunteers and, at a
minimum, they should be invited to all events and receive newsletters
and regular progress reports.
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Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
Raffles are a relatively easy and fun way to raise money. A raffle appeals
to a person’s desire to get something for less than it is worth. The key to
a successful raffle is to have the prizes donated from individuals or businesses. Gifts can vary—cash, services, dinner at a restaurant, a one-time
shopping spree, a television, or even a trip. There are usually between
one and five prizes, one being the Grand Prize. If many tickets are sold,
a person’s chances of winning are small, but the money collected will
more than pay for the printing of the tickets and advertising of the raffle.
Most of the income should be profit.
Family Planning Association of Bangladesh—raffle
Ev
er
ear tthe
he FFamil
amil
ladesh holds a rraf
af
Ever
eryy yyear
amilyy Planning Association of Bang
Bangladesh
afffle.
Eac
h br
anc
h is rresponsible
esponsible ffor
or selling a cer
k ets and is
Each
branc
anch
certt ain number of tic
tick
fr
ee tto
o decide ho
w tto
o sstr
tr
uctur
olunt
eer ef
t. Headq
uar
free
how
tructur
ucturee its vvolunt
olunteer
efffor
ort.
Headquar
uartt er
erss
he rraf
af
ell
k ets, and adv
er
tises tthe
collects all tthe
he donations, pr
ints tthe
he tic
well
adver
ertises
afff le w
prints
tick
he pr
izes
in adv
ance of tthe
he dr
aw. Individuals and businesses donat
dra
donatee all tthe
prizes
advance
or a lar
tion of tthe
he o
ver
all
af
eac
h yyear
ear
portion
ov
erall
nott account ffor
largge por
each
ear.. The rraf
afffle does no
budg
able vvalue
alue in tter
er
ms of mar
k eting and public
budgeet but has had consider
considerable
erms
mark
relations. The Association has become mor
o tthe
he community
moree visible tto
and is link
ed wit
h an activity tthat
hat giv
es people pleasur
e.
linked
with
gives
pleasure.
Individuals as volunteers
Local volunteers offer a number of advantages. They can bring in skills
not currently available in an organization and increase networks and
linkages for fundraising. By using volunteers, salary costs can be reduced and community support nurtured.
On the other hand, it may be difficult to find volunteers with the necessary skills, or to have the level of control over performance that could
be expected from paid employees. In addition, volunteer services are
not without cost. Volunteers need training, management, and constant
What can volunteers do for an RHO
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
SEATS II
Guide
52
to Leveraging
Help dis
tr
ibut
or
mation and commodities.
distr
tribut
ibutee inf
infor
ormation
Pr
ovide ffinancial
inancial and leg
al eexper
xper
tise.
Pro
legal
xpertise.
Help wit
h ggener
ener
al adminis
tr
ativ
ask
s.
with
eneral
administr
trativ
ativee ttask
asks.
Edit tthe
he ne
wsle
tt
er or o
er
ials.
new
slett
tter
otther publicity mat
mater
erials.
he actual “asking”
Help wit
h all aspects of fundr
aising, including tthe
with
fundraising,
for suppor
t.
support.
Or
un special eev
vents.
Orgganize and rrun
Coor
dinat
af
ship dr
iv
es.
Coordinat
dinatee rraf
afff les, collections, and member
membership
driv
ives.
Chapter 51
| The Community
You Serve
encouragement to ensure a reasonable long-term commitment. Selecting the right volunteers and creating conditions that encourage them to
stay are therefore very important.
There are three types of volunteers: leaders who take the initiative and
get things done; followers who do a good job but need the right leadership; and individuals who are enthusiastic but rarely complete a task.
This last group is the most troublesome for a volunteer program and
should not be recruited.
Understanding why individuals volunteer can help in recruiting appropriate people and ensuring that their needs, as well as those of the
organization, are met. Reasons for volunteering can include altruism, a
search for new opportunities, a desire for self-promotion, or increased
social influence. Satisfying these wants where appropriate and providing
adequate motivation are crucial. To get suitable volunteers to remain
requires understanding their limitations as well as their wants. It is
important, for example, that demands on their time and energy are
realistic.
Although the rewards for volunteers are not primarily monetary, financial
incentives are sometimes offered to motivate volunteers. This can create
problems. Often these incentives are covered by donor grants that are
short-lived and cannot be continued by the organization itself. Sometimes
the incentives are tied to performance. This can be difficult to monitor and
may encourage dishonest reporting.
Many organizations experience a rapid turnover in their volunteers. A
well-designed volunteer program will deal with this. Among other things
it will provide volunteers with:
Examples of volunteer workers
One of tthe
he cchalleng
halleng
es ffacing
as tto
o de
velop a cos
t-ef
hallenges
RHAC
was
dev
cost-ef
t-efffectiv
ectivee but
acing RHA
C w
tr
at
egy ffor
or its community
-based w
or
k er
s. The pr
og
as
sustt ainable sstr
trat
ategy
community-based
wor
ork
ers.
prog
ogrram w
was
sus
de
veloped using local vvolunt
olunt
eer
h onl
emuner
ation
dev
olunteer
eerss wit
with
onlyy a minimum of rremuner
emuneration
fr
om sales of subsidized lo
w -pr
iced ffamil
amil
from
low
-priced
amilyy planning commodities. Selling
s, nor
ener
at
ag
or tthe
he vvolunt
olunt
eer
the commodities did no
nott ggener
enerat
atee a living w
wag
agee ffor
olunteer
eers,
lea
ve tthem
hem enough time tto
o suppor
heir ffamilies
amilies fr
om o
ces.
sources.
supportt ttheir
from
otther sour
leav
he vvolunt
olunt
eer
er
er
w, but man
hem w
er
Dr
op-out rrat
at
es ffor
or tthe
eryy lo
low
manyy of tthem
wer
eree
Drop-out
ates
olunteer
eerss w
wer
eree vver
passiv
at
her tthan
han activ
olunt
eer
s. Since tther
her
ts associat
ed
passivee rrat
ather
activee vvolunt
olunteer
eers.
heree ar
aree cos
costs
associated
wit
h tr
aining and super
vising tthese
hese passiv
olunt
eer
s, RHA
C beg
an
with
training
supervising
passivee vvolunt
olunteer
eers,
RHAC
began
dismissing some w
or
k er
ying tthe
he highl
oductiv
wor
ork
erss and pa
paying
highlyy pr
productiv
oductivee ones.
ation mak
xt
ensiv
Int
er
national Planned P
ar
ent
hood FFeder
eder
Par
arent
enthood
ederation
makes
xtensiv
ensivee use of
Inter
ernational
es eext
volunt
eer
s. Thr
ough ttheir
heir w
or
ldwide ne
tw
or
k of af
es tthe
he
ve 1120
20
olunteer
eers.
Through
wor
orldwide
netw
twor
ork
afffiliat
iliates
heyy ha
hav
er
million vvolunt
olunt
eer
s, w
or
king tthr
hr
ough 776,000
6,000 ser
vice deliv
olunteer
eers,
wor
orking
hrough
service
deliver
eryy points,
ser
ving tw
o million clients a mont
h.
serving
two
month.
SEATS II
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Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
! A good understanding of the organization’s mission
! A clear and realistic job description
! Thorough training
! Continual information, briefings, and supervision of their work
! Feedback, recognition, and reward
! Reasonable conditions of work.
Applying the concepts—What types of community support
are appropriate for your organization?
Step 1: Determine whether volunteers are a potential source of support for your organization
Volunteers are a potential source of leverage for most RHOs. Discuss
with other staff the possible roles volunteers might play in your organization and why volunteers may be interested in supporting your activities.
Step 2: Determine whether fundraising is a leveraging option for your
organization
Fundraising from individuals or business is also worth considering for
most RHOs. This is particularly true if:
! There are no laws or regulations in your country that prohibit
you from soliciting individuals or working with businesses.
! There are no cultural constraints or religious prohibitions.
! There are tax incentives for individuals or businesses to
contribute to your organization.
! You have had a positive experience with raising funds from business and individuals in the past.
! You have an established and active group of supporters and contacts in the business community.
! The local economy is strong.
! You have the type of organization or project that would be
interesting to the business community. For example, you may be an
organization with a large constituency that business could see as
part of its market or an organization with prestige, visible presence,
or connections that the business would value.
Given this, decide if fundraising is a possible option for your organization. Chapter 10 provides an opportunity to examine fundraising in light
of your mission and the requirements it may place on your organization.
The specifics of implementing fundraising activities are discussed in
Chapter 13.
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Chapter 51
| The Community
You Serve
Applying the concepts—Who are your potential community
supporters?
Step 1: Identify potential individual supporters in your community
Every person who comes into contact with your organization is a
possible donor—the landlord, the delivery person, the vendor, the
shopkeeper, the tourist, the banker, and even the client are all potential
supporters of your RHO.
1. Keep a list of all people your organization comes into contact with
and begin to develop a database of potential donors.
2. Brainstorm with the core group of your organization (the board
of directors, staff, and volunteers) and ask:
• Which individuals currently support your RHO?
• Which individuals are most affected by your activities?
• Which individuals are most committed to the
organization’s purpose and goals?
• What connections do you have through your board of
directors, staff, or other NGOs?
• Who, from this group, is most capable of and able to
support your work?
3. Be sure to list business connections, professionals with whom
you do business, friends and family, and membership organizations that support similar causes to your RHO.
Step 2: Identify potential business supporters in your community
Make a list of all those businesses that:
! Supply your organization—accountants, attorneys, office suppliers, advertisers, consultants, or food services
! Already support your organization in some way
! Are known to be charitable and that you believe share your
mission or values
! Are in closest proximity to your organization
! Do business with board members, staff, and volunteers
! Employ your clients and their families
! Have expressed any interest in your work.
You can identify businesses to add to this list through discussions with staff,
checking with local business associations or the local chamber of commerce,
talking with other NGOs, and reading the newspaper.
Identify the ten most promising possibilities. Businesses that want to
promote themselves within the community or with a product or service
they are trying to promote are good candidates.
SEATS II
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Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
Resources
Beyond the Annual Campaign: A Handbook for Sustainable Fundraising.
Kristin Majeska. (Stockton, CA: Katalysis North/South Development
Partnership, 1994).
Effective Fundraising: Tools and Techniques for Success. Leslie G. Brody.
(Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group, 1994).
Integrating Reproductive Health Into NGO Programs, Volume 1: Family
Planning (Second Edition). Joyce V. Lyons, and Jenny A. Huddart. (Boston, MA: Initiatives, Inc., 1997).
Managing for Profit in the Nonprofit World. Paul B. Firstenberg. (New
York, NY: The Foundation Center, 1986).
NGO Fundraising Strategies: An Introduction for Southern and Eastern
NGOs. Jon Bennett and Sara Gibbs. (Oxford, UK: INTRAC Publications,
1996).
Perfecting the Alliance: Viable Fundraising for International Partnerships.
Dennis J. Macray. (Stockton, CA: Katalysis North/South Development
Partnership, 1994).
Securing Your Organization’s Future: A Complete Guide to Fundraising
Strategies. Michael Seltzer. (New York, NY: The Foundation Center,
1987).
The WorldWide Fundraiser’s Handbook: A Guide to Fundraising for
Southern NGOs and Voluntary Organizations. Michael Norton. (London,
UK: International Fundraising Group and Directory of Social Change,
1996).
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Chapter 6
Donor Agencies
Introduction
It is easy to see how an exchange is taking place when clients are
involved—they pay money and receive a service or product directly. The
idea that support from donors also involves some kind of an exchange is
less obvious. But it is true and is important to understand. There are
many different kinds of donors, but they all invest in programs or organizations to address their own social objectives—objectives that are
determined by their constituency or supporters. They expect to satisfy
these objectives when they make a contribution and they may impose
conditions to help ensure this.
Knowing something of donors’ motivations for giving and their requirements for funding recipients is critical to identifying suitable sources of
leverage. The first part of this chapter describes the main types of
donors and important features of how they operate and reveals the
variety of donor options that exist. The specifics of how a particular
donor functions in a particular country (information which is vital to
proceeding further) can be obtained by making direct contact with
that donor. Details on how to make those contacts can be found in
Annex 1.
Donor agencies differ
from one another in
what they give, how
they give it, and what
they want in return.
There are several ways that donors support organizations. They can
provide loans, grants, or in-kind contributions, for example. Funding
mechanisms differ in the demands they make of a recipient, in their
flexibility, size, and availability. When deciding on the details of a
leveraging strategy, it is important to be familiar with the peculiarities,
limitations, and advantages of each. The second half of this chapter
focuses on funding mechanisms.
The chapter closes with several questions to assist you in exploring
possible mechanisms of donor support and in identifying potential
donors for your organization.
Some agencies are highly specialized in terms of the kind of support
they offer. The U.S. Peace Corps, for example, basically provides expatriate volunteers. The World Bank provides loans primarily to governments. Most donors, however, offer a range of different types of support. Figure 6.1 shows, very broadly, the links between the types of
donors and types of funding mechanisms.
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Section II1
|
Potential
Sources
of
Leverage
SEATS II
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58
to Leveraging
Figure 6.1 The types of resources provided by different kinds of donor agencies
TYPES
DONOR AGENCIES
G ra n ts
Loans
OF
RESOURCES DONORS PROVIDE
E n d ow m e n t s
In -K in d
C o n tr ib u tio n s
Volunteers
Technical Assistance
(TA)/Training
L o c a l a n d N a tio n a l
Government (e.g.,
M O H , C ity C o u n c il)
So m e a ct a s
intermediar y for
other donors
providing grants
So m e a ct a s
intermediar y for
other donors
providing loans
Uncommon
Some provide
b u ild in g s , la n d ,
staf f
Uncommon
Bilateral (e.g., USAID,
D F ID )/ M u ltin a tio n a l
(e .g ., U N IC E F / W H O /
UNFPA)
Most provide
grants but often
through
intermediaries
Some provide
lo a n s u s u a ll y
through
intermediaries
Few other than
USAID provide
endowments
Most provide ink in d in c lu d in g
e q u ip m e n t ,
b u ild in g s
Some UN agencies Many provide TA or
provide volunteers training through a
project
F o u n d a tio n s (e .g ., F o r d
F o u n d a t i o n , Pa c k a r d
F o u n d a tio n )
Most provide
grants, the larger
grants usually
through an
intermediar y
Some provide
loans often as
program-related
investments
Some larger
Uncommon
foundations,
provide usually to
organizations they
have funded in
the past
Uncommon
Some, mostly the
larger foundations,
provide TA
NGOs/PVOs
Some provide
(e.g., Save the Children, grants often acting
C A RE)
as an intermediar y
for other donors
Uncommon
Often receive
endowments but
do not provide
endowments
Most provide
s o m e in -k in d
su p p o r t
Many use
volunteers
themselves but few
provide to other
organizations
Some provide TA
often acting as an
intermediar y for
other donors
Volunteer
O r g a n iz a tio n s (e .g .,
U.S. Peace Corps, U.K.
VS O )
No
No
No
All provide
international
volunteers of
var ying skills and
duration
All provide TA
through their
volunteers
No
Some provide TA as
intermediaries for
other donors
Chapter 61
| Donor Agencies
National and local government agencies
Governments (either at national, state, or local level) are the main
source of support for many NGOs, providing resources either from their
own tax income or acting as an intermediary for other donors. For
example, Catholic Charities USA—a network of 1,400 social service
agencies—receives about two thirds of its revenues from federal, state,
and local governments. In developing countries, too, governments play
a key role, as the examples in the following box illustrate.
Examples of support provided by government agencies
•
•
•
•
•
Var
ious minis
tr
ies in Plat
eau SStt at
e, Nig
er
ia, pr
ovided sstt af
o a
arious
ministr
tries
Plateau
ate,
Niger
eria,
pro
afff tto
o w
or
k in ttheir
heir mar
k et clinic, manag
omen
women
omen’’s or
orgganization tto
wor
ork
mark
managee
local w
their cassa
va pr
ocessing plant (an income-g
ener
ating activity), and
cassav
processing
income-gener
enerating
giv
aining on cassa
va ggrrowing.
givee tr
training
cassav
u, Zimbab
we, pr
ovided land and a
The city go
ver
nment in Gw
er
gov
ernment
Gwer
eru,
Zimbabw
pro
out
h wit
h a place tto
o
or a yyout
out
h cent
er tthat
hat pr
ovided local yyout
building ffor
center
pro
outh
with
outh
ts, lear
n some vvocational
ocational skills, and rreceiv
eceiv
pla
eceivee counseling on
playy spor
sports,
learn
repr
oductiv
h.
eproductiv
oductivee healt
health.
In Seneg
al, tthe
he W
or
ld Bank funded a lar
h sect
or decentr
alizaSenegal,
Wor
orld
largge healt
health
sector
decentralization pr
oject. P
ar
his funding w
as cchanneled
hanneled tthr
hr
ough municipaliproject.
Par
artt of tthis
was
hrough
ties so tthat
hat tthe
he
act local N
GOs tto
o assis
hem in de
velopheyy could contr
contract
NGOs
assistt tthem
dev
ing tthe
he municipality’
o pr
ovide rrepr
epr
oductiv
h ser
vices.
municipality’ss capacity tto
pro
eproductiv
oductivee healt
health
services.
The Minis
tr
h in Cambodia pr
ovided RHA
C wit
h ffamil
amil
Ministr
tryy of Healt
Health
pro
RHAC
with
amilyy
planning commodities tthat
hat w
er
ed bbyy U
nit
ed Nations P
opulawer
eree donat
donated
Unit
nited
Population FFund
und (UNFP
A) and tthe
he Ger
man Bank ffor
or R
econs
tr
uction
(UNFPA)
German
Recons
econstr
truction
(KfW).
In Guat
emala, tthe
he Minis
tr
h contr
act
ed local N
GOs tto
o
Guatemala,
Ministr
tryy of Healt
Health
contract
acted
NGOs
pr
ovide ser
vices tto
o indig
enous populations tthat
hat w
er
pro
services
indigenous
wer
eree no
nott cur
currrentl
entlyy
being rreac
eac
hed tthr
hr
ough MOH ffacilities.
acilities.
eached
hrough
Develop good
relationships with the
government and with
the international
organizations working in
your country. They are
often the conduits for
funding from other
sources.
Funding often flows through specific agencies within the government,
such as the ministry of health or the city health department. Sometimes
it comes directly from a political body, such as a city council or local
government board.
Governmental agencies are often the gatekeepers for international
governmental funding, and maintaining good relations with them is
desirable.
One of the problems with government funding is the complicated
bureaucracy involved. This makes it difficult to find out how to obtain
support, and creates delays in dispersing funding once it is approved. It
also may mean that the recipient RHO has limited control over any
resources it gets, particularly in-kind contributions. For example, an RHO
given the use of a government motor pool vehicle may not be sure how
well the vehicle is serviced, or even if the vehicle will be available when
SEATS II
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Section II1
| Potential Sources of
Leverage
required. Similarly, it can be difficult to ensure that government-provided
staff perform adequately when the ultimate authority over them resides
elsewhere.
Some NGOs are ineligible to receive government funding because of
their political orientation, ideology, or the type of services they provide.
Clearly this is not a problem public sector RHOs have. Their difficulties lie in
competing with other sectors for government resources.
To find out about possible sources of
government support consult:
•
•
•
Embassies: A good
source of information
R epr
esent
ativ
es in national and local go
ver
nment (including ma
epresent
esentativ
atives
gov
ernment
mayy s, city councils, and dis
tr
ict manag
ement tteams)
eams)
ors,
distr
trict
management
or
R epr
esent
ativ
es in national or local ag
encies including tthe
he minis
tr
epresent
esentativ
atives
agencies
ministr
tryy of
healt
h, city healt
h depar
tments
health
health
departments
tments,, and national population councils
esent
ativ
es
Bilat
er
al and multilat
er
al donor rrepr
epr
eral
epresent
esentativ
atives
Bilater
eral
multilater
Bilateral and multilateral agencies
The general picture
Bilateral agencies are organizations that receive funding from their
government to provide assistance to another country. In some countries, they are a governmental agency, in others they are an NGO that is
formed to manage government development funds. USAID, the United
Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID), the
Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and the Swedish
International Development Agency (Sida) are all examples of bilateral
agencies.
Man
ve an
Manyy embassies ha
hav
ambassador
velopment
ambassador’’ s de
dev
fund. The ggrrants pr
ovided
pro
thr
ough tthese
hese funds ar
aree of
oftt en
hrough
om US$1
000—
small, rranging
anging fr
from
US$1000—
he adv
ant
ag
$5000, but ha
ve tthe
antag
agee
hav
advant
of local adminis
tr
ation.
administr
tration.
Embassies ar
he bes
aree of
oftt en tthe
bestt
sour
ce of inf
or
mation on ttheir
heir
source
infor
ormation
countr
y’
velopment aid
country’
y’ss de
dev
pr
og
w it functions.
prog
ogrram and ho
how
The
hanism ffor
or
Theyy also ar
aree a mec
mechanism
donor ag
encies tto
o ggeet tto
o kno
w
agencies
know
the RHO. The
Theyy ma
mayy be
im
pr
essed enough tto
o suppor
impr
pressed
supportt
pr
oposals ffor
or additional funds.
proposals
Multilateral agencies are organizations that receive funding from a
number of different country governments. The United Nations agencies
(UNFPA, UNICEF, United Nations Development Program (UNDP),
United Nations AIDS Programme (UNAIDS)), the World Health Organization, the World Bank, and the European Community are all examples
of multilateral organizations.
Bilateral and multilateral agencies are a major source of development
funding, US$47.6 billion in 1997 alone, but their contributions have
been declining globally. Between 1996 and 1997 funding dropped 14.2
percent.7 This is partly because donor countries have been experiencing
economic difficulties and have questioned the effectiveness of foreign
aid. This climate of caution and skepticism has made competition for
funding tough.
The overall decline in aid also has been accompanied by geographic
and programmatic shifts. For example:
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to Leveraging
7
Aid and Private Flows Fell in 1997, OECD News Release, Paris, 18 June 1998.
Chapter 61
| Donor Agencies
! The proportion of aid directed toward long-term developmental
efforts has fallen while support for emergencies and areas in
conflict—for example Bosnia and Rwanda—has increased. Nevertheless, some countries with particularly severe problems of underdevelopment, such as Cambodia or Mozambique, are likely to
continue to receive assistance for some time.
! Eastern Europe and the states of the former Soviet Union have
received significantly increased aid budgets in recent years with
much of this support going to banking and private sector development projects.
! The percentage of development assistance earmarked for health,
education, and agriculture has declined.
! There has been a shift in public development funding to commercially-oriented foreign investment.
How funds flow
In general, donors want
the organizations and
programs they support
to make them look good
in the eyes of their stakeholders.
Because their funding comes from governments, bilateral and multilateral agencies typically must have an agreement with the government of
the country in which they wish to work. In some cases, the national
government may require that all funding flows through them. In others,
the government must give overall approval for a donor project which, in
turn, can provide support to certain designated municipalities, NGOs,
or other organizations.
Support—financial, technical, and in-kind—is often channeled through an
intermediary. USAID, for example, uses intermediaries such as AVSC International, Center for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA),
Pathfinder International, or Population Services International (PSI). It also
directs its funds through projects managed by a U.S. organization. John
Snow, Inc. (JSI), for example, manages USAID projects such as Family Planning Service Expansion and Technical Support (SEATS) and Family Planning Logistics Management (FPLM) while the organization Management
Sciences for Health (MSH) manages the Family Planning Management
and Development (FPMD) project. The USAID Mission will often link local organizations with their intermediaries, but the funding decision usually lies with the intermediary. In a few cases, USAID will provide direct
funding to an RHO, but several conditions must be fulfilled for this to happen.
Access to bilateral and multilateral aid often requires, or is facilitated by,
a relationship with another organization with headquarters in a donor
country. For example, some European Commission (EC) funding is
managed centrally in Belgium with access restricted to European NGOs.
To access these funds, a relationship must be established with a European NGO.
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Sometimes bilateral agencies develop country programs that specifically
include activities suited to a reproductive health organization’s strengths
and goals. German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), for example, may be
developing a program in Cambodia that includes reproductive health.
There are considerable advantages in being included in the early stages of
the development of such programs. Small grants programs offer an alternative initial point of entry.
To find out about possible sources of support from bilateral
and multilateral donor agencies consult:
•
•
•
•
•
Anne
Annexx 1
The Guide tto
o Eur
opean P
opulation Assis
European
Population
Assistt ance
Countr
encies
Countryy of
offfices of lar
largger donor ag
agencies
Embassies
Ot
her RHOs
Other
Donor preferences
Donors look for clues in
an organization’s “assets”—those attributes of
an organization which
inspire confidence that it
will do what it promises.
Donors generally want the resources they make available to reflect well
on themselves and to appeal to their constituency. Otherwise they put
their own survival in jeopardy. Most donors will be looking to support
organizations that they believe will:
! Do a good job, i.e., use the support provided efficiently and
effectively. Donors look for a track record that demonstrates an
ability to marshal the technical and operational expertise needed
to deliver the program outputs promised and to do this in an
efficient, cost-effective way. Organizations with a strong track
record stand a much better chance of obtaining additional resources than new or weak organizations.
! Address shared programmatic objectives, i.e., adopt approaches and produce outcomes that are compatible with their
own values, objectives, and interests and with those of their
constituency. The organization they support is, in effect, their
agent and they want to be confident that through their support
they are contributing to the achievement of their own goals.
In general terms, this often means that donors favor non-profit
organizations and organizations which deliver services to the
poor. Sometimes donors will look for indications of community
involvement as a demonstration of commitment on the part of
the community, and the willingness of the organization to work
with the community. Most donors will place considerable emphasis on the virtue of sustainability—they expect the RHOs they
support to work toward reducing their dependence on external
donor funding.
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! Keep them adequately informed, i.e., provide periodic reports
of programmatic progress and the use of the resources received.
Donors need to be able to report back to their own stakeholders—public authorities, individual donors, trustees, stockholders—
what they were able to accomplish with the resources they
made available to other organizations. For this they need clear,
timely, accurate reports from the organizations they support.
! Acknowledge their support, e.g., generate favorable publicity
that supporters can reference when reporting on their performance to their own constituencies.
Donors look for clues as to the likelihood of an organization satisfying
these requirements in an organization’s “assets”—i.e., those attributes
inherent to an organization which inspire confidence that it will do what
it promises. For example, donors are attracted to well-managed organizations led by creative, competent individuals and they look for accounting systems that are trustworthy and accurate.
Donors differ in the types of activities they fund and the means they use
for providing resources. For example, some donors have a reputation
for funding buildings and audio/visual equipment, while others are
known for funding technical assistance. Some donor support appears
closely tied to the politics of the donor country, while others are not as
politically influenced. Some donors prefer to support health and related
projects, while others prefer programs outside the health field.
The scale of support can vary considerably. Larger donors prefer to fund
relatively large projects. There are two principal reasons for this. First,
there are “economies of scale” of management—it often takes almost as
much effort to monitor a small project as a large one. Donors also see
large projects as having a greater potential for impact than smaller ones.
The preferences of multilateral and bilateral donors differ from one
organization to another. Even for a given donor, preferences can differ
between countries and change over time. Figure 6.2 illustrates some of
that variation using USAID as an example.
Since understanding the preferences of donors is crucial to designing a
leveraging strategy, RHOs need to actively seek this information by
making contact with the local office of donors operating in their countries. Most donors have either a country or regional plan that indicates
their funding priorities, geographic focus, and program areas. They will
also usually have either a country or regional office if they are active in
a country. Annex 1 lists the major bilateral and multilateral agencies and
indicates how to contact them.
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Figure 6.2 USAID’s mission and country preferences
USAID's global mission is "to contribute to U.S. national interests through the results it delivers by supporting the
people of developing and transitional countries in their efforts to achieve enduring economic and social progress
and to participate more fully in resolving the problems of their countries and the world." The specific
programmatic objectives designed to achieve this mission var y, however, by countr y and over time, as the
following examples illustrate.
USAID/Mozambique's 1999 Strategic Objectives
USAID/Guatemala's 1999 Strategic Objectives
- Rural household income increased in targeted areas
- More inclusive and responsive democracy
- Government and civil society are effective partners in
democratic governance at national and local levels
- Better health for rural women and children
- Increased use of essential maternal/child health and
family planning services in focus areas
- Increased use of sustainable natural resource
management practices
- Poverty reduced in selected geographics
- Priority on sustainable natural resource management
and conservation of biodiversity
USAID/Senegal's Strategic Objectives
1997
1999
- Decrease family size
- Sustainable increases in private sector income
- Increase crop productivity through improved natural
resources management in zones of reliable rainfall
- More effective, democratic, and accountable local
management of services and resources in target areas
- Increase liberalization of markets for natural resourcebased products
- Increased and sustainable use of reproductive health
services in targeted areas
Foundations
What is a foundation?
A foundation is a nongovernmental, nonprofit organization that provides funding to other organizations and to individuals that maintain or
aid charitable, educational, religious, or other activities serving the
public good. The Ford Foundation and the Aga Khan Foundation are
two well-known examples.
Most private foundations originally derive their funds from a single
source, such as an individual, family, or corporation. Some foundations,
usually public foundations, rely on continuous fundraising for the
principal funds. All foundations, whether private or public, are governed
by country-specific rules and regulations and are required to give a
certain percentage of their income away each year.
Foundations, also called trusts, vary in asset size as well as the amount
of funds they disburse each year. Each has its own funding priorities.
Support can include general-purpose grants or support for specific
topics or activities. Some fund internationally, others locally.
Large international foundations function rather like some of the multilateral and bilateral donors. They often have field offices, staffed by
experts in certain program areas, which are the initial point of contact
for any organization exploring support. Applications for funding are
screened in the field offices before being sent to the central office.
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| Donor Agencies
Three main criteria used by
the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust
1. Is it wit
hin our guidelines?
within
he qquality
uality of tthe
he idea?
2. What is tthe
3. Can tthe
he or
er?
orgganization deliv
deliver?
(Michael Norton and Michael Eastwood, Writing Better Funding Applications, 1997)
Monitoring and administrative requirements are likely to be strict.
Information on the foundation’s program policies, structure, history, and
staffing must be obtained before proceeding with any application.
Foundation funding
is a largely untapped
resource for indigenous
NGOs. It is also an increasingly attractive one.
Smaller international foundations, including family foundations, often
stipulate less stringent requirements in their grant agreements. Access
to information and to the decision-makers is relatively easy since
individual donors are often actively involved. Small foundations are
often attracted to local NGOs.
National foundations fund local organizations and are sometimes
called Community Foundations. For example, Child Relief and You
(CRY)/India earns funds through local and international fundraising and
provides grants to child welfare organizations. These foundations, and
others like them, have the advantage of an insider’s understanding of
the operating environment of NGOs. Foundations exist in most countries but can be difficult to find out about because they do not usually
have a centralized source of information.
Corporate foundations take many forms. Sometimes, the regionally
based office is permitted to donate resources locally without any
interference from the central office. Some businesses provide technical
Figure 6.3 Characteristics of different types of foundations
Foundation Type
D e s c r iptio n
S o u r c e o f Fu n d s
D e c is io n -M a k in g
Requirements
In d e p e n d e n t
(e.g., international and
family foundations)
A grant-making
organization
established to aid
s o c ia l, e d u c a t io n a l,
religious, or other
ch a r it a b le a c t iv it y
Endowment from a single
source such as an
individual or family
Decisions are made by
an independent board
of directors, by a bank
o f f ic e r a c t in g o n a
donor's behalf, or by
family members
Usually make
d o n a t io n s in s p e c if ic
fields of interest and
have standard
g u id e lin e s
Company-sponsored
(e.g., corporate
foundations)
An independent grantmaking organization
with close ties to the
corporation providing
fu n d s
Endowment and annual
contributions from a
profit-making corporation
Decisions are made by
board of directors
co m p o se d o f
corporate of ficials or
by local company
o f f ic ia ls
Make donations in
fields related to
corporate activities or
in communities where
corporation operates
C o m m u n it y
A publicly sponsored
organization which
makes grants in a
s p e c if ic c o m m u n it y o r
region
Contributions received
from the communityВ—
in d iv id u a ls , b u s in e s s e s ,
and organizations
Decisions are made by Generally limit donboard of directors
ations to organizations
representing the
in t h e lo c a l c o m m u n it y
c o m m u n it y
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assistance in the form of financial and marketing expertise. Others
provide in-kind donations of equipment, pharmaceuticals, or product
donations. In general, corporations are keen to create a local presence
and develop relationships with leaders in the community and the
government.
Trends in foundation funding
Foundations recognize
the growing importance
of NGOs in building civil
society and see the voluntary sector as the most
effective vehicle for
achieving their goal of
facilitating development.
Foundation funding may be an untapped resource for indigenous
NGOs. The endowments of many foundations have benefited enormously in recent years from the large financial gains made in U.S. stock
markets and, until recently, other emerging markets. Many countries
have enacted new tax laws designed to encourage philanthropic giving,
and banking systems have improved worldwide, making the mechanics
of donating simpler.
Not only are many foundations in a good financial position, they are
also beginning to look at using NGOs to help them further their own
goals. Many foundations believe that traditional approaches, such as
using foreign aid channeled through intermediaries, have failed, so they
are exploring ways to fund local groups directly. They recognize the
growing importance of NGOs in building civil society and often see the
voluntary sector as the most effective vehicle for achieving their goal of
facilitating development. Some are creating partnerships with NGOs,
particularly NGOs in developing countries. Communications technology has facilitated this process.
The external environment has also begun to change for foundations.
Associations of philanthropic organizations, which include all types of
foundations, have been forming in many parts of the world. In both
The Packard Foundation
The P
ac
k ar
d FFoundation,
oundation, tthr
hr
ough a ffiv
iv
e-par
og
Pac
ack
ard
hrough
ive-par
e-partt population ggrrant pr
prog
ogrram,
suppor
ts:
supports:
•
•
•
•
•
Pr
oven sstr
tr
at
egies tto
o mee
he need ffor
or rrepr
epr
oductiv
h car
Pro
trat
ategies
meett tthe
eproductiv
oductivee healt
health
caree
De
velopment of ne
w sstr
tr
at
egies tto
o assis
oung people ent
er
ing ttheir
heir
assistt yyoung
enter
ering
Dev
new
trat
ategies
ear
repr
oductiv
oductivee yyear
earss
eproductiv
o mobilize rresour
esour
ces and political will tto
o addr
ess rrapid
apid
Initiativ
es tto
Initiatives
esources
address
population ggrr owt
h in de
veloping countr
ies
wth
dev
countries
Ef
ts tto
o pr
eser
ve and eexpand
xpand rrepr
epr
oductiv
hoices
Efffor
orts
preser
eserv
eproductiv
oductivee cchoices
Pr
og
hat will pr
epar
w ggener
ener
ation of leader
o deal wit
h
Prog
ogrrams tthat
prepar
eparee a ne
new
eneration
leaderss tto
with
t he population cchalleng
halleng
hallengee
The FFoundation
oundation has par
ticular int
er
es
ocus countr
ies: Et
hiopia,
particular
inter
eres
estt in eight ffocus
countries:
Ethiopia,
India, Me
xico,
My
anmar
,
Nig
er
ia,
P
akis
t
an,
t
he
Philippines,
and
Sudan
Mexico, Myanmar
anmar, Niger
eria, Pakis
akist
the
Sudan.
(The Da
vid and L
ucile P
ac
k ar
d FFoundation,
oundation, Pr
og
999)
David
Lucile
Pac
ack
ard
Prog
ogrram Guidelines, 11999)
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Chapter 61
| Donor Agencies
The Public Welfare Foundation
The Public W
elf
ar
oundation, tthr
hr
ough its P
opulation and R
epr
oductiv
Welf
elfar
aree FFoundation,
hrough
Population
Repr
eproductiv
oductivee
Healt
h Initiativ
e, suppor
ts pr
og
hat
Health
Initiative,
supports
prog
ogrrams tthat
hat::
•
•
•
•
Pr
ovide inno
vativ
er
national community ffamil
amil
hat
Pro
innov
ativee int
inter
ernational
amilyy planning tthat
o o
he sstt atus of w
omen and connects ffamil
amil
otther
women
amilyy planning tto
enhances tthe
es
repr
oductiv
h issues in countr
ies wit
h tthe
he ggrreat
eproductiv
oductivee healt
health
countries
with
eates
estt need
o pr
he spr
ead of HIV and AIDS, especiall
Wor
k tto
pree v ent tthe
spread
especiallyy among
ork
he rrat
at
ection is
w omen and people of color
color,, wher
wheree tthe
atee of inf
infection
g r o wing rrapidl
apidl
apidlyy
A ddr
ess rrepr
epr
oductiv
ights, including tthe
he rright
ight tto
o saf
tion and
ddress
eproductiv
oductivee rrights,
safee abor
abortion
inf
or
med consent
infor
ormed
Pur
sue emer
ging rrepr
epr
oductiv
h issues.
Pursue
emerging
eproductiv
oductivee healt
health
(Public W
elf
ar
oundation, FFunding
unding Pr
ior
ities, 11998)
998)
Welf
elfar
aree FFoundation,
Prior
iorities,
Europe and the United States, these groups have begun to collaborate
on plans to use the private sector to leverage more money from governments and corporations. These associations have created joint funding
initiatives and strategic planning activities aimed at improving the
climate for funding local NGOs. In the United States, Affinity Groups--groups of foundations that support similar causes or issues---are encouraging their members to fund NGOs directly.
What foundations look for from an RHO
Some foundations support areas such as health care and the environment. They are often interested in funding an organization’s effort to
create self-sufficiency and independence. Sometimes, their emphasis is
on supporting new directions and establishing projects that might not
be funded by traditional sources. A few foundations even grant seed
money for pilot projects that break new ground.
Most foundations require
a proposal or grant application before they will
provide funding.
In considering support, a foundation will first make sure that the purpose of the organization or project matches the foundation’s interests
as well as addresses a need in the community. It will also take into
account such things as whether the RHO has a history of funding by
other sources, a strong and involved board of directors, a committed
group of volunteers, and a qualified and committed staff. A realistic
budget and demonstrably sound financial management may also be
important.
Almost all foundations require the submission of a grant application or a
funding proposal, although their precise requirements vary considerably. Annex 1 provides a list of foundations known to support reproductive health activities, together with their contact information and funding preferences.
SEATS II
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To find out about possible sources of support from
foundations consult:
•
•
•
Anne
Annexx 1
The rresour
esour
ce lis
Websit
ip
tions”
esource
listt ““W
ebsitee Descr
Descrip
iptions”
The U
.S.
F
oundation
Cent
er
and
t
he Eur
opean FFoundation
oundation Centr
U.S. Foundation Center
the
European
Centree
Other donor organizations
NGOs/PVOs
Private voluntary organizations are international NGOs that address a
social need. They often act as an intermediary for bilateral agencies or
channel individual donations from their home country to support
activities in developing countries. They can directly fund the activities of
RHOs or form a partnership with them. They may provide both financial
support and technical assistance, and are an excellent resource for
networking. Examples of such organizations include Save the Children,
CARE, International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF), Marie
Stopes International, Plan International, Oxfam, and Radda Barnen.
One advantage of these NGOs is that they tend to provide long-term
support, often operating for many years in a community. However, they
are also increasingly feeling pressure to demonstrate to their own
donors that the programs and activities they support are sustainable. As
a result, funding from these organizations tends to be more time-limited
than it used to be.
Most of these organizations have either a country or regional office in
areas where they provide support. This office can provide information
about the type of activities and organizations they support, the amount
of funding they might provide, and the requirements that must be met
in accessing funding from them.
Child or community sponsorship
Se
ver
al int
er
national N
GOs, including PL
AN Int
er
national and Sa
ve tthe
he
Sev
eral
inter
ernational
NGOs,
PLAN
Inter
ernational
Sav
Childr
en, rrun
un sponsor
ship pr
og
o rraise
aise funds. The
Children,
sponsorship
prog
ogrrams tto
Theyy ask individual
donor
o “adop
t” a cchild
hild or a community and contr
ibut
donorss tto
“adopt”
contribut
ibutee a small amount
or man
ear
s. The N
GO uses tthe
he donat
ed funds
of mone
h mont
h ffor
month
manyy yyear
ears.
NGO
donated
moneyy eac
each
al community and cchild
hild de
velopment activities suc
h as
to pa
or ggener
ener
payy ffor
eneral
dev
such
tr
uction, healt
h, ffamil
amil
wat
er and sanit
ation, education, rroad
oad cons
sanitation,
constr
truction,
health,
amilyy planater
ning, and micr
o-ent
er
pr
ise. In rreetur
n tthe
he individual donor
eceiv
tt
er
micro-ent
o-enter
erpr
prise.
turn
donorss rreceiv
eceivee le
lett
tter
erss
fr
om tthe
he
ir adop
hild. These pr
og
en or
from
heir
adoptt ed community or cchild.
prog
ogrrams of
oftt en las
lastt tten
mor
ear
s.
moree yyear
ears.
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Volunteer organizations
There are a number of organizations that provide volunteers to work with
communities and organizations. The UN Volunteers, the Canadian
CUSO, U.S. Peace Corps, the United Kingdom Voluntary Services Overseas (VSO), and other programs that employ retired business executives,
are some examples. The field offices of the volunteer service organizations and the embassies of the country in which the organization has its
headquarters are good sources of information about acquiring an international volunteer.
Service organizations
Rotary Club and Lions Club are examples of international service clubs
that support various social service projects in areas such as health,
education, and disaster relief. Their members are typically business
people interested in community service and humanitarian relief. They
often support international initiatives (e.g., polio eradication, blindness
prevention, health, and education services) through their local chapters.
Most have a presence in major cities throughout the world.
Religious organizations
Many religious institutions support various humanitarian efforts, channeling funds through local churches and related charities including the
Islamic Foundation, American Friends Service Committee, and Catholic
Charities. Sensitivity to issues of family planning and reproductive health
may limit the potential for support of RHOs through these organizations.
To find out about volunteer agencies, service organizations,
companies, or international PVOs/NGOs consult:
•
Anne
Annexx 1
•
Embassies
•
Chamber
ce
Chamberss of commer
commerce
•
Bilat
er
al or
Bilater
eral
orgganizations
Mechanisms of funding
Donor agencies have many different means of providing support to RHOs,
including grants, loans, endowments, and in-kind support. Figure 6.4 summarizes the key features of these different mechanisms and the sections in
the rest of this chapter elaborate on this.
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Figure 6.4 Characteristics of different mechanisms of funding
M e c h a n i s m s o f Fu n d i n g
C h a r a c te r i s t i c s
G ra n ts
H ig h l y
competitive
C o n d itio n s a n d
ease of access
Ac c o u n t i n g
dem ands
U s e fu ln e s s
R is k
S iz e
S p i n - o f f e f fe c t s
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Usually require a
proposal
May require
m a t ch in g c o n t r ib u t io n s
Loans
E n d ow m e n t s
Require a
Difficult to get
demonstrated
Require major
ability to repay and
efforts to develop
possibly collateral
proposal and
contract
In -K in d
Often relatively easy
Usually does not
require a proposal
May require
m a t ch in g c o n t r ib u t io n s
T im e -c o n s u m in g
and costly,
especially for
large grants
Few, if re-payment
is m a d e o n t im e
C a n b e h ig h in
Few
relation to financial
returns
Time limited
C a n o nl y be u se d
for the purpose
the funds were
le n t
Very flexible
Limited flexibility
Long-term
May not be what is
ne e d e d (typ e ,
availability, quality)
Tied to specific
programs or
s e r v ic e s
Only appropriate
for activities that
yield revenue
U s e fu l a s
emergency reserve
Recipients may
fu n d
undervalue
Limited
H ig h r is k
Limited. Principal's Limited
value may grow or
s h r in k
Variable, often
d e p e nd s o n t he
donor agency
Variable
Variable
Often modest
May create
d e p e nd e ncy
Develops financial
d is c ip lin e
Enhanced image
may attract other
d o no r s
Method of encoura g in g c o m m u n it y
p a r t ic ip a t io n w h e n t h e
community is too poor
to contribute
f in a n c ia ll y
Gives credit
history making it
Image of financial
easier to get future security may be a
lo a n s
disincentive to
other donors
Capital donations may
increase recurrent
costs
Chapter 61
| Donor Agencies
Figure 6.5 Characteristics of different kinds of grants
GRANT CHARACTERISTICS
Type of Grant
P r o je c t
P u r pose
S p e c if ic q u a n t if ia b le
objectives
Often packaged with
technical assistance
D o n o r C o n tr o l
H ig h
Donor driven
Requirements
Most common type of Implementation and
grant funding
reporting capacity;
track record
Time limited
P r o g ram
Multiple related
a c t iv it ie s w it h in a
program area
Ac t i v i t y
Support one or more Moderate
activities, not
F lex ib le w it h in
n e c e s s a r il y w it h in a
designated areas
single program
Fairly common type of Long-term relationship
grant funding
with donor; track
record; strategic plan
In s titu tio n B u ild in g
S u p p o r t o f a d m in istrative needs of
new & developing
a c t iv it ie s / fu n c t io n s
Rare
Strategic plan
attractive to donor;
donor relationship
Ver y rare
Demonstrated
management
c a p a b ilit ie s ;
comprehensive
f in a n c ia l p la n
U n r e s t r i c te d
C o n t in u e d
organizational
fu n c t io n in g a n d
development
Moderate
Availability
Flexible within overall
program
Moderate
C o m m o n typ e o f
grant funding
F lex ib le w it h in
designated areas
M in im a l
Assumes adherence to
funding proposal
Strategic approach
attractive to donor;
track record
Grants
Grants, or financial donations, are the most common mechanism for
funding reproductive health services in developing countries. Declining
levels of donor funding, however, make access to them increasingly
difficult. Grants come in many forms—differing in their purpose, the
amount of donor control, their availability, and ease of access. Project
grants are the most common. Figure 6.5 summarizes the different kinds
of grants and their key characteristics.
The characteristics of grants vary significantly depending on the donor.
Small foundations, for example, will often provide only limited amounts
of funding. However, there are usually few restrictions on the way this
funding can be used, and few reporting requirements are attached.
Bilateral and multilateral donors, on the other hand, often provide large
grants but make substantial reporting demands and exercise tight control
over the use of the funds.
Grants are not free.
For one thing they make
demands for reports that
can distract an organization from its service
activities.
Donors are often reluctant to pay for indirect costs—those administrative costs that support a number of activities. There is, however, room
for negotiating with donors on this issue and many international and
developed country RHOs establish an indirect cost rate (sometimes
called an overhead) and apply this to all grant agreements and contracts. This rate is generally kept below 25 percent of total costs.
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Covering administrative costs
Most grants require a
proposal and some require a local contribution
from the organization
requesting the grant.
To mo
ve aaw
way fr
om com
AID ffor
or cor
ts,
mov
from
comple
plette dependence on US
USAID
coree cos
costs,
ple
C intr
oduced a ne
w line it
em int
o budg
h o
RHAC
introduced
new
item
into
budgeets wit
with
otther funding
RHA
ag
encies. This line it
em w
as labeled dif
entl
or dif
ent donor
s:
agencies.
item
was
difffer
erentl
entlyy ffor
difffer
erent
donors:
ts, manag
ement ffee,
ee, ggener
ener
al adminis
tr
ation, or
indir
ect cos
ts, cor
eneral
administr
tration,
indirect
costs,
coree cos
costs,
management
alent w
ays. The
over
head ar
er
ms tthat
hat can be used in rroughl
oughl
uiv
erhead
aree all tter
erms
oughlyy eq
equiv
uivalent
wa
he
use of dif
ent labels tto
o suit eac
h donor ffacilit
acilit
at
ed ttheir
heir appr
oval of tthe
erent
each
acilitat
ated
appro
difffer
budg
em w
as calculat
ed as a ffix
ix
ed per
cent
ag
he tto
ot al of
budgeet. The line it
item
was
calculated
ixed
percent
centag
agee of tthe
all o
ts in tthe
he budg
as used as a contr
ibution tto
o RHA
C’
otther cos
costs
budgeet, and w
was
contribution
RHAC’
C’ss
gener
al oper
ating or cor
ts. As a rresult
esult of tthis
his sstr
tr
at
egy
he
eneral
operating
coree cos
costs.
trat
ategy
egy,, all of tthe
funding ag
encies w
er
ibuting tto
o RHA
C’
ener
al oper
ating cos
ts in
agencies
wer
eree contr
contributing
RHAC’
C’ss ggener
eneral
operating
costs
pr
opor
tion tto
o tthe
he size of tthe
he dir
ect cos
he
propor
oportion
direct
costt activities tthe
heyy funded.
Donors increasingly ask for some kind of matching local contribution to
support the grant-funded activity or project. They believe that if an
organization is willing to contribute, it is more likely to have a vested
interest in the results and be willing to continue the activity when the
grant ends. Organizations might be asked to pay a specific percentage
of total costs or to give an indication of their contribution in their grant
proposals and budgets. Not all contributions need be in cash. In-kind
contributions such as volunteer time or office space are also possible.
Accessing grant funding almost always requires a written proposal to
the potential donor. The format will vary somewhat, but the general
approach is described in Chapter 14.
Loans
There is a growth in
social lending—loans
for a social purpose that
typically have lower
interest rates than commercial loans.
Loans are a sum of money lent, often for a specified time, and repayable
with interest or a fee. They are not commonly used by RHOs for a
number of reasons.
! Commercial lenders traditionally have not been interested in
providing loans to health providers.
! Most lenders require some form of collateral, something of
value that is used to guarantee repayment of the loan
(such as a building, land, or equipment), which is difficult for
many RHOs to provide.
! Interest rates in many developing countries are very high.
! Most services provided by RHOs are unlikely to generate
sufficient profit to cover loan payments.
! The financial risk associated with loan repayment is high.
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Several recent developments, however, might make loans more attractive to RHOs. The first is the emergence and growth of social lending—
loans for a social cause. These loans are provided at concessionary rates
(i.e., below the commercial rate), have an extended grace period, and
require little or no collateral. They are often funded by donors but
managed by a third party. Examples include micro-credit organizations
and international NGOs such as the Program for Appropriate Technology in Health (PATH) Loan Fund or IPPF/Western Hemisphere Endowment Fund for Sustainability, as well as commercial lenders who have
received a loan guarantee from a donor or the government that allows
them to lend at lower interest rates. Some donors lend directly to
organizations. Loans can be as small as US$1,000 and as large as
US$100 million.
| Donor Agencies
Loans must be paid back,
and with interest. They
are not appropriate for all
RHOs or all programs.
The second is the growing number of RHOs who, in order to subsidize
their other services, are undertaking commercial ventures such as
selling contraceptives and pharmaceuticals, providing diagnostic services to other local providers, or operating a separate business. Such
enterprises were discussed in Chapter 4. Commercial activities are
appropriate for loans if they generate sufficient revenue to pay back the
loan.
Approval conditions for loans are typically more stringent than those for
grant applications. Lenders demand more comprehensive financial
information and often require a business plan to show how the loan will
be repaid. Inputs from a management or legal consultant are usually
required to help develop the business plan. The type of documentation
typically required for a loan is discussed in Chapter 14.
Loans, even social loans, are not appropriate for all RHOs. Public sector
RHOs, for example, cannot take out loans. Other RHOs need to weigh the
advantages and disadvantages when deciding whether a loan is an appropriate type of funding for their organization.
Social lending
A pr
iv
at
se/midwif
we applied ffor
or a loan tthr
hr
ough her
priv
ivat
atee nur
nurse/midwif
se/midwifee in Zimbab
Zimbabw
hrough
commer
cial bank tto
o pa
or tthe
he eexpansion
xpansion of her clinic, including buildpayy ffor
commercial
ing an oper
ating ttheat
heat
er and mor
er ttold
old her
operating
heater
moree in-patient beds. Her bank
banker
hat w
as manag
ed bbyy tthe
he bank
about a W
or
ld Bank loan pr
og
bank.. The
Wor
orld
prog
ogrram tthat
was
managed
iod. W
it
h her
wer int
er
es
at
er ggrrace per
loan had a lo
low
inter
eres
estt rrat
atee and a long
longer
period.
Wit
ith
bank
er
or tthe
he W
or
ld Bank
-funded loan and w
as
Wor
orld
Bank-funded
was
banker
er’’s assis
assistt ance, she applied ffor
giv
en enough mone
o eexpand
xpand her clinic. Her ffir
ir
yment w
as
given
moneyy tto
irsst loan pa
payment
was
due six mont
hs af
ir
eceiv
ed tthe
he funds.
months
aftt er she ffir
irsst rreceiv
eceived
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Endowments
An endowment is essentially a sum of money, usually a donation, which
is invested long-term to derive earnings for use by the recipient organization. In order to generate reasonable levels of income, these endowments are typically quite substantial. An endowment of US$1,000,000,
for example, would be necessary to get an annual income of
US$60,000 in an environment offering a six percent return. Unlike
loans, they do not need to be paid back. Some endowments require
matching funds. The endowment investment account is managed
separately from the primary functions of the organization. It may be
local or off-shore, in U.S. dollars or in local currency.
Endowments can help
an organization develop
greater independence.
Endowments are a relatively new mechanism, and the health and family
planning sector has had little experience with them. USAID, some
foundations, and some wealthy individuals have granted a few endowments, but most other donors have yet to utilize this mechanism. One
of the first endowments to population organizations was granted by
USAID in the early 1990s to Profamilia in Colombia, a demonstrably
strong organization with other sources of support. Less than 10 percent
of its support comes from its endowment.
Endowments are made on the basis of a strict contract. This contract
will specify among other things:
! How the endowment is to be provided and how and when funds
may be disbursed. The endowment may be established gradually
over a period of two or more years, conditional on fulfillment of
certain agreed-upon indicators such as the number of clients
served and the degree of cost recovery. The donor will usually
approve all the initial disbursements of the endowment to the
organization.
! How and when the endowment can be terminated. Some
endowments permit the organization to draw down the capital
until the endowment disappears. Usually, however, the principal
is left intact and the income is perpetually available. Normally
the endowment does not have to be returned, but if the recipient fails to fulfill the conditions of the endowment, the donor
may reserve the right to withdraw the funds and terminate the
endowment.
Endowments are a way of helping organizations move toward greater
independence while keeping the institution on-track. The donor reduces
its involvement but still maintains some control over the recipient by
requiring it to provide audited reports over a period of time, usually
several years.
Endowments are an attractive proposition for recipients. The income
from endowments is relatively stable and unrestricted and may be used
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| Donor Agencies
Debt-swap endowment
The National P
opulation Council in Jor
dan has applied ffor
or an endo
wPopulation
Jordan
endow
ment tthr
hr
ough US
AID as par
ap ag
h tthe
he Jor
dahrough
USAID
partt of a debt-sw
debt-swap
agrreement wit
with
Jordanian go
ver
nment. If appr
oved, tthe
he endo
wment will pr
ovide indef
init
gov
ernment.
appro
endowment
pro
indefinit
initee
essional sstt af
funding ffor
or tthe
he cor
of
afff whose functions will include
coree pr
prof
ofessional
secur
ing additional funding ffor
or o
ojects and sstudies.
tudies.
otther pr
projects
securing
to fund virtually any program or activity. It helps to limit the disruption
caused by �the project cycle.’ Often the function of an endowment will
be to supplement the organization’s general funding from other sources
or to support a core management staff.
Endowments may attract other donors. Being successful in obtaining an
endowment is a visible sign of a strong organization and gives the
recipient considerable credibility among other donors. The endowment
itself also provides a mechanism through which other donors can make
investments. Donors are particularly pleased if the investment is used to
create something tangible or long-term, such as a department or program.
Not surprisingly, given the substantial sums involved, donors are very
careful about approving endowments. They want considerable assurance of the long-run viability of their investment. A painstaking review
process can be expected. Preparation of the proposal is often a long
and arduous process. It can take two years or more to obtain funding.
This can distract staff from other activities and represent a significant
hidden cost, although the planning and financial analysis have spin-off
benefits for the organization too.
To receive an endowment, an organization
must have proven itself
capable of achieving its
objectives, be well managed, and have excellent
prospects.
If approved, an endowment will also cost money to run. It requires the
services of an �assets manager’—often a professional financial advisor
from a recognized bank or investment firm. Such a person or firm may
be directed by an �endowment committee’— a sub-group of the board
of directors, normally with participation of the organization’s executive
and financial director, as well as board members or other knowledgable
people from the community. Many of these costs are “fixed,” and are
independent of the size of the endowment.
Endowments are not for everyone. Donors will look for organizations
which have proven themselves capable of achieving their objectives, are
well managed, and have excellent prospects. It normally takes several
years to build up sufficient experience, reputation, and trust to be
considered eligible. It also helps if the donor has played an important
role in the creation of the organization. Well-organized financial and
administrative systems, including transparent accounting systems able to
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track sources of income and expenditures, are essential. Complete
financial audits, probably annually for the duration of the endowment,
will be required.
The most likely candidates for endowments in the near future are organizations with a good track record and a long-term relationship with the donor.
Endowments are not an option for the public sector.
In-kind contributions
While relatively easy to access, in-kind donations may
have implications for recurrent costs.
In-kind contributions are donations in the form of some particular good
or service. They could include such things as contraceptive commodities, office equipment, or even bicycles. Many donors provide in-kind
support.
In-kind contributions are often the easiest type of support to attract, and
minimal demands are made on the recipient. They are a way of encouraging community participation. There are disadvantages, however. The
recipient has limited control over the nature and quality of the resource and restricted possibilities for exchange. In some cases, the
recipient is dependent on another organization’s systems for the delivery,
maintenance, and training. In-kind donations also have implications for
future recurrent costs.
An example of a problem associated with in-kind donations comes from
Zambia. A community in Lusaka mobilized and built a clinic with support
from a service organization. The understanding was that once the clinic
was built and equipped, the Ministry of Health would provide the staff
and supplies to run it. Unfortunately, the completed clinic did not pass
the standards set by the MOH and so could not receive MOH support.
The community is understandably upset and the district health management team is trying to find funding to upgrade the building.
A double-edged sword
In 1199
99
7, US
AID ssttopped funding RHA
C’
C w
as
997
USAID
RHAC’
C’ss commodities. RHA
RHAC
was
ved when tthe
he Minis
tr
h, Cambodia beg
an pr
oviding it wit
h
eliev
Ministr
tryy of Healt
Health,
began
pro
with
relie
contr
acep
tiv
es donat
ed bbyy tthe
he Ger
man Bank ffor
or R
econs
tr
uction. This
contracep
aceptiv
tives
donated
German
Recons
econstr
truction.
as no
o be a double-edg
ed sw
or
d. RHA
C w
donation pr
oved, ho
wever
er,, tto
double-edged
swor
ord.
RHAC
was
pro
how
or and contr
ol its o
wn commodity suppl
long
er able tto
o plan ffor
longer
control
own
supplyy. Ther
Theree
ativ
k ag
es and communication pr
oblems concer
ning
wer
tr
eree adminis
administr
trativ
ativee bloc
block
ages
problems
concerning
ho
w tthe
he or
der
ould be made and deliv
er
ed. RHA
C’
how
order
derss w
would
deliver
ered.
RHAC’
C’ss suppl
supplyy sy
sysst em
became as w
eak as tthe
he w
eak
es
he MOH sy
weak
weak
eakes
estt link in tthe
sysst em. Dependence
on tthe
he MOH had o
oo, inf
luencing eev
ver
yt
hing fr
om tthe
he
otther ef
efffects ttoo,
influencing
eryt
ything
from
politics of community outr
eac
h w
or
k er
eceiving supplies dir
ectl
om
outreac
each
wor
ork
erss rreceiving
directl
ectlyy fr
from
the poor
o tthe
he lac
k of an
ecognizable br
and name.
poorlly paid MOH sstt af
afff tto
lack
anyy rrecognizable
brand
The situation tthr
hr
eat
ened tto
o under
mine what had been a sstr
tr
ong and
hreat
eatened
undermine
trong
positiv
elationship wit
h tthe
he MOH.
positivee rrelationship
with
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| Donor Agencies
Other types of support
International volunteers
Most volunteers working with RHOs are from the community in which
the RHO works (see Chapter 5). But some—international volunteers—are
supplied by donors to support programs in developing countries. A
number of government donor agencies provide international volunteers, as do various service and religious organizations. Most volunteer
services will ask for something in return for the volunteer’s time, such as
housing or a local stipend.
International volunteers typically work for a specified time period
ranging from a couple of weeks to two years. Often they are young,
enthusiastic, and inexperienced—although this profile has been changing as needs have become more specialized and as more middle aged,
mid-career people, and retirees become interested in volunteering.
Volunteers often have specific areas of expertise, but no experience
working in a developing country environment. The adaptation of their
knowledge and skills to the new environment can take time and be
frustrating for both the volunteer and the RHO. The value of volunteers
may be short-lived if they see their role as directly providing a needed
skill rather than transferring skills to the local staff or volunteers. Since
volunteers are providing their time free of charge, the organization has
less control than with employees over how they spend their time.
Technical assistance and training
Donations of technical assistance and training are often included as part
of a grant or project agreement. They help build an organization’s
capacity or staff skills but may have hidden costs:
! Better-trained staff may leave to find better paying jobs.
! The kind of assistance provided may be limited, focusing on only
one program area, and attracting attention away from core activities.
As with almost every
type of support, technical
assistance and
training have some
hidden costs.
! Technical assistance organizations sometimes make significant
reporting demands on recipients.
Applying the concepts—Examining the role of donor support
for your organization
This chapter has described the broad categories of mechanisms of
support that donors can provide. You need to think of these types of
support in terms of your own organization. Some of the mechanisms
may be clearly unsuited to your organization while others may be
particularly appropriate. Below are a few points to help you consider various
types of support. Later chapters will take you through a process to refine
and prioritize your leveraging options.
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Step 1: Identify the funding mechanisms suitable for your organization
Consider the following, and list the categories of funding mechanisms that
you conclude are worth giving further consideration to in the case of your
organization.
! ALL RHOs should consider grants, in-kind donations, expatriate
volunteers, technical assistance, and training as potential
leveraging sources.
! Any RHO which can answer “yes” to the following questions
should consider the possibility of a loan:
• Do you operate any income-generating activities?
• Are you willing to provide collateral for the loan?
• Are there any social lenders in the community or country?
! Any RHO which can answer “yes” to all the following questions
might consider the possibility of an endowment:
• Is your organization non-profit and non-government?
• Is there confidence in the future of your RHO?
• Does your RHO have competent management and the
capacity to assure accountability of funds?
• Is your organization able to fulfill the legal requirements for
establishing an endowment?
Applying the concepts—Who are your potential donors?
This chapter has outlined the broad categories of donors that exist.
Within each of these categories are a large number of specific organizations. Some of these are clearly unlikely to support your particular
organization either because of its geographic location or its mandate.
This still leaves a significant number of donor possibilities for most
RHOs. Your task is to list these as a first step in refining and prioritizing
your leveraging options.
Step 1: Identify potential donors for your organization
Brainstorm with colleagues to identify potential donors for your organization. Start with those who have funded you in the past or who have
funded similar organizations in your country. Refer to the text in this
chapter and to Annex 1 for further ideas. Make sure you consider all the
categories below.
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| Donor Agencies
Identifying potential donor agencies
A Ug
andan RHO decided tto
o eexplor
xplor
he po
ces of donor
Ugandan
xploree tthe
pott ential sour
sources
suppor
o tthem.
hem. The
an bbyy com
piling a lis
he ag
encies
supportt open tto
Theyy beg
began
compiling
listt of tthe
agencies
the
d of tthat
hat might suppor
h-r
elat
ed activities. FFir
ir
he
heyy had hear
heard
supportt healt
health-r
h-relat
elated
irsst tthe
heyy
h—bo
all
he dis
tr
icts wher
lis
he Minis
tr
centrall
allyy and at tthe
distr
tricts
wheree
listt ed tthe
Ministr
tryy of Healt
Health—bo
h—botth centr
tr
omen
s. The
he UN
the
or
k ed— and tthe
he Minis
Afffair
airs.
Theyy added tthe
heyy w
wor
ork
Ministr
tryy of W
Women
omen’’s Af
he Afr
ican De
velopag
encies and o
er
als—UNFP
A , UNICEF
agencies
ott her multilat
multilater
erals—UNFP
als—UNFPA
UNICEF,, tthe
African
Dev
ment Bank
he W
or
ld Bank
he Eur
opean Commission—but decided
Bank,, tthe
Wor
orld
Bank,, and tthe
European
that some UN ag
encies suc
h as tthe
he Int
er
national Labor Or
agencies
such
Inter
ernational
Orgganization and
UNESC
O w
er
el
o suppor
h activities, and so should no
UNESCO
wer
eree unlik
unlikel
elyy tto
supportt healt
health
nott be
included.
De
veloping a lis
er
al or
as mor
he
Dev
listt of bilat
bilater
eral
orgganizations w
was
moree dif
diffficult. As tthe
RHO did no
w whic
h ones w
er
or
king in Ug
anda or ho
w tto
o
nott kno
know
which
wer
eree w
wor
orking
Uganda
how
cont
act tthem,
hem, tthe
he
hec
k ed tthe
he ttelephone
elephone book
ed cont
act
contact
heyy cchec
heck
book.. The
Theyy locat
located
contact
inf
or
mation ffor
or onl
encies, but ttook
ook no
he embasinfor
ormation
onlyy a ffeew donor ag
agencies,
nott e of tthe
sies of kkee y countr
ies including tthe
he U
.K., Canada, FFrrance, and tthe
he N
countries
U.K.,
Neether
her-lands.
Onl
oundation tthat
hat had an of
anda—t
he Pr
iv
at
or
Onlyy one ffoundation
offfice in Ug
Uganda—t
anda—the
Priv
ivat
atee Sect
Sector
Foundation—w
as identif
ied in tthe
he ttelephone
elephone book sear
wever
he
oundation—was
identified
searcc h. Ho
How
er,, tthe
resident advisor w
or
king wit
h tthe
he or
o tthe
he Int
er
ne
wor
orking
with
orgganization had access tto
Inter
erne
nett
and rran
an a sear
oundations locat
ed in tthe
he U
.S. and Eur
ope
searcch on po
pott ential ffoundations
located
U.S.
Europe
t hat pr
ovide suppor
o int
er
national rrepr
epr
oductiv
h activities. The
pro
supportt tto
inter
ernational
eproductiv
oductivee healt
health
RHO no
w had a lis
now
listt of po
pott ential donor suppor
supportt er
erss and could begin
collecting inf
or
mation about eac
h of tthem.
hem.
infor
ormation
each
List specific organizations under each category:
! National or local government agencies
! Bilateral and multilateral agencies
Foundations
! Other NGOs/PVOs
! Service organizations
! Volunteer organizations
You will revisit this list in Chapter 7, where you will have the opportunity
to develop profiles of each donor based on what they can offer and
their demands on the recipient organization.
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| Potential Sources of
Leverage
Resources
Endowments as a Tool for Financial Sustainability: A Manual for NGOs.
The PROFIT Project (Arlington, VA: 1993).
The Foundation Center: (http://www.fdncenter.org)
Funders Online: (http://www.fundersonline.org)
Guide to European Population Assistance: An Orientation Guide for
Institutions in Developing Countries on Funding for Population and
Reproductive Health. Dr. Joerg F. Maas and Mirja Rothschaedl.
(Hannover, Germany: German Foundation for World Population (DSW),
1999).
U.S. Foundations: A Review of International Funding Priorities. D.E. Ray
and A.E. Scheid. (Washington, DC: Research & Reference Services
Project, USAID, 2000).
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Chapter 7
Your Funding Environment
Introduction
The previous chapters in this section provided an overview of the three
broad sources of support available to RHOs—clients, communities, and
donor agencies—and the types of support they provide.
The purpose of this chapter is to encourage RHOs to think of these
various possibilities in relation to their own specific circumstances, and
to identify all reasonable possibilities in terms of what specific sources
and type of support might be suitable for them. This is done in three
steps:
! Preparing a resource mobilization map of all the potential
sources of support identified in the exercises in Chapters 3
through 6.
! Developing profiles of all these specific sources.
! Identifying the type of support they can offer that may be
appropriate for the organization (using the information gathered
through the profiles).
Each of these is discussed below with an opportunity at the end of the
chapter to apply them to your own specific circumstances. The next
section of this Guide, Section III, will help you to narrow the options
down into a specific leveraging strategy.
The resource mobilization map
A resource mobilization map shows the specific sources of support an
organization either has or could have. It can also indicate the interrelationships between these different sources and how the funds flow
through intermediaries. It is a useful summary of an organization’s
funding options.
Understand your specific
funding environment.
Figure 7.1 shows the resource mobilization map RHAC developed---the
solid lines show direct funding and the dotted lines indicate indirect
support. RHAC started by listing possible kinds of support and, as it
learned more about its potential sources of leverage, listed specific
names of potential donors, clients, and community supporters. RHAC
began with past and current funders, including USAID and its intermediaries---Family Planning International Assistance (FPIA) and SEATS---and
later added potential future funders such as the European Commission
and UNFPA. It also identified local companies that might either purchase
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| Potential Sources of
Leverage
Figure 7.1 RHAC’s resource mobilization map
their services or provide a donation. These included various garment
factories and local hotels. The figure illustrates some of the intricacies
RHOs face when diversifying their funding base. For example, funding
from USAID has flowed through many channels, including FPIA, SEATS,
and the Reproductive and Child Health Alliance (RACHA), before
arriving as funding to RHAC.
The resource mobilization map is a useful tool
for identifying potential
sources of support for
your organization.
Resource mobilization maps are likely to change over time. Sometimes
this will be because the environment, potential supporters, or the organization itself are changing. But often it will be the result of finding out more
about a source and discovering that it does not have the potential as a
supporter that was initially anticipated.
One advantage of putting together potential sources on a single map is
that the pattern and emphasis become clearer. It is important to assess
whether this emphasis is appropriate by being aware of the general
funding environment and how it is changing. Is the environment a
heavily subsidized one dominated by international donors? Or is it one
in which self-reliance is promoted and donors are withdrawing? A good
resource mobilization map will reflect the nature of the general funding
environment.
Client, donor, and community profiles
Preparing a resource mobilization map is a relatively easy step. The next
task is likely to be a more time-consuming one. But it is absolutely
essential if an RHO takes the responsibility of leveraging for the
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| Your Funding
Environment
Being aware of your funding environment
Donor
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organization seriously. RHOs need to collect some basic information
about each of the sources identified in their resource map. This information—in the form of a “profile” of a potential supporter—serves a number
of different purposes.
First, the information is necessary in order to decide whether the source
identified is worth pursuing. What are specific clients, donors, and community in a position to provide? And what, in turn, will they look for or demand
from the recipient organization if they support it? As Chapter 2 pointed out,
at the heart of leveraging is an exchange—an RHO’s supporters provide it
with resources and it, in turn, satisfies them. To find a suitable match an
RHO needs to know supporters’ needs and wants, and the limit of their
capacity to respond. The profiles can help to refine and shorten the list of
leveraging options.
Get to know your clients,
community, and donors—
both their needs and
what they can offer.
This is the main but not the only purpose of collecting information on
supporters. A second purpose is to help guide an RHO in following up
an approach to getting support should it decide that it is worthwhile.
For this reason, for example, it is useful to collect information on a
donor’s procedures for assessing applications.
Yet another purpose of profiling is to understand how various potential
supporters perceive the services an RHO offers. This can be very useful in
designing promotional and marketing strategies or pursuing changes in the
organization to make it more attractive.
Checklists of questions dealing with all of these issues are provided for
each broad category of supporter in Annexes 2 - 6.
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Resource matrix
One important characteristic to determine about each potential source
is the type of support it provides. Donors, in particular, can vary considerably in the mechanisms they employ to support RHOs. The profiling
exercise will clarify who provides what. A resource matrix maps this out--sources of support are listed down the left side and the types or mechanisms of support along the top.
Figure 7.2 provides a matrix for RHAC to illustrate how the two pieces of
information can be linked.
Figure 7.2 RHAC’s resource matrix
MECHANISMS
SOURCES
SUPPORT
OF
F e e s C o n tr a c t G r a n ts In -K in d
TA/
Training
OF
SUPPORT
E n d ow m e n t s L o a n s
Local
Fu n d r a i s i n g
Volunteers
Own
O r g a n iz a tio n
x
N a tio n a l
Government
MOH
x
B i l a te r a l D o n o r
USAID/Direct
x
x
USAID/SEATS
x
x
AUSAID/PPAT
x
B r itis h E m b a s s y
x
x
Royal
Government of
N e t h e r la n d s /
PCDA
x
M u l t i l a te r a l D o n o r s
UNFPA/EC/IPPF
x
UNFPA/ICOMP
x
UNFPA/CARE
x
E C /IT M
x
I n te r n a t i o n a l F o u n d a t i o n s
World AIDS
F o u n d a tio n
x
JO IC F P
In d iv id u a l
C lie n ts
O r g a n iz a tio n a l
C lie n ts
x
x
x
C o m m u n ity
In d iv id u a ls
x
C o m m u n ity
O r g a n iz a tio n s
x
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Cost
Savings
x
Chapter 71
The matrix shows, at a glance, what sources of support are available for
RHAC and the types of support that can be provided. The matrix shows
that a number of RHAC’s sources of support (e.g., USAID and individuals in the community) provide resources through several different
mechanisms. It also shows that if RHAC is interested in establishing an
endowment, it knows of only one source that might provide it—USAID.
It is important not to forget internal sources of support—RHAC has
identified the possibility of cost-saving activities to improve its efficiency.
The matrix can be made even more informative by using, in place of a
simple �X’, a short description such as “grants between $10,000 and
$100,000.”
| Your Funding
Environment
A resource matrix links
potential sources of
support with the type of
support they provide.
Applying the concepts—Summarizing potential support
The challenge with resource mobilization maps, supporter profiles, and
resource matrices is not to understand what they are, but to actually use
them. All these tools are straightforward but they all require time,
particularly the profiling exercise. It is important to schedule a block of
time specifically to complete the following four steps:
Step 1: Prepare your resource mobilization map
Take the lists you prepared at the end of Chapters 4-6 of specific,
named organizations and groups that you considered as possible
sources of support for your organization. Record that information
schematically in a resource mobilization map (Table 7.1) using Figure 7.1
as a guide.8
Step 2: Prepare profiles of your potential donors, clients, and community supporters
Individual Clients: Collect as much as possible of the information asked
for in Annex 2 on your potential individual clients. Some of this information may be available in your own service/medical records or in published secondary data sources such as demographic and health surveys
and national census data. Staff can also be a good source of information
about clients. But at some point you will probably need to approach
clients directly. Relatively simple surveys, such as health center exit
interviews, interception surveys, or focus groups can be used to collect
information that is not available from other sources. Collecting information on individual clients is perhaps the most difficult of all the profiling
exercises but also the most essential.
Organizational Clients: Take the list you have prepared of potential
organizational clients (from Chapter 4) and collect as much as possible
of the information asked for in Annex 3. Colleagues and board members are often a good source of information on local businesses. Newspapers and general press releases, trade association meetings, annual
8
Make sure your lists include any current supporters. They have already demonstrated their willingness to
contribute and might be willing to contribute more, if not directly then perhaps by opening doors to other
donors. They will not want to see an organization they have nurtured collapse.
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reports, and conferences can also be informative. Simple key informant
interviews may be necessary to obtain some of the information.
Community Supporters: For each group of potential community
supporters (from Chapter 5) collect as much as possible of the information asked for in Annex 4. You can get some of this information through
personal contacts with your supporters, staff, or board members. Ask
volunteers for information. At special events, lectures, or conferences
you could ask attendees a few questions about themselves. Contact
associations, trade groups, and membership organizations and ask if
they are willing to share information they have on their members.
Business Supporters: Take each of the businesses on your list (from
Chapter 5) and collect as much as possible of the information asked for
in Annex 5. You can do this through personal contacts with one of your
supporters, staff or board members, by telephoning and visiting the
company, or by talking to employees or customers of the business. Ask
for any information they can provide on the company and obtain a
copy of their annual report. Check with the Chamber of Commerce,
with the media, trade groups, tax collection office, and other NGOs.
Most of this information should be readily available but is unlikely to be
as centralized as in the case of donors.
Donor Agencies: Take each of the donor agencies on your list (from
Chapter 6) and collect as much as possible of the information asked for
in Annex 6. You can do this by referring to their publications and by
interviewing appropriate individuals from the donor organization. Other
sources of information are included in Chapter 6 on pages 62, 64, 67,
and 70. Almost all of this information should be readily available and
easy to collect.
Step 3: Prepare a resource matrix
Consult the last sections of Chapters 4 to 6 where you identified a
possible role for certain mechanisms and types of support from donors,
the community, and clients. Make a list of all the mechanisms of support
that might be considered by your organization (excluding any that you
know would not work for you), and use this as the top axis of your
resource matrix table. On the side axis, list all your specific supporter
possibilities. Consult the profiles you have prepared for each of these
supporters and record in the body of the table which of their support
mechanisms might work for you (Table 7.2).
Step 4: Re-examine and refine your resource mobilization map
The next section of this Guide (Section III) will take you through the
process of refining your resource mobilization map and defining your
specific leveraging strategy.
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| Your Funding
Environment
Table 7.1 Resource mobilization map
MULTILATERAL/BILATERAL AGENCIES
Your Organization
Community
Clients
National and Local
Government
International
NGOs and
Foundations
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M ECHANISMS
SOURCES
SUPPORT
OF
Fees
Own
O r g a n iz a tio n
N a tio n a l
Governm ent
MOH
In d iv id u a l
C lie n ts
O r g a n iz a tio n a l
C lie n ts
C o m m u n ity
In d iv id u a ls
C o m m u n ity
O r g a n iz a tio n s
B i l a te r a l D o n o r s
M u l t i l a te r a l D o n o r s
I n te r n a t i o n a l F o u n d a t i o n s
C o n tra c t
G ra n ts
In -K in d
TA/
Training
OF
SUPPORT
E n d ow m e n t s
Loans
Local
Fu n d r a i s i n g
Volunteer s
Cost Savings
Section II1
|
Potential
Sources
of
Leverage
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Table 7.2 Resource matrix
SECTION III
T
he previous section described the nature of various leveraging
sources available to RHOs. This section shifts the focus from the
external world of funders to an examination of the RHO itself. It
describes how to use information gathered from analysis of the RHO
together with results from Section II to build a leveraging strategy. The
process has three stages:
! Taking stock of what the RHO has in terms of its mission, organizational assets, and current financial resources (Chapter 8)
BUILDING THE STRATEGY
! Identifying what additional resources the RHO wants---linking
what it has now with where it wants to be in the future (Chapter 9)
! Developing a leveraging strategy that will help the RHO decide
whom to approach, and for what types of resources, by matching the organization and its needs with funding sources and
what they can provide (Chapter 10)
Although the discussion that follows in this section presents a logical
way to prepare a leveraging strategy, it is not necessary to treat these
three stages as one would a recipe, only progressing to the next when
the previous stage is complete. The procedure is more fluid. The RHO
might start by broadly defining its needs and identifying suitable
funding options, but find that its exploration of leveraging sources
requires it to moderate or refine its needs. Or, once the RHO has
initiated action to secure resources, it might find that the sources it
anticipated accessing are less suitable than it initially believed.
In addition, circumstances may propel the RHO in a direction that
bypasses the logical steps of defining needs, deciding on leveraging
approaches, and taking action. For example, instead of having to solicit
support, a donor agency might approach the RHO with the offer of funds.
In that case, the process would be reversed: with the offer defined, the
RHO would need to decide if it wants to accept or not.
Another reason not to view these logical stages as a recipe is that, in
practice, some of the tools used to inform one stage also inform others.
The organizational analysis (Chapter 8), for example, not only addresses
the question of defining needs (Chapter 9) but also helps define a good
fit (Chapter 10), and contributes to the design of effective approaches
to securing the needed resources (Section IV).
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| Building the Strategy
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Chapter 8
Knowing Your
Organization
Introduction
Before deciding what resources are necessary or desired, an RHO must
take stock of what it already has. This assessment can be done through
a set of analytical exercises:
1. Clarifying the organizational mission
2. Diagnosing organizational assets
3. Assessing the current financial position
This chapter explains the nature and importance of each of these
exercises and concludes with several steps that provide the opportunity
to work through each of them. The information this generates will help
define your resource needs (Chapter 9) and assist you in developing an
appropriate strategy (Chapter 10).
Mission definition
To develop an effective resource leveraging strategy an RHO needs a clear
idea of what it wants to accomplish. What products and services does it
wish to provide, to whom, and for what purpose? How does it want to
achieve those results? What principles should guide the staff in their work?
These are the key elements in any “mission.”
A well-formulated
mission statement is a
vital aid in the process of
leveraging.
A mission statement is a concise statement of an organization’s purpose, how it works toward the achievement of that purpose, and its
values. It describes the:
! End results it seeks to accomplish and for whom
! Means it uses to achieve its intended results
! Guiding principles shared by its staff and reflected in their work
A mission should guide an organization through all the crucial steps in the
procedure of leveraging resources. It helps an organization to:
! Decide which activities it wishes to undertake, and, therefore, what
level and type of resources it will be seeking
(Chapter 9);
! Select an appropriate leveraging strategy that is compatible with
its mission (Chapter 10);
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! Communicate the purpose and values of the organization when
it is engaged in the process of actively soliciting support
(Section IV).
A well-formulated mission statement helps an RHO at several stages in the
process of leveraging. However, it is more than a base on which to
build an effective resource leveraging strategy—it should be present in
all aspects of the organization’s day-to-day functioning. It should be referred to frequently within the organization by board members, management, and staff, and used as a touchstone in setting goals, program
planning, and decision-making.
A clear mission is particularly useful during a period of change. Perhaps
fewer resources than anticipated have materialized, government policies
have shifted, new technologies have emerged, or competition from
other organizations has increased. A clear mission can enhance an
RHO’s ability to respond quickly and appropriately to the opportunities
that such changes generate. It provides the criteria against which to
judge the options and screen out alternatives that do not contribute to
the achievement of the organizational objectives.
Examples of mission statements
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Organizational diagnosis
A well-functioning organization has a number of assets other than
money, equipment, or buildings. These assets can be grouped into three
broad functional areas—an organization’s strategic mission and leadership,
its internal communications and staffing structures, and its management
systems and client service operations (see Figure 8.1).
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| Knowing Your
Organization
Figure 8.1 Organizational assets
M a n a g e m e n t S y s te m s a n d O p e r a t i o n s
Strategic and annual
p la n n in g
Accounting and financial
management
Management
information systems
Program
e f f ic ie n c y
Marketing
management
C o m m u n it y
p a r t ic ip a t io n
St r u c t u r e a n d St a f f i n g
Clear responsibilities
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Empowered staf f
Professional
growth
Productivity measures
M is s io n a n d L e a d e r s h ip
Unity of purpose:
Shared vision and mission
Shared values articulated
by leadership
Commitment to financial
sustainability
Leadership responsibilites at
multiple levels
Strategic mission and leadership—an organization’s ability to identify and analyze its mission and objectives, and to articulate and reflect these in its interactions with staff, clients, and other external
stakeholders. Assets that contribute to this include a unity of purpose
within the organization, effective leadership, and a shared commitment to enhancing the organization’s financial sustainability.
Staffing and organization—the structures and systems which support
the organization’s mission and strategic objectives, identify and meet
staff needs, provide appropriate skills development, and empower,
support, and reward effective goal-oriented behaviors. Clear lines of
authority and responsibility that facilitate effective communication
and decision-making are one important component. Personnel systems that motivate and reward quality performance and facilitate professional development are another.
Understanding your
organization’s weaknesses provides one
rationale for seeking
more resources.
Management systems and client service operations—the RHO’s capacity to determine the need and demand for particular services, to
make those services available in a manner that makes them attractive
to the intended clients, and to monitor the external environment for
changes that will impact on current service delivery. Specific assets
that enhance this capacity include systems of strategic and annual
planning, basic accounting and financial management, program management, marketing, and community participation.
To develop an effective resource leveraging strategy an RHO needs to
know how well it is functioning in all these areas. Information on the
organization’s capacities and limitations serves many purposes:
! For the organization to be able to achieve its stated objectives,
resources may need to be invested in areas where it is weak
(Chapter 9)
! The character of an organization influences what funding
sources are the most appropriate (Chapter 10)
! To convince funders to support the organization, an RHO needs
to know and point out its strengths (Section IV)
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RHAC’s experience with organizational diagnosis
An or
wkw
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! The structure of an organization’s assets reveals opportunities for
reorganizing existing organizational resources in a more effective manner (Chapter 3).
Analysis of income
Know what you already
have before you ask
for more.
Knowing what financial support an RHO can already rely on to carry it
forward over the next few years is clearly crucial in designing an effective leveraging strategy. An RHO needs to know the financial base from
which it may need to expand. But it is not just the amount of anticipated
income that is important. There are other characteristics of this support
that an RHO needs to document—the source of funding, how reliable it
is, and what restrictions are attached to the use of those funds. It is
important to have the whole picture in terms of sources of support as
the box on a Nigerian NGO demonstrates below.
This information on the nature of an RHO’s income will tell it how well
its leveraging strategy is meeting some important financial objectives—
independence, reliability, relevance, and flexibility:
! Independence. In an uncertain world, relying on only one source
of funding is risky, regardless of the nature of that source: income from clients can stagnate or decline as a result of new or
increased competition from other providers; donor policies and
priorities can change. These risks can be reduced through a
diversified leveraging strategy. Although each new source makes
its own administrative demands and it is possible to be too
diversified, in general it is advisable to aim for multiple revenue
sources.
! Sustainability: Most RHOs are providing a service that will be
needed for many years. Their aim is to continue to provide that
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Consequences of having a partial financial picture
A w
omen
er
ia rreceiv
eceiv
ed a donor ggrrant tto
o suppor
women
omen’’s or
orgganization in Nig
Niger
eria
eceived
supportt its
mar
k et-based CBD pr
og
t–time bookk
eeper kkep
ep
ac
k of tthese
hese
mark
prog
ogrram. A par
part–time
bookkeeper
eptt tr
trac
ack
funds, but separ
at
el
om rrecor
ecor
ds of o
h as tthat
hat ear
ned
separat
atel
elyy fr
from
ecords
otther income suc
such
earned
al of tthe
he ttop
op ffloor
loor of
fr
om member
ship dues, commodity sales, and rrent
ent
from
membership
ental
their building. The or
ver pulled tthis
his inf
or
mation ttog
og
orgganization ne
nev
infor
ormation
ogee ther
w dependent it w
as on its sing
le ggrrant.
and did no
ealize ho
nott rrealize
how
was
single
Six mont
hs bef
or
he ggrrant ffinished,
inished, tthe
he donor announced tthat
hat it w
ould
months
befor
oree tthe
would
no
ovide an
as no
enott pr
pro
anyy additional assis
assistt ance. The or
orgganization w
was
nott pr
prepar
ed and had tto
o dr
as
ticall
k its activities ffor
or o
ver a yyear
ear
pared
dras
asticall
ticallyy cut bac
back
ov
ear,,
releasing ffour
our sstt af
s, while att
em
pting tto
o secur
he rresour
esour
ces
afff member
members,
attem
emp
securee tthe
esources
necessar
o continue. Had tthe
he or
necessaryy tto
orgganization been sy
sysst ematicall
ematicallyy eexx amining its ffinancial
inancial base, it could ha
ve identif
ied its high dependency on tthe
he
hav
identified
grant and sought oppor
tunities ffor
or div
er
sifying funding. R
eduction of
opportunities
diver
ersifying
Reduction
st af
er
tion of tthe
he pr
og
ve been aav
voided.
afff and int
inter
errr up
uption
prog
ogrram might ha
hav
service for as long as necessary. They require a leveraging strategy
that reflects this desire for a long-term future.
! Reliability. It is much easier to operate if an RHO is sure that
funding from an identified source will materialize. At the very
least it needs to have a reasonable idea of how reliable the
projections of future income are. Is the grant fully committed? Is
the donor reliable in terms of delivering funds? Has the community usually generated this level of support in the past? What has
been the variation in client fee incomes since the system was
established? A well-designed leveraging strategy will take this
into account.
Sustainability, flexibility,
stability, and independence are all desirable
financial goals.
! Relevance. Much of the support that RHOs are likely to get will
be earmarked in some way and can only be used for specified activities or inputs. The funding may be tied to commodities and cannot be used to pay staff or it may be allocated to service activities
and cannot be used to support management and administration.
Complementary funding needs to be sought for those activities
for which funding is not earmarked.
It is particularly useful to know whether earmarked funds support
core activities or optional ones. Inadequate funding for an activity
that is peripheral to an organization’s mission is not necessarily a
cause for concern. Indeed it can be a positive development if it
frees up staff and other resources to support activities more
sharply focused on the RHO’s primary purpose. On the other
hand, inadequate funding for core management or a missioncritical program may threaten an organization’s very survival.
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An RHO can lower its financial risks by diversifying its
sources of support.
Operating costs and long-term capital investment needs are usually
met from different sources. The first are typically met—all or in
part—through client fees and service contracts. Capital costs
(replacing or upgrading outmoded equipment and facilities), on
the other hand, are more likely to be met through onetime, donorsupported capital grants or social lending programs. A leveraging
strategy should yield an appropriate balance between these
different sources.
! Flexibility. Even if the balance is right—and the funding is tied to
the kinds of inputs and activities the RHO wishes to pursue—it is
useful to have some flexibility, some funding that can be used for
whatever need arises. An appropriate balance between restrictive and non-earmarked sources should be sought in any leveraging strategy.
How much an organization needs to take these issues into account in its
strategy for leveraging more resources depends very much on the
overall complexion of its current funding. An organization whose
resources are mostly earmarked for specific projects or inputs might be
particularly keen to access “untied” funding. In contrast, one which has
a high proportion of flexible funding is in a better position to accommodate support that is fairly rigidly defined. Similarly, an organization that
currently has a variety of different sources of support will not necessarily
be looking to diversify its funding base.
What to look for in financial support
Or
inancial suppor
hat
Orgganizations should seek ffinancial
supportt tthat
hat::
•
•
•
•
•
Continues be
he shor
t-t
er
m
beyyond tthe
short-t
t-ter
erm
Focuses on tthe
he im
por
he or
impor
portt ant activities of tthe
orgganization
Leav
“room
maneuver”
Lea
ves some “r
oom ffor
or maneuv
er”
nott ffluctuat
luctuatee ttoo
violentlyy
Does no
luctuat
oo violentl
nott lead tto
dependency..
o dependency
Does no
Applying the concepts—Analyzing your own organization
You now need to think about each of these issues—mission, organization, and finances—in relation to your own RHO.
Step 1: Articulate your organization’s mission
Every RHO should articulate its mission in a brief statement. If you do
not have a mission statement, now is the time to develop one. If you do
have one, review it.
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Write out your organization’s current mission statement. If your organization does not have one, describe the purpose of your organization as
you perceive it.
Review this mission statement. Does it contain a clear description of:
1. The problems your organization seeks to address and the outcomes it seeks to achieve?
2. Who your organization seeks to serve?
3. How your organization operates to achieve its goals?
4. Your organization’s principles and beliefs?
If the answer is “no” to any of these questions, propose appropriate
revisions to your mission statement.
Step 2: Identify your organization’s strengths and weaknesses
Do a systematic stocktaking of your RHO’s organizational capabilities in
three important areas---mission and leadership, management systems
and operations, and structure and staffing.
For each of these areas you need to assess:
! How strong your organization is in that area
! What specific aspects are functioning well
! What specific aspects could be improved.
This is not a simple assessment to make overall because of the large
number of elements that need to be taken into account. You will find it
helpful to break down the analysis into small manageable questions.
These questions and the procedure for converting your answers into an
overall assessment are provided in Annex 7.
After you complete Annex 7, summarize your findings, and record them
in Table 8.1.
Step 3: Analyze your organization’s income
Record information on the income you expect to receive in the next
three to five years using Table 8.2. Only include future funding that you
strongly expect to receive due to actions you have already taken to
secure resources (i.e., it should not merely be a wish-list). It could
include grants, endowments, loans that have already been agreed to,
income from client fees for an established system, and support from the
community for activities that have already been set up. Annex 8 provides an example of a financial analysis.
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Record:
! How much is expected
! Who is providing it
! What it can it be used for :
•
•
•
•
•
core/extra
operating/capital
particular activities
particular inputs
anything
! When it is available
! How reliable it is
! How long-term the commitment is.
Based on this summary of anticipated income, decide how much
additional independence, sustainability, relevance, reliability, and flexibility you are looking for in any additional funding you are seeking. Do this
by calculating some basic proportions. What proportion of your funding:
! Derives from the largest single source? (Do you need diversified
funding sources?)
! Is earmarked for specific activities or inputs? (Do you need more
flexible funding?)
! Is for operating and capital costs? (Do you need a better balance
of support?)
! Is for core activities? (Do you need to focus your funding more
on core activities?)
! Is guaranteed? (Do you need to give financial security greater
emphasis?)
! Is likely to continue beyond the next three years? (Do you need
more long-term funding?)
Express your conclusions as in the following example:
“A high proportion of our funding is in-kind or otherwise tied. We
would like to look for some more flexible funding sources. Much of
our resources are going into areas that are not central to our mission.
We need to shift our emphasis to core activities. We already have a
number of different sources of support and are not necessarily
looking to diversify.”
These steps have helped you to define what you have. You will need to
refer back to your answers as you work through the next chapters--identifying your resource needs (Chapter 9) and building your leveraging strategy (Chapter 10).
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Table 8.1 A summary of needs from Annex 7
Strength
4
Weakness
3
2
1
Mission and Leadership
Areas of strength
Areas of improvement
Strength
4
Weakness
3
2
1
Management systems and operations
Areas of strength
Areas of improvement
Strength
4
Weakness
3
2
1
Structure and staffing
Areas of strength
Areas of improvement
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Type of
r esou r ce
(g r a n t, lo a n ,
i n - k i n d , fe e s ,
d o n a tio n s ,
earned)
P u r pose
( n o te a n y
limitations to
u s e В— e a r m a r k in g
for specific
inputs for
a c tiv itie s )
Sour ce
(s p e c ify fu n d in g
donor, clients,
o r c o m m u n ity
m em ber s)
Reliability
Is t h is fu n d in g
c e r t a i n ? I f n ot ,
h ow c o n f i d e n t
a b o u t a m o u n ts
a n t i c i p a te d ?
Amount per Year
1
2
3
4
Comments and Plans for
C o n tin u in g
5
Total
*
Remember to list all types of income, including: grants from both domestic and international donors; rents from any properties you own; fees received from both individual clients and organizations;
loans; in-kind supplies (valued in terms of what it would cost the organization to purchase); and donations from the community.
| Building the Strategy
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Table 8.2 Anticipated Income*
Chapter 9
Defining Resource Needs
Introduction
The previous chapter—Chapter 8—introduced a number of techniques
for describing and analyzing important features of an RHO— its purpose,
its organization, and its finances. This chapter draws on all of these in
order to explain how to estimate the level and nature of the resources the
organization needs—in other words, to identify the target for the leveraging strategy that the RHO is developing. The next chapter (Chapter 10)
deals with the task of matching these needs for additional resources with
appropriate sources of support.
The process of defining resource needs can be broken down into four
steps, each of which is described further in this chapter:
STEP 1: Using mission statements and client profiles to decide what
services to provide and whether to:
! Maintain on-going services
! Improve services
! Expand services
! Reduce or eliminate selected services.
STEP 2: Using the organizational diagnosis to identify areas which
require strengthening.
STEP 3: Translating these services and organizational needs (from Steps
1 and 2) into requirements for cash or other support to cover recurrent
and capital costs.
STEP 4: Calculating the difference between these financial requirements (Step 3) and the resources that can already be counted on
without any further action. The result will be the specification of resources for which the organization needs to devise a leveraging strategy.
This chapter concludes with several exercises that provide the opportunity to work through each of these steps.
STEP 1—Planning what services to provide
Just keeping an organization going can be a major challenge. The idea
of contemplating changing the organization and what it is doing can
sometimes seem overwhelming. But the truth is that an organization
which is not active and adapting, growing, and changing is probably one
with a limited future.
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It is important, therefore, to review periodically how well an organization
is tackling the mission it has set itself. Are its activities focused on the areas
that matter? Is the menu and balance of services in line with its mission? Is
the organization reaching enough of its intended population? What are
the mechanisms for reaching objectives? Is the organization, for example,
involving the community as much as it intended? Many organizations will
take on some additional activities that are somewhat peripheral to their
key purpose. This is not necessarily detrimental unless these activities
dominate. Most of an organization’s efforts should be directed to core
activities and intended population groups.
Use mission statements
and client profiles to
decide whether to maintain services,
improve, expand, or
reduce them.
There are three important sources of information for making judgments
about the appropriateness of the direction the organization is taking.
The first is obviously the mission statement that will set out the
organization’s goals and purpose. Secondly, there are those records
kept by the organization that document what services they actually
provide and to whom. These records provide important clues about
how well an organization is achieving some of its objectives. Thirdly,
there are client profiles. Satisfying some of its client’s needs is, after all,
the purpose of an organization’s existence. The profiles will reveal what
clients need and want, how satisfied they are with the current services,
and what characteristics of service provision are important to them.
Client profiles and mission statements are useful complementary tools.
Profiles are likely to reveal that clients need and want a great many
different products and services. Attempting to be all things to all people is
not a wise or effective strategy. Decisions will have to be made as to
which of these needs and wants the organization should address. Strategic vision and organizational mission are critical here. The question is
“Will providing these particular products or services to this particular
Planning for the future
A rrepr
epr
oductiv
h or
unning tw
o clinics and
eproductiv
oductivee healt
health
orgganization in Colombia rrunning
two
an outr
eac
h pr
og
o giv
hought tto
o what its futur
outreac
each
prog
ogrram decided tto
givee some tthought
futuree
activities should be. It rref
ef
er
o its mission
namel
o pr
ovide rrepr
epr
oefer
errred tto
mission---namel
namelyy tto
pro
eprohe local
ductiv
h ser
vices and education tto
o lo
w income ffamilies
amilies in tthe
ductivee healt
health
services
low
communities
and ggat
at
her
ed some inf
or
mation on its clients and commucommunities---and
ather
hered
infor
ormation
nity
or
mation rreevealed tthat,
hat, in tthe
he ffir
ir
cent
percent
irsst clinic, clients—80 per
nity.. This inf
infor
ormation
of whom w
er
w incomes
wer
ied wit
h tthe
he clinic’
wer
eree on lo
low
incomes---w
eree highl
highlyy satisf
satisfied
with
clinic’ss
ser
vices. In tthe
he second clinic, onl
cent of tthe
he clients had lo
w
services.
onlyy 20 per
percent
low
incomes, and o
he community had a poor under
otther
herss in tthe
undersst anding of
famil
he need ffor
or ant
enat
al car
e. Based on tthis
his
amilyy planning me
metthods and tthe
antenat
enatal
care.
inf
or
mation tthe
he or
o continue pr
oviding tthe
he same
infor
ormation
orgganization decided tto
pro
le
vel of ser
vices at its ffir
ir
o eexpand
xpand tthe
he outr
eac
h pr
og
lev
services
irsst clinic but tto
outreac
each
prog
ogrram in
the community ar
ound tthe
he second clinic.
around
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Needs
group contribute to, or detract from, the achievement of the
organization’s mission?”
Reviewing service records and client profiles in the light of its mission
statement will give the organization a good idea of what the priority
actions should be in the future. Should it be planning an expansion, or
aiming to improve the quality of its services? Or would it be reasonable
to simply maintain the program or even scale back some elements? As a
general rule, it makes sense to give priority to ensuring a reasonable
level of quality and satisfaction before planning too much in the way of
expansion.
STEP 2—Identifying actions required to make organizational
improvements
Plans for service delivery are likely to have implications for management, staffing, or leadership. How well-equipped is the organization to
deliver the services that have just been planned? Does it have the
necessary staff skills and management systems to expand, improve, or
even maintain its current services?
An organizational diagnosis (Chapter 8) should provide most of the
answers. It will reveal areas where the organization is weak. It will also
provide guidance in finding the appropriate response to these weaknesses among the possibly many solutions. If the problem is that the
financial system is failing to produce accurate and relevant information
in a timely fashion, for example, the solution might be as simple as a
manual ledger of expenses, or as sophisticated as an integrated computerized accounting system. Deciding between such alternatives should
be guided by an understanding of the nature of the strengths and
weaknesses in other areas of the organization. If it is necessary to seek
technical assistance to identify the most appropriate approach, this
must also be noted as a resource requirement.
Addressing organizational
weaknesses usually
requires resources.
It may not be feasible to tackle all of the identified organizational
weaknesses. Priority should be given to those weaknesses most likely to
handicap the plans the organization has for its services.
STEP 3—Estimating the cost of planned activities
Steps 1 and 2 result in a list of activities. Some relate directly to the
services provided by the organization (Step 1), others are more managerial and administrative in nature (Step 2). The next step is to work out
what resources will be required if these activities are to be implemented. Does more staff need to be hired, clinic space constructed, or
additional equipment purchased? What about technical assistance or
staff training? How much will it all cost?
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There are different ways to estimate financial requirements. The simplest
is to use estimates of expenditure in previous years as a starting point.
These can be adjusted depending on how much change is planned in
the activities of the organization. This approach is generally adequate if
an organization’s existing program is to be modified in a straightforward
way.
Estimating the cost of
activities can sometimes
be done using past
expenditures.
Sometimes it is inappropriate to use past expenditures to project future
financial requirements. This is true if there are good reasons for suspecting that previous implementation was inefficient and not a good guide,
or if the new activities being planned are rather different from anything
done before. In either case, it will be necessary to construct estimates
from scratch identifying for each activity their component inputs and
attaching prices to these. This approach (the ingredients approach)
requires thinking carefully about how the program would actually work.
It is a good way to ensure that estimates make sense and are comprehensive. It also makes it easier to figure out how much of the costs are
for specific kinds of inputs: capital goods (buildings, equipment, vehicles) or recurrent expenditure (personnel, supplies, etc.). Knowing the
inputs for which funding is required is useful because donors often have
restrictions on the kind of support they give. Many, for example, are
happier to provide one-time capital investment than long-term recurrent
support.
In this “ingredients” approach, the calculations are done in two main
steps. For each activity being planned, an estimate of the quantities of
different kinds of input should be done first. (Suggested categories of inputs are shown in the box above). It is helpful to estimate the quantity of
all resources required, including, for example, the time spent by those
likely to be unpaid volunteers. As it may become necessary in the future
Typical major input categories
Capit
al
Capital
•
•
•
Buildings
Eq
uipment
Equipment
Vehicles
Operational
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Per
sonnel
ersonnel
Supplies (phar
maceuticals, contr
acep
tiv
(pharmaceuticals,
contracep
aceptiv
tivee commodities, medical
supplies, cleaning supplies, adminis
tr
ativ
administr
trativ
ativee supplies)
Public utilities and communications
Pr
of
essional ser
vices
Prof
ofessional
services
Travel and per diem
Ot
her
Other
Chapter 91
| Defining Resource
Needs
to employ remunerated staff for these activities, these time estimates
will prove useful. Furthermore, volunteer time has implications for other
resources (e.g., supervisors’ time) which may require payment. It is best
to start with the main service activities (e.g., delivery of contraceptive advice) and then consider all the supporting activities (administration, supervision, management, accounting, etc.) and what will be needed to
provide adequate back-up to the front-line activities.
The quantities of resources are then translated into costs by multiplying
them by the price per unit of those inputs. For example, a new program
of contraceptive advice is estimated to require two person-years of a
qualified nurse and administrative back-up of a half-time secretary. With
salaries of $5,000 per year that comes to (2 x US$5,000) + (1/2 x
US$5,000) = US$12,500 per year.
Realistic estimates of the amount of staff time and the value of that time
are particularly important. Staff—those directly assigned to the service
activities as well as management and support staff--- may well be the
single most significant item in a budget. Salary calculations are straightforward, but care should be taken to ensure that all the benefits associated with each person are also included---bonuses, overtime pay, social
security taxes, pensions, sick leave, and vacation time.
Sometimes costs have to
be estimated from detailed breakdowns
of quantities and prices
of inputs.
Both the ingredients and past expenditure approaches are valid, but
have different strengths. The past expenditure approach is less time
consuming, but may hide opportunities for cost containment. The
ingredients approach takes more time, but tends to be more accurate.
Which approach is best depends on the specific circumstances of the
organization.
Financial implications
The Colombian RHO (r
ef
er
o in tthe
he pr
x) rrealized
ealized tthat
hat its
(ref
efer
errred tto
preevious bo
box)
decision tto
o eexpand
xpand tthe
he outr
eac
h activities ar
ound its second clinic had
outreac
each
around
some ffinancial
inancial im
plications. T
o under
hese w
er
e, tthe
he or
implications.
To
undersst and what tthese
wer
ere,
orgganization look
ed at its pas
xpenditur
es. The annual cos
unning bo
costt of rrunning
botth
looked
pastt eexpenditur
xpenditures.
eac
h
clinics w
as appr
oximat
el
he cos
he outr
outreac
each
was
appro
ximatel
elyy US$50,000 and tthe
costt of tthe
pr
og
0,000. As tthe
he clinic ser
vices w
ould continue tto
o be
would
prog
ogrram about US$1
US$10,000.
services
pr
ovided at ar
ound tthe
he same le
vel, tthe
he or
he clinics
pro
around
lev
orgganization assumed tthe
clinics’’
cos
ts w
ould pr
obabl
ound US$55,000, wit
h tthe
he additional US$5000
costs
would
probabl
obablyy be ar
around
with
co
ver
ing tthe
he cos
lation. As it planned tto
o eexpand
xpand its outr
eac
h
cov
ering
costt of inf
inflation.
outreac
each
pr
og
timat
ed tthat
hat tthe
he cos
eac
h
prog
ogrram in onl
onlyy one community
community,, it es
estimat
timated
costt of outr
outreac
each
would be ar
ound US$1
6,000
US$1
0,000 and an additional US$5,000 ffor
or
around
US$16,000
6,000---US$1
US$10,000
the eexpansion
xpansion of tthe
he outr
eac
h activities at one sit
outreac
each
sitee and an additional
US$1
,000 tto
o co
ver tthe
he cos
lation. The tto
ot al es
timat
ed annual cos
US$1,000
cov
costt of inf
inflation.
estimat
timated
costt
would be US$7
1,000 (US$55,000 + US$1
6,000).
US$71
US$16,000).
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STEP 4—Determining additional resource needs
The previous step involved identifying the value of the resources required to do the planned service activities and organizational improvements. But this amount of funding may be more than the amount that
still has to be actively sought. Perhaps some income is already promised
or is very likely to materialize because of steps taken in the past to
leverage resources.
The estimation of how
much additional financing is needed must
anticipate periodic
shortages and include
an amount of “working
capital.”
If this is the case, the anticipated income has to be subtracted from the
total funding requirements in order to estimate the value of the resource
that has not yet been met and for which a leveraging strategy needs to
be devised. This must be done separately for each major category of
funding. For example, income for capital investment should be deducted from the requirements for capital costs. Any income specifically
designated for particular types of inputs or activities should be deducted
from the resource needs in those areas. The final result should be a
specification of the scale and type of additional resources required, the
activities for which they are needed, and a timetable for when they
would be required.
Once the net resource requirements are determined, it may be necessary to factor in an additional sum. Even when organizations have adequate long-term funding, they can be vulnerable to short-term, but
sometimes crippling, money shortages. For example, in Zimbabwe,
private nurse clinics receive a significant proportion of their income
from the Medical Aid Societies for the services they provide. These
payments sometimes take six months or more to be processed. A
number of clinics have been unable to survive in the interim and have
had to close.
The need for working capital
In Cambodia, RHA
C tr
ac
k ed its mont
hl
lo
w and ffound
ound tthat
hat tthe
he
RHAC
trac
ack
monthl
hlyy cash fflo
low
funds adv
anced bbyy its donor eev
ver
uar
o co
ver oper
ating cos
ts w
er
advanced
eryy qquar
uartt er tto
cov
operating
costs
wer
eree
no
ays made on time. Some
times tthe
he
er
o one mont
h lat
e.
nott alw
alwa
Sometimes
heyy w
wer
eree up tto
month
late.
or
king
RHA
C decided tto
o use tthe
he ffees
ees it w
as collecting tto
o es
wor
orking
RHAC
was
estt ablish a w
ver its oper
ating cos
ts, including salar
ies and supplies,
fund tthat
hat could co
cov
operating
costs,
salaries
for se
ver
al mont
hs. In December 1199
99
7, tthe
he donor signif
icantl
delayyed its
eral
months.
997
significantl
icantlyy dela
sev
quar
yment. RHA
C w
as able tto
o dr
aw on its rreser
eser
ve, pa
f,
uartt er
erlly pa
payment.
RHAC
was
dra
eserv
payy its sstt af
aff,
and kkeep
eep its clinics open. When tthe
he donor funds ffinall
inall
ed, RHA
C
inallyy ar
arrriv
ived,
RHAC
�r
epaid’ its w
or
king fund tto
o ensur
hat tther
her
as suf
al tto
o
�repaid’
wor
orking
ensuree tthat
heree w
was
suffficient capit
capital
co
ver se
ver
al mont
hs
or
ating cos
ts.
cov
sev
eral
months
hs’’ w
wor
ortth of oper
operating
costs.
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Chapter 91
| Defining Resource
Needs
Identifying the financial shortfall
The Colombian RHO (r
ef
er
o in pr
yzed its cur
(ref
efer
errred tto
preevious bo
boxx es) anal
analyzed
currrent
funding situation and rrealized
ealized tthat
hat some of tthe
he ffinancial
inancial cos
ts it identif
ied
costs
identified
would be co
ver
ed in tthe
he near tter
er
m tthr
hr
ough its cur
ces of suppor
t.
cov
ered
erm
hrough
currrent sour
sources
support.
ees and had a ffiv
iv
eIt w
as ear
ning ar
ound US$6,000 a yyear
ear fr
om clinic ffees
ivewas
earning
around
from
or US$60,000 per yyear
ear tthat
hat w
ould end in tw
o yyear
ear
s.
year donor ggrrant ffor
would
two
ears.
ound US$66,000
This gga
ave it a tto
ot al cur
currrent annual income of ar
around
To mee
he cos
ts of tthe
he activities it w
as planning
meett tthe
costs
was
planning---US$71,000---tthe or
orgganization rrealized
ealized tthat
hat it w
ould need tto
o le
ver
ag
or
would
lev
erag
agee an additional US$5,000 ffor
the ne
xt yyear
ear and, tthe
he yyear
ear af
hat, an additional US$60,000 tto
o rreplace
eplace
next
aftt er tthat,
the donor suppor
hat w
ould be ending.
supportt tthat
would
The solution to this problem is first to anticipate possible shortages. This
can be done by tracking monthly cash flows and recording both the income received and the expenditures made each month. If there are periodic shortfalls, a reserve of cash—“working capital”—should be established. The need for working capital should be taken into account
in funding proposals and leveraging plans.
Applying the concepts—Defining your organization’s
resource needs
Applying these four steps to your organization will not be difficult since
it builds in a straightforward way on various exercises already completed in earlier chapters.
Step 1: Plan what services to provide
Start with your mission statement (Chapter 8) and record from there
into Table 9.1 the specific goals and objectives your organization has in
terms of types and quality of services, population served, community
satisfaction, and health outcomes.
Next consult your organization’s service records and any client or
community profiles you have prepared (Chapter 7) and have discussions with staff to identify specific weaknesses in each of the areas of
your mission. Are your current activities meeting mission goals? Are they
of sufficiently high quality? Are they meeting client expectations? If not,
record these weaknesses in Table 9.1.
Propose specific actions for tackling these weaknesses and improving
your service provision. In some cases where the goals have already been
achieved (e.g., the population is well-informed about contraceptive
options) it may be appropriate to scale back activities. Record your
conclusions in Table 9.1.
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Section III1
| Building the Strategy
Step 2: Identify activities required to make organizational improvements
Take the organizational diagnosis you completed in Chapter 8 and
record the identified organizational weaknesses into Table 9.2. If there
are too many for you to reasonably tackle, prioritize the list. Consider
which weaknesses are the most serious obstacles to achieving the
organization’s mission and its planned program of service activities.
In consultation with staff, propose actions to address these priority
weaknesses and record them in Table 9.2.
Step 3: Estimate the cost of the planned activities
Take the list of actions you have identified in Tables 9.1 and 9.2 and
record the actions in the relevant box of Table 9.3. Include planned
expansion to your service activities (A), any improvements to your
current service activities (B), any organizational changes not reflected
elsewhere (C), and service activities you plan to scale back (D).
Determine the nature and the level of inputs involved in realizing those
actions, estimate the monetary value of these, and record the answers in
Table 9.3. Some examples are provided in the table.
Table 9.4 completes your calculation of financial requirements. It builds
on the figures identified in Table 9.3, calculates the cost of current
operations without any changes, and estimates the need for working
capital. However, before beginning Table 9.4 you may want to make
some changes to its format, so it is easier to complete Step 4. In Step 4
you will be comparing your financial requirements (Table 9.4) with your
anticipated sources of income (Table 8.2, Chapter 8) to determine any
additional resources you need to leverage to carry out your planned
activities. Take a look at Table 8.2 to see if there is any earmarked input
or activity that should be reflected in Table 9.4. For example, if a donor
said that it would pay for overseas training of three staff members, you
might want to add a column to Table 9.4 that says “overseas training.”
This will make it easier for you to complete Table 9.6 under Step 4.
Once you have made any necessary changes to Table 9.4, your first step
will be to estimate the cost, in current prices, of continuing to operate
your facilities as in the past and without changes. Do this using the total
recurrent cost for last year (Z) $ ______ (see Table 3.1) and the rate of
inflation (Y%) ______ percent to estimate this year’s cost of continuing
as before (Z * (1 + Y/100)) $_______ per annum. For example, if your
program cost $50,000 a year and inflation was 10 percent, you would
record $55,000 as the estimated amount of your program. Record the
result of your calculation in the first row of Table 9.4.
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Chapter 91
| Defining Resource
Needs
Next you will transfer the value of the inputs you calculated in sections
A, B, and C of Table 9.3 into the second row of Table 9.4. For example,
$60,000 for replicating a program in a new community, $2,000 for
counseling training, and $2,000 for a new computer.
You will then calculate the amount of working capital you will need
(using Table 9.5) and record this in the third row of Table 9.4.
Finally, add up each of the columns and record the amounts in the subtotal row. Transfer the value of the services you plan to scale back (section D of Table 9.3) in the fifth row, and subtract this amount from your
subtotal. Record the result in the sixth row of Table 9.4.
Prepare a Table 9.4 separately for each of the next three to five years.
Step 4: Determine additional resource needs
Take Table 9.4, which documents the resources you require to implement
your plans, and compare it with Table 8.2 (from Chapter 8) which shows
the income you already anticipate getting. Compare like with like (e.g.,
capital costs with capital resources).
Record the net resources required (the shortfall between what you have
and what you need) in Table 9.6 for each of the next 3—5 years and
summarize the results in terms of:
! How much you need and when, e.g., $15,000 next year and
$65,000 (to replace the donor grant) in the following year
! For what kinds of inputs-—how much is capital and how much
recurrent, e.g., $5,000 recurrent and $10,000 capital (vehicle,
computers, renovations)
! For what activities or projects-—technical assistance, training,
outreach, management, financial management training, clinic
services, community mobilization.
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Section III1
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Table 9.1 Planning what services to provide
Mission
elements
The organization’s What are the weakspecific purpose in nesses in each of
each of these areas these areas?
(Take from Chapter 8)
(Decide in discussion
with staff)
Achieving
Service Goals
What ar
our
aree yyour
ser
vice goals?
service
(Use service records and
client profiles)
Whic
h ser
vice goals
Which
service
ha
ve no
t?
hav
nott been me
met?
Achieving
Health Outcomes
What ar
our
aree yyour
healt
h goals?
health
Whic
h healt
h goals
Which
health
no
eac
hed?
nott yyee t rreac
eached?
Ho
w might healt
h
How
health
eac
hed?
goals be rreac
eached?
What is tthe
he ttar
ar
argget ed
population?
Whic
h ggrroups ar
Which
aree
no
eac
hed?
nott being rreac
eached?
Ho
w might ttar
ar
How
argget ed
clients be rreac
eac
hed?
eached?
Ho
w do yyou
ou
How
def
ine qquality?
uality?
define
In what ar
eas is
areas
quality poor?
Ho
w might qquality
uality
How
be im
pr
oved?
impr
pro
Client
Satisfaction
In what ar
eas do yyou
ou
areas
seek tto
o satisfy clients?
In what ar
eas ar
areas
aree
clients dissatisf
ied?
dissatisfied?
Ho
w might client
How
satisf
action be
satisfaction
incr
eased?
increased?
Community
Involvement
Ho
w muc
h commuHow
much
vement ar
vol
inv
olv
aree
nity in
you seeking?
Ho
w else should tthe
he
How
community be
in
v ol
v ed?
inv
olv
Ho
w could commuHow
vement be
vol
inv
olv
nity in
encour
ag
ed?
encourag
aged?
Reaching
Targeted
Population
Providing Good
Quality Services
SEATS II
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Proposed actions
110
to Leveraging
What ne
w ser
vices
new
services
ar
eq
uir
ed?
aree rreq
equir
uired?
Chapter 91
| Defining Resource
Needs
Table 9.2 Identifying actions required to make organizational improvements
Organizational weaknesses
(Take from Table 8.1)
Actions to improve weaknesses
(Decide in discussions with staff)
Mission and Leadership
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
Management Systems and Operations
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
Structure and Staffing
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
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to Leveraging
Table 9.3 Estimating the cost of planned activities
Actions/Activities
Inputs involved
Estimated value of inputs
A) Services to expand
Example: Replicate program in
new community
Various
$60,000
(program cost $50,000 last year.
Add 20 percent for start-up costs)
Counseling training for four staff
members
$2,000
(last year cost $500 each to
train two nurses)
One computer,
one full-time staff person
$2,000
$5,000
Staff salaries, supplies
$10,000
(half the cost of the family
planning program)
B) Services to improve
Example: Quality of staff
performance
C) Organizational
capacity to improve
Example: Information system
D) Services to scale back
Example: Cut back CBDs where
program is mature (about half
the program)
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to Leveraging
Table 9.4 The value of resources required by inputs and activities ($)
Activities
Total cost
The cost by inputs
Capital inputs
Buildings
Maintenance of
On-going Activities
Expansion (A)
Quality Improvements (B)
Organizational Capacity
Improvements (C)
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
Working Capital (see Table 9.5)
Sub-Total
Scale back amount (D)
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Guide
Total Required
Vehicles
Equipment
Recurrent inputs
Personnel
Supplies
Professional
Services
Public
utilities
Other
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to Leveraging
Table 9.5 Estimating need for working capital
Record monthly income and expenditures for one recent full year in the following Cash Flow Table. The first two columns of the table
provide an example of completed cash flow. If “revenue available” ever falls below zero, identify the lowest value it takes over the 12
months. That is the amount you should have as working capital.
E.g.
E.g.
INCOME
Fees
10,000
15,000
Rent
Grant
90,000
Other (e.g., loan)
Total income
100,000
15,000
EXPENSES
Op. Costs:
Personnel
15,000
15,000
Commodities
10,000
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Other
(e.g., loan interest)
20,000
5,000
CAPITAL COSTS
Total exp.
45,000
20,000
55,000
-5,000
55,000
50,000
1
Net revenue
Revenue available2
1
2
Net revenue for each month = income for that month - expenditure for that month.
Revenue available for that month = revenue available from the month before + net revenue for the current month.
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Table 9.6 The value of NET resources required by inputs and activities ($)
Activities
Total
(NET)
cost
The (NET) cost by inputs
Capital inputs
Buildings
Maintenance of
On-going Activities
Expansion (A)
Quality Improvements (B)
Organizational Capacity
Improvements (C)
В·
В·
В·
В·
В·
Working Capital
Total
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Guide
(Net of anticipated income)
Vehicles
Equipment
Recurrent inputs
Personnel
Supplies
Professional
services
Public
utilities
Other
Section III1
| Building the Strategy
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Chapter 10
Matching Sources with
Resource Needs—
The Leveraging Strategy
Introduction
Not every source or type of resource is appropriate for every organization. Some organizations may be poorly equipped to manage volunteers, for example, or may not have enough recurrent funding to be able
to maintain certain equipment even if it were donated. Certainly no organization is keen to accept support for activities they have no wish to
implement. What an organization wants and what the funding source
can provide must be compatible.
Furthermore, not every source or type of resource can be easily accessed by every organization. Some large donors, for example, may demand levels of accounting and reporting that small RHOs cannot provide. There is little point in attempting to secure support from a source
that is unlikely to be forthcoming. What the funding source demands in
return for its support and what the RHO is in a position to provide must
also be compatible.
An appropriate leveraging strategy requires a
good match between
what an RHO wants and
what the funding source
can provide.
In other words, the leveraging strategy must have the potential to give
the organization what it wants and the RHO, in turn, must be able to satisfy the demands of the leveraging strategy. Developing a leveraging
strategy that pursues inappropriate resources is at best inefficient and at
worst potentially damaging to an organization’s ability to achieve its
long-term objectives.
Successful matching requires knowing what the RHO wants and what it
can provide—and knowing the same of any potential leveraging source
(Figure 10.1).
Figure 10.1 Finding a suitable leveraging strategy
What You Need To Know
About Your Own
O r g a n iz a tio n
What do you want?
What can you provide?
What You Need To Know About
Potential Sources of Leverage
W h a t c o u l d t h e p o te n t i a l
leverage source provide?
What would the leveraging
source look for in return?
M a t ch
M a t ch
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to Leveraging
Section III1
| Building the Strategy
This chapter elaborates on the content of Figure 10.1 and concludes
with an important set of exercises leading to the specification of a
workable leveraging strategy. It builds entirely on the information from
earlier chapters—the short-list of promising source-mechanisms and the
profiles on each (Chapter 7) and the results of applying the tools described in Chapters 8 and 9 which reveal the capacities and needs of
the RHO.
What RHOs want and how this affects the leveraging strategy
The starting point for determining a leveraging strategy is the needs of
the RHO. These can be summarized in terms of:
! Obtaining resources required and achieving broader financial goals
! Mission compatibility
Resource requirements and financial goals
A leveraging strategy should
be guided by an RHO’s
need for resources, its
broader financial goals, and
its mission.
The overall amount of resources being sought will determine the
leveraging strategy to a large extent. There is little point, for example, in
approaching a small business to pay for the construction of a new
hospital, and client fees alone are also unlikely to be sufficient to cover
costs, especially if clients have limited income. On the other hand,
larger donors often prefer to fund large-scale activities as it reduces the
ratio of administrative to total costs, and they are not going to be
interested in contributing to, say, a small training program or providing a
small quantity of supplies. Most donors have some kind of lower as well
as upper limit to the resources they provide.
The kind of resources and the purpose for which they will be used are
also factors that might influence where to go for support. Most donors
have preferences or limitations in terms of the kind of inputs they will
provide or activities they will sponsor. For example, some donors will
support clinic services but not administrative staff. Many donors prefer
to make onetime capital grants to replace or upgrade equipment and
facilities rather than finance continuing operating costs.
Funding sources differ not only in the types of activities they support
and the kinds of inputs they are willing to fund, but also in terms of the
geographic area where they work and the speed with which they can
provide support.
It is possible, of course, to look for multiple sources to satisfy various
resource needs, particularly when seeking large amounts of funding. It
can be helpful to package requirements into sets or sub-components
that might appeal to different donors.
Organizations are looking for more than just the right amount and type
of funding. They are also aiming to satisfy their goals of independence,
stability, sustainability, and flexibility (Chapter 8). How much their
leveraging strategy needs to take these issues into account depends
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
Chapter
Chapter101
10|
| Matching
MatchingResources
Resources
With Needs
With Needs
When the leveraging strategy fails to match resource needs
When an or
ned tthat
hat its main donor w
as
orgganization in Zambia lear
learned
was
wit
hdr
awing suppor
hr
ee mont
hs, it me
o decide what tto
o do. The
withdr
hdra
supportt in tthr
hree
months,
mett tto
donor co
ver
ed tthe
he salar
ies of tw
o full-time sstt af
cov
ered
salaries
two
afff and a half-time book
book-or tr
aining in business skills. The or
k eeper
eeper.. It also paid ffor
training
orgganization
ag
hat it w
as im
por
o continue tthese
hese activities and, af
was
impor
portt ant tto
aftt er some
agrreed tthat
at
o co
ver tthese
hese
discussion, decided tto
o build a pol
o ggener
ener
polyyclinic tto
enerat
atee income tto
cov
cos
ts. Since tthe
he
ve funds aav
vailable tto
o build, eq
uip, and sstt af
costs.
heyy did no
nott ha
hav
equip,
afff a
clinic, tthe
he
o seek a donor ggrrant tto
o co
ver tthe
he sstt ar
t-up cos
ts.
heyy planned tto
cov
art-up
costs.
Unf
or
tunat
el
he
his op
tion vver
er
he
nfor
ortunat
tunatel
elyy, tthe
heyy did no
nott eexx amine tthis
option
eryy closel
closelyy. If tthe
heyy
had, tthe
he
ould ha
ve rrealized
ealized tthat
hat it w
ould pr
obabl
ak
heyy w
would
hav
would
probabl
obablyy ttak
akee at leas
leastt six
mont
hs and possibl
ven a yyear
ear tto
o attr
act donor suppor
or tthe
he pol
months
possiblyy eev
attract
supportt ffor
polyy clinic, and ano
o yyear
ear
or
he clinic w
ould ggener
ener
at
plus.
anott her tw
two
earss bef
befor
oree tthe
would
enerat
atee a sur
surplus.
The mone
he
eq
uir
ed w
ould no
er
ialize ffor
or almos
hr
ee yyear
ear
s,
moneyy tthe
heyy rreq
equir
uired
would
nott mat
mater
erialize
almostt tthr
hree
ears,
muc
h ttoo
oo lat
en tthat
hat tthe
he
hin tthr
hr
ee mont
hs.
much
latee giv
given
heyy needed it wit
within
hree
months.
very much on how close they are already to these goals. For example,
an organization that is already being supported from a number of
different sources could focus attention on those funding sources it
already has and explore the possibility of generating more resources
from them. On the other hand if it is dependent on few sources it
should look to sources that it does not currently utilize.
Sources will differ in the extent to which they are compatible with these
goals. For example, an organization that has little flexibility in the way it
can use funding from current sources should be investigating sources
such as client fees, income-generation, and community fundraising,
which generate funds that are usually “untied.” An organization whose
current projected income is wildly unstable should consider looking for
steadier income sources such as endowments and client fees.
Mission compatibility
Resource leveraging strategies should reinforce the mission of an organization, not lead it. They should:
! Contribute to, rather than detract from, an organization’s ability
to work toward its objectives.
Taking on commercial ventures that are outside the scope of the
RHO’s programmatic focus and expertise can, for example, divert management attention and financial resources away from its
core mission. An RHO in western Africa suffered in this way
when, with no previous experience, it set up a grain trading operation in an effort to make money. The enterprise not only lost
money but was also a serious drain on management energy.
A resource leveraging
strategy should reinforce
an RHO’s mission, not
lead it.
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Section III1
| Building the Strategy
! Contribute to, rather than detract from, an organization’s ability
to reach its intended client groups.
Introducing or raising fees may not be a suitable strategy
for an RHO whose objective is to reach the “poorest of the
poor” or populations that do not participate in the formal cash
economy. It might be perfectly appropriate for an organization
whose intended clients are low-income wage earners.
! Contribute to, rather than undermine, the approach an organization wishes to adopt in order to meet its goals.
Accepting support for the establishment of a fixed site facility, for
example, may distract an organization from its primary mission
of community-based outreach, and require significant adjustments in staffing and operating procedures, all of which have
resource implications.
! Be compatible with the basic values reflected in an
organization’s mission.
Special care should be taken when dealing with individuals,
donors, or businesses whose philosophy and mission are in
direct conflict with the organization’s own. One indicator of
compatibility is whether the organization is prepared to openly
recognize its supporters.
Ethical considerations in accepting donations
The FFoundation
oundation ffor
or Child De
velopment in Thailand w
as appr
oac
hed bbyy a
Dev
was
approac
oached
ov lor tthat
hat w
ant
ed tto
o help malnour
ished cchildr
hildr
en in tthe
he pr
massagee par
parlor
want
anted
malnourished
hildren
pro
massag
inces. Some member
he boar
d of dir
ect
or
gued tthat
hat it did no
memberss of tthe
board
direct
ector
orss ar
argued
nott
om
he mone
ent and ffor
or
matt
er wher
he mone
moneyy w
went
moneyy came fr
from
om---tthat wher
wheree tthe
matter
wheree tthe
hat accep
ting a gif
what pur
pose w
as mor
por
her
herss insis
insistt ed tthat
accepting
giftt
purpose
was
moree im
impor
portt ant. Ot
Other
oundation
fr
om tthis
his ggrroup w
ould contr
adict tthe
he FFoundation
from
would
contradict
oundation’’s mission
mission---tt o help
Thailand’
hildr
en and tto
o pr
ot ect tthem
hem fr
om eexploit
xploit
ation
and w
ould
Thailand’ss cchildr
hildren
pro
from
xploitation
ation---and
would
communicat
he wr
ong messag
o o
he community
communicatee tthe
wrong
messagee tto
otther donor
donorss and tthe
community..
The FFoundation
oundation decided tto
o tur
n do
wn tthe
he of
turn
down
offfer
er..
What funding sources require in return and how this affects
the leveraging strategy
It is not enough for an organization to know that a funding source
provides the kind of support it is seeking. The RHO also needs to be
sure that it has the expertise and resources to satisfy the demands of the
leveraging strategy and that the cost of accessing or accepting support
is acceptable in relation to the likely returns.
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Chapter 101
| Matching Resources
With Needs
There are almost always costs attached to obtaining resources.
In some cases these costs are obvious. For example, commercial
enterprises usually require significant up-front investment before any
returns are realized. There should be a good chance of at least
recouping those costs before embarking on any commercial enterprise.
An unsuccessful business could spell the ruin, not only of the business,
but also of the RHO’s key activities.
Some fundraising approaches also demand major investments of time,
energy, and resources and require certain skills. Although they may have
some additional spin-off benefit---e.g., generating cohesiveness in the
organization---their main purpose is to leverage resources. At the very
least costs should be recouped. Past experience with fundraising
ventures and the information in Chapters 5 and 13 provide some clues
to the kinds of costs involved and the likelihood of success.
Charging fees for services provided to other organizations requires
appropriate skills and an administrative infrastructure to facilitate negotiating, developing, and administering formal contractual agreements. A
good accounting system capable of capturing the actual costs of the
products and services being offered, a good knowledge of the local
market for them, and reliable systems for billing and collections are all
required. If they do not already exist some additional investments will
be necessary. This will be in addition to the costs associated with
actually delivering the service.
An appropriate leveraging strategy also requires
that the RHO can
satisfy the demands of
the funding source.
Similarly, charging individual client fees involves investment in designing the system and collecting, managing, and auditing contributions.
The management demands of a fee system can be significant. Critical
capacities include market research, pricing, distribution, advertising and
promotion, cash management, financial accounting, and reporting.
New staffing may be required, and existing staff may need reorientation
and training in the operations of a fee system.
In deciding if fees are an appropriate leveraging strategy, the RHO must
consider the costs associated with setting up and maintaining the
necessary procedures and the amount of income likely to be generated.
Past experience with fee charging, the information in Chapters 4 and 12,
and the results of an organization’s analysis (Chapter 8) will provide
some clues to the kinds of costs involved and the likelihood of success.
Accessing funding from donors also requires investment—in proposal
preparation, making contacts and, once support is secured through a
loan or grant, in on-going reporting and in auditing. This can be expensive. The different mechanisms that donors use make different demands on the recipient organizations. Volunteers require considerable
supervision; endowments need intensive financial management; loans
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| Building the Strategy
require repayments and auditing. In each case it is necessary to consider
whether the revenue generated justifies the management costs. Chapters 6 and 14, donor profiles (Chapter 7), and the results of an
organization’s diagnosis (Chapter 8) will identify what individual donor
requirements are and how well an RHO will satisfy them.
RHOs should not pursue a
leveraging strategy that
places too heavy a burden
on the organization.
Some “costs” of donations
In Nig
er
ia, a ph
eceiv
ed a donation of second-hand
Niger
eria,
phyysicians
sicians’’ association rreceiv
eceived
hospit
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uipment fr
om some o
ver
seas colleagues. U
nf
or
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el
he
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ov
erseas
Unf
nfor
ortunat
tunatel
elyy, tthe
association had no
ed tthe
he duty tthat
hat had tto
o be paid on tthe
he
nott consider
considered
eq
uipment when it ar
ed. It ttook
ook mor
han six mont
hs tto
o rraise
aise tthe
he
ived.
moree tthan
months
equipment
arrriv
necessar
o clear tthe
he eq
uipment fr
om cus
necessaryy funds tto
equipment
from
custtoms.
uipped clinic.
In Seneg
al, an or
eceiv
ed a ne
wly built and eq
Senegal,
orgganization rreceiv
eceived
new
equipped
Unf
or
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el
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ve suf
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he
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ortunat
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elyy, tthe
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h rremained
emained idle while additional funding w
as sought.
which
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In Cambodia, RHA
C or
der
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ee” copies of a book on rrepr
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oducRHAC
order
dered
“free”
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h ttec
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o dis
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echnologies
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ork
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portt clear
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Dealing with unsolicited donations
Occasionally, donors will offer support that has not been requested.
Often this will be in the form of in-kind contributions. It can be very
tempting to accept such unsolicited offers of support even if it is not
exactly what is wanted. But an organization should always consider
carefully whether it can “afford” the support being offered. In some
circumstances acceptance can even lead to a core program being
derailed.
Very few offers come with no strings or conditions attached. There may
be hidden costs involved in accessing the gift—such as duty or transport
costs. Or the donated good may be in such poor shape that substantial
additional investment would be required to make it functional. Often
donations will require some additional funding in order to be used
effectively. A car, for example, even if provided for free of charge, needs
investment in fuel and maintenance if it is to be of any use. The recurrent cost implications of any donation should be carefully considered.
Accepting support destined for areas of no particular interest can lead
to other resources being diverted away from an organization’s main
concerns. There are many cases of organizations that have introduced
new programs or strategies at the behest of a willing donor, only to find
that in doing so they are no longer working toward the objectives they
set out to achieve. It is important to avoid becoming donor-driven.
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| Matching Resources
With Needs
Applying the concepts—Matching your organization’s needs
and capacities to those of appropriate sources
The heart of developing a leveraging strategy is matching your
organization’s needs and capacities with the demands and potential of
possible sources and identifying an appropriate “fit”.
You will do this by drawing on information you have generated in earlier
exercises—the short-listed source-mechanisms and their profiles (Chapter 7) as well as the results of the analysis of your own organization’s
mission (Chapter 8) and financial needs (Chapter 9).
Step 1: Identify those sources that could give your organization what it
seeks
You have already identified likely contenders and recorded them in your
resource matrix (Table 7.2, Chapter 7). Now write the name of each of
these sources along the top of each of Tables 10.1,10.2, and 10.3 at the
end of this chapter.
Step 2: Determine whether these sources can meet your resource
requirements
Consult your conclusions about unmet resource requirements (Chapter
9, Table 9.5) and record these along the side in Table 10.1. Using
information from profiles developed in Chapter 7, assess the extent to
which each of the listed sources meets your resource needs and fill
in the relevant rows. Figure 10.2 gives you an example of the kind of
information you could record.
Figure 10.2 Example of matching for resource needs
W h a t a r e t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n 's f i n a n c i a l n e e d s ?
H ow m u c h ?
For w hat
a c tiv itie s ?
For w hat
in p u ts ?
W h en /w h er e
needed?
C a n t h i s s o u r c e h e l p m e e t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n 's n e e d s ?
Sour ce 1
C l i e n t fe e s
Sour ce 2
C o m m u n ity
su ppor t
Sour ce 3
Sour ce 4
DFID/Grant USAID/SEATS
G ran t
$ 5 ,0 0 0
E x p a n d in g
outreach
Vehicles,
p e r d ie m s ,
g a s o lin e
L o c a ll y w it h in
6 m o nt hs
Yes
No
No, doesn't
work in this
lo c a t io n
Yes
$ 6 ,0 0 0
Training on
c o u n s e lin g
s k ills
Trainers,
materials,
p e r d ie m s
Now
Yes
No
No, see
above
Yes, but will
take time to
a cce ss
$ 2 5 ,0 0 0
Operating
t h e c lin ic
Personnel,
s u p p lie s ,
etc.
In 1 year
Yes, but not
e no u g h
No
No, see
above
No, doesn't
pay operating
costs
$ 3 ,8 0 0
Renovating
c lin ic
b u ild in g
Manpower,
b u ild in g
materials
1 year
Yes
Yes, in-kind No, see
d o n a t io n s
above
o f la b o r a n d
s u p p lie s
Yes
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Step 3: Determine whether these sources support your financial goals
Refer back to your conclusions about financial goals (Chapter 8) and
record them in Table 10.2. Using information from profiles developed in
Chapter 7, assess the extent to which each of the listed sources is
compatible with your financial goals and fill in the relevant rows using
Figure 10.3 as a guide.
Figure 10.3 Example of matching financial goals
F in a n c ia l g o a ls
W h a t d o e s t h is
organization need to
achieve its overall
f in a n c ia l g o a ls ?
C a n t h i s s o u r c e s a t i s f y t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n 's g o a l s ?
Sour ce 1
C l i e n t fe e s
Sour ce 2
C o m m u n ity
fu n d r a is in g
Sour ce 3
D F ID /G ra n t
Sour ce 4
USAID/SEATS
G ran t
Diversification/
in d e p e n d e n c e /
autonomy
D e p e nd e nt o n d o no r s,
need to attract other
sources
Yes
Yes
No, currently
providing
su p p o r t
No, currently
providing
su p p o r t
St a b i l i t y / r e l i a b i l i t y
Funding tied to donor
project cycles, 3-5
years
Yes, income varies
b a s e d o n c lie n t
volume not cycles
Has potential to
provide steady
su p p o r t
No
No
Relevance
Need more support for Yes
recurrent costs
Yes
F lex ib ility
Most funding tied to
particular projects.
Need more flexibility
Yes
Limited
Limited
Yes
Step 4: Determine if these sources are compatible with your mission
Refer back to your Mission Statement (Chapter 8), and record its key
elements (objectives, intended clients, approach, basic values) in Table
10.3. Assess the extent to which each of the listed sources is compatible
with your mission and fill in the relevant rows. See Figure 10.4 for an
example.
Step 5: Develop a short-list of those sources that meet your resource
requirements, address your financial goals, and are compatible with
your mission
Review the three completed Tables 10.1, 10.2, and 10.3 and identify the
sources that are compatible with your financial requirements AND your
goals AND your organizational mission.
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Chapter 101
| Matching Resources
With Needs
Figure 10.4 Example of matching for mission compatibility
M is s io n e le m e n ts
B a s i c va l u e s
Provide ser vices
regardless of religion,
age, or gender
Objectives/approach Provide a range of
reproductive health
s e r v ic e s
I n te n d e d c l i e n t s
Is t h is s o u r c e c o m p a tib le w it h t h e m is s io n o f t h e o r g a n iz a tio n ?
W hat do t hese
mission-related topics
mean for the
o r g a n iz a tio n ?
Sour ce 1
C l i e n t fe e s
Sour ce 2
C o m m u n ity
fu n d r a is in g
Sour ce 3
D F ID /G ra n t
Sour ce 4
USAID/SEATS
G ran t
Yes, for as long as
fees do not put
s e r v ic e s o u t o f
clients' reach
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, for
ever ything
except abortion
Yes
Yes
Yes
Ser ve low income with Some can pay, but
a focus on adolescents not adolescents
The second stage in this development of your leveraging strategy is to
analyze the extent to which your organization is able to satisfy the
requirements of this short-list of potential supporters. Figure 10.5 provides an example of the kind of information you could provide.
Step 6: Determine what these sources require from your organization
Take the subset of sources you identified in the previous step and
record them in Table 10.4 (see Figure 10.5).
Figure 10.5
Example of matching funding source demands with an RHO’s capacities
Potential sources
W hat do t hese sour ces C an t hese dem ands be W hat do t hese sour ces
C an t hese dem ands
require in order to
met? At what cost to
demand in exchange for
be met? At what cost
have access to funding? the organization?
continued receipt of funding? to the organization?
Sour ce 1
Market surveys of
competitors
Yes, staff time (around
5 days)
Fee collection system,
means-testing
Yes, add cashier to
clinic, provide training
in means-testing, may
need TA
Establishment of a
fundraising committee,
hold event
Yes, staff time (around
1 month for 3 staff
people)
Thank you notes and update
to donors
Yes, 2 days staff time
C o m m u n ity
fu n d r a is in g
Sour ce 3
Proposal
Yes, with some
investment in proposal
writing skills
Significant programmatic and
financial reporting, requires
good management
Yes, but systems
should be
strengthened
Proposal, building on
reputation
Yes, after TA in
proposal writing
Significant programmatic and
financial reporting, requires
good management
Yes, but systems
should be
strengthened
Client fees
Sour ce 2
D F ID G r a n t
Sour ce 4
USAID/SEATS
Refer back to the information contained in the profiles you prepared in
Chapter 7 and identify what this subset of potential sources expects
from your RHO in return for resources they can provide. Record these
requirements in Table 10.4.
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| Building the Strategy
Step 7: Determine if your organization has the capacity to leverage
resources from and satisfy demands of these potential supporters
Refer to the organizational diagnosis you carried out in Chapter 8. Has
your RHO the capacity to satisfy the demands of these potential supporters? What additional resources might you need to invest in order to
leverage the resources you want? Is this reasonable? Record your
conclusions in Table 10.4.
Step 8: Determine the strategy you will use to approach each of your
potential supporters
Review Table 10.4 and narrow down further the selection of potential
sources. Identify those sources that demand too much from your RHO
and are probably not worth pursuing. Take the remaining sub-set of
sources and record them in Table 10.5. For each one think about the
nature and the scale of the resources you will seek and how your
organization will attempt to access these resources. Record your conclusions in Table 10.5. Table 10.5 is the core of your leveraging strategy!
An example of how the different elements, identified through the
exercises in Section III, contribute to the formulation of a leveraging strategy
is presented in Figure 10.6. Your organization may wish to prepare such a
summary so that the logic of your strategy is clear and easy to communicate among staff and other stakeholders.
The next section of the Guide—Section IV—is essentially an elaboration
of the last column of Table 10.5, “approaches to accessing funding from
different sources.” It provides practical advice on how to implement the
leveraging strategy you have devised.
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With Needs
Figure 10.6 Putting it all together—An example
Leveraging strategy outline:
Reproductive Health Services Association
Mission sstt at
ement
atement
o im
pr
oving tthe
R epr
oductiv
h Ser
vices Association (RHS
A) is committ
ed tto
pro
health
eproductiv
oductivee Healt
Health
Services
(RHSA)
committed
impr
he healt
h and
dable, high qquality
uality ffamil
amil
epr
oducwelf
ar
w -income ffamilies
amilies bbyy making aav
vailable af
amilyy and rrepr
eproducelfar
aree of lo
low
afffor
ordable,
he 1199
99
4 Cair
o Int
er
national Conf
er
tiv
h ser
vices. It is guided bbyy tthe
he pr
inciples adop
994
Cairo
Inter
ernational
Confer
er-tivee healt
health
services.
principles
adoptt ed bbyy tthe
ence on P
opulation and De
velopment. It is a community
-based nongo
ver
nment
al or
Population
Dev
community-based
nongov
ernment
nmental
orgganization
and w
elcomes par
tner
ships wit
h o
ed tto
o tthese
hese pr
inciples.
welcomes
partner
tnerships
with
otther or
orgganizations similar
similarlly committ
committed
principles.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pr
og
es
Prog
ogrram objectiv
objectives
Double tthe
he number of ffamil
amil
ver tthe
he ne
xt 112
2 mont
hs
amilyy planning (FP) accep
acceptt or
orss o
ov
next
months
Incr
ease utilization of counseling and RH ser
emale yyout
out
hs bbyy 25 per
cent
Increase
services
ouths
percent
vices bbyy male and ffemale
in eac
h of tthe
he ne
xt tw
o yyear
ear
each
next
two
earss
Incr
ease att
hs
Increase
attended
birtths bbyy 20 per
percent
ov
next
months
ended bir
cent o
ver tthe
he ne
xt 112
2 mont
esource
lev
eraging
R esour
ce le
ver
aging goals
o no mor
propor
oportion
supportt rreceiv
eceived
from
principal
from
percent
moree
R educe pr
opor
tion of suppor
eceiv
ed fr
om pr
incipal donor fr
om 75 per
cent tto
tthan
han 50 per
cent of tthe
he oper
ating budg
percent
operating
budgeet.
Incr
ease pr
opor
tion of eext
xt
er
nal funding tthat
hat eext
xt
ends be
he ne
xt tthr
hr
ee yyear
ear
om 20
Increase
propor
oportion
xter
ernal
xtends
beyyond tthe
next
hree
earss fr
from
per
cent tto
o at leas
cent.
percent
leastt 40 per
percent.
Increase
self-gener
enerat
ated
cov
leastt 40 per
percent
operating
budgeet.
Incr
ease self-g
ener
at
ed rreevenues tto
o co
ver at leas
cent of oper
ating budg
Ser
vice activities and rresour
esour
ce needs
Service
esource
or peer educat
or cur
educator
currriculum plus
• TA ffor
De
velop adolescent peer education
Dev
US$20,000 ffor
or clinic upg
upgrrades and
ser
vices tto
o rreac
eac
h 200 tteens/mo.
eens/mo. tthr
hr
ough
services
each
hrough
educat
or allo
wance ffor
or tw
o yyear
ear
educator
allow
two
earss
clinic and outr
eac
h
outreac
each
• US$25,000/yr ffor
or ttec
ec
hnical sstt af
echnical
afff and
h ser
vices tto
o neighbor
ing
neighboring
outreac
each
services
Expand outr
eac
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0,000/yr ffor
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management.
US$10,000/yr
xtra
dis
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ict. Double cur
distr
trict.
currrent number of FP
commodities
accep
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acceptt or
• Sonog
hine: donation or US$5,000
Sonogrram mac
machine:
Offfer sonog
sonogrrams tto
pregnant
Of
o all pr
egnant clients
Le
v er
aging sstr
tr
at
egies
Lev
eraging
trat
ategies
R esour
ces and sour
ces
esources
sources
JIC
A—donation of
JICA
sonog
hine
sonogrram mac
machine
US
AID
—T
A ffor
or educat
or
USAID
AID—T
—TA
educator
pr
og
prog
ogrram and clinic upg
upgrrade
UNFP
A —additional FP
UNFPA
commodities (condoms,
OCs, IUDs)
Municipal Council
—peer
Council—peer
educat
or allo
wances ffor
or
educator
allow
tw
o yyear
ear
two
earss
Fee R
—incr
ease ffee
Ree venues
enues—incr
—increase
ee
o co
ver salar
ies
cov
salaries
re venues tto
of additional outr
eac
h sstt af
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each
afff
Appr
oac
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Approac
oaches
h Japanese Embassy
ollo
w -up wit
h pr
oposal ffor
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ollow
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proposal
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donation tthr
hr
ough local JIC
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f, ffollo
ollo
w -up wit
h
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Arrrang
angee sit
sitee visit ffor
USAID
aff,
ollow
or local US
AID Mission sstt af
Ar
pr
oposal
proposal
currrent commodity
Proposal
UNFPA
increase
Pr
oposal tto
o local UNFP
A mission tto
o incr
ease cur
suppor
o co
ver eexpanded
xpanded client population and eext
xt
end commitsupportt tto
cov
xtend
ment ffor
or additional tw
o yyear
ear
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earss
Publicize unme
hr
ough local media.
unmett RH needs of adolescents tthr
hrough
De
velop “dis
tinguished visit
or” ttour
our
o highlight absence
Dev
“distinguished
visitor”
ourss of clinic tto
of adolescent clients. Pr
epar
oposal ffor
or Municipal Council
Prepar
eparee pr
proposal
member tto
o submit ffor
or funding
w
Introduce
laborat
ator
oryy and ne
new
Intr
oduce sliding ffee
ee scale ffor
or clients using labor
at
or
sonog
vices. Publicize sonog
vices among pr
iv
at
sonogrram ser
services.
sonogrram ser
services
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ivat
atee
pr
ovider
o ggener
ener
at
ef
er
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ovide adolescent
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viderss tto
enerat
atee rref
efer
errrals of clients able tto
payy. Pr
Pro
peer educat
or tr
aining tto
o o
ing communities
educator
training
otther RHOs in neighbor
neighboring
communities..
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128
What are the financial needs of your organization?
H ow m u c h ?
For w hat
a c tiv itie s ?
For w hat
in p u ts ?
W hen and
w her e needed?
Is this source compatible with your needs? Can it satisfy them?
Sour ce 1
Sour ce 2
Sour ce 3
Sour ce 4
Sour ce 5
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
| Building the Strategy
SEATS II
Guide
to Leveraging
Table 10.1 Financial resources compatibility
Table 10.2 Financial goal compatibility
What does your organization
need to achieve its overall
f in a n c ia l g o a ls ?
Is t h is s o u r c e c o m p a tib le w it h t h e s e g o a ls ?
Sour ce 1
Sour ce 2
Sour ce 3
Sour ce 4
Sour ce 5
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
Diversification/independence/
autonomy:
St a b i l i t y / r e l i a b i l i t y :
S u s t a in a b ility :
Relevance:
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Guide
Chapter 101
|
Matching
Resources
With Needs
F lex ib ility :
Section III1
130
| Building the Strategy
SEATS II
Guide
to Leveraging
Table 10.3 Mission compatibility
W h a t d o t h e s e m i s s i o n - r e l a te d
topics mean for your
o r g a n iz a tio n ?
B a s i c va l u e s :
Objectives:
I n te n d e d c l i e n t s :
A pproach:
Is this source compatible with your mission?
Sour ce 1
Sour ce 2
Sour ce 3
Sour ce 4
Sour ce 5
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
Table 10.4 Meeting the demands of the leveraging source
Leveraging
Sources
What do these sources
What do these sources
Can these demands be
require from you in order met? At what cost to your demand in exchange for
continued receipt of
to access funds? 1
organization?
funding? 2
Can these demands be
met? At what cost to
your organization?
Source 1
______________
Source 2
______________
Source 3
______________
Source 4
Source 5
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______________
E.g., pr
of
iles, pr
act, rreput
eput
ation, publicity
kno
wledgment, collat
er
al
proposals,
prof
ofiles,
preevious cont
contact,
eputation,
publicity,, ac
ackno
know
collater
eral
oposals, client pr
epor
iting, auditing, good manag
ement, ffee
ee collection mec
hanism, means-t
es
ting mec
hanism, rrepa
epa
yments
eportt wr
writing,
management,
mechanism,
means-tes
esting
mechanism,
epayments
E.g., rrepor
Chapter 10 |
Matching Resources
With Needs
______________
Section III1
132
Short -list of sources of support
that are to be approached
1
The nature and scale of the resources your
organization will seek from this source
The approach your organization will use to
access resources from this source
Source 1
______________
Source 2
______________
Source 3
______________
Source 4
______________
Source 5
______________
1
These should be the subset of the list of sources in your resource matrix (Table 7.1) which can contribute to satisfying your needs (Tables 10.1, 10.2, and 10.3) and whose own demands of your
organization are manageable (Table 10.4).
| Building the Strategy
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Table 10.5 Leveraging strategy outline
SECTION IV
M
ost of this guide has been devoted to describing the many
and different sources of leverage, and explaining how to
determine what you want for your organization, and the kind
of sources that seem suitable. You are now ready to take steps to
secure those resources.
IMPLEMENTING YOUR LEVERAGING STRATEGY
Your RHO may be very effective in achieving your program objectives. Perhaps your organization has clear goals, benefits from
inspired leadership, is both efficient and effective in managing its
operations, and is willing and able to respond to the information and
accountability needs of its donors. This is the reality of your organization.
But do your current and potential supporters view your organization in this
manner? Creating a good image is one strategy that all RHOs need to
consider no matter where their resources come from. This is explored in
Chapter 11.
Issues raised by the inclusion of individual and organizational clients in
your leveraging strategy are explored in Chapter 12. These include the
planning, introduction, and administration of fee systems, and, in the
case of organizational clients, negotiating contracts.
Chapter 13 provides details on how to implement some of the more
common approaches to fundraising within the community—special
events, sponsorships, and raffles.
Soliciting support from donors—government agencies, foundations, and
international organizations—almost always requires some kind of proposal.
Chapter 14 explains the nuts and bolts of proposal writing.
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Chapter 11
Image and Influence
The importance of organizational image
Individuals and organizations seek products or services from the providers they perceive as being best able to satisfy their wants or needs.
Frequently, they base their decision on the impression or image they
have of the organization. An organization with a good image will not
only appeal to clients, it will also appeal to donors and will more easily
attract staff and influence government decisions. Image is vital to the
success of any leveraging strategy.
Image is vital to the
success of any
leveraging strategy.
How an organization is perceived—its image—is derived from impressions gained either through direct encounters with the organization or
from reports. There can be as many images as an organization has
clients and stakeholders, who may include individuals and organizations
that use the services, to staff, suppliers, host communities, and donors.
Image is not some inevitable by-product of how business is conducted. It can be molded and marketed, and it should be in order to
develop a distinctive organizational identity. The challenge is to develop
and manage a unique identity that communicates relevant aspects of
your organization to clients and stakeholders.
An important way to define organizational identity is to “position” the
RHO by differentiating it from other providers in terms of the clients it
serves, as well as the type and quality of the products and services
provided. This involves drawing attention to the way that the organization, better than others, addresses the needs and wants of intended clients.
Differentiating the organization from others makes it more memorable
and distinctive.
One organization—multiple images
eat
ed pr
om
ptl
ceiv
he
Clients who ar
aree no
nott tr
treat
eated
prom
omp
tlyy or cour
courtteousl
eouslyy ma
mayy per
perceiv
ceivee tthe
or
ing, and go else
wher
e.
orgganization as unr
unresponsiv
esponsivee or uncar
uncaring,
elsewher
where.
esponsiv
ior
ity tto
o tthe
he ttec
ec
hnical qquality
uality of
Local professional groups tthat
givee high pr
prior
iority
echnical
hat giv
el
o be
the ser
vices and tthe
he pr
of
essional qqualif
ualif
ications of tthe
he sstt af
afff ar
aree lik
likel
elyy tto
services
prof
ofessional
ualifications
im
pr
essed b
he clinical qquality
uality of tthe
he tr
eatment.
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byy tthe
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ts on activities tthe
he
hat rreceiv
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heyy suppor
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Donors tthat
eceivee incom
incomple
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ma
o qques
ues
tion tthe
he adminis
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ativ
he or
o
mayy begin tto
uestion
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trativ
ativee capacity of tthe
orgganization tto
handle incr
eased le
vels of funding tthat
hat ma
ed wit
h “scaling
increased
lev
mayy be associat
associated
with
up” cur
og
currrent pr
prog
ogrrams.
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Good performance
must be communicated
if it is to contribute to
an effective leveraging
strategy.
How does your RHO identify and convey suitable images? Basically, it
needs to start with some kind of market research. It need not be very
sophisticated, but it should be geared toward identifying the needs of
your RHO’s potential supporters and matching these with the products
and services it offers. (The profiles you developed in Chapter 7 are an
essential part of this research.) This information will enable your RHO
to define the set of images it wishes to convey. It then needs to design
a strategy for conveying that image.
Identifying influential individuals and groups
A good first step is to identify individuals, groups, and organizations
that influence the opinions of your RHO’s various potential supporters.
These may be:
! Print and electronic media representatives, e.g., journalists,
editors, commentators, owners
! Opinion leaders, such as teachers, public officials, prominent
business and professional people, clergy, local association
leaders, wealthy families
! Organizations, including civic groups, public and private social
agencies, cultural and political associations, religious organizations, youth groups
RHOs can identify influential individuals or groups who may be important to their organization by brainstorming with colleagues to generate
lists of names of individuals and groups based on their:
! Positions of authority—senior public officials, and the heads of
large business enterprises and civic organizations
! Reputation—individuals and groups with power and influence
! Public participation in civic events
It may be useful to narrow the list to those individuals and groups
participating in recent decisions within a community, such as the opening of a new school, adoption of new regulations affecting local businesses, or the commissioning of a new factory.
A stakeholder analysis is a third and still more focused approach to
structuring the investigation of local networks. A stakeholder is any
Newspaper promotion
jor Eng
lish languag
wspaper of Cambodia,
The Cambodia Daily, tthe
major
English
languagee ne
new
he ma
an an educational and fundr
aising cam
paign ffor
or mosq
uit
o bed ne
ts.
began
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mosquit
uito
nets.
beg
The ne
wspaper no
ention tto
o tthe
he or
vol
ved, but
new
nott onl
onlyy dr
dreew att
attention
orgganization in
inv
olv
ough donaalso encour
ag
ed tthe
he community tto
o suppor
he cam
paign tthr
hr
encourag
aged
supportt tthe
campaign
hrough
ing.
tions and vvolunt
olunt
eer
olunteer
eering.
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Chapter 111
| Image and Influence
individual or organization that has an interest in the performance of the
RHO, who benefits from, or is threatened by, the success of the RHO’s
operations. They have the motivation to block or facilitate the success
of the RHO.
The impact an RHO has on all aspects of the community, not just the
health status of the populations it serves, can be an important image
tool. An RHO makes a contribution to the local economy not only in
terms of healthier or more productive workers, but also through jobs
created and the purchase of local services.
Influential people may already be associated with the RHO. For
example, a prominent local physician on its board may be influential in
his or her national professional association, and may be able to attract
the interest of the association or their international partners.
Developing a communications plan
Develop a communications plan designed to enhance the prestige of
your organization by showing how your RHO satisfies the needs of its
clients and community. The main targets of this communication are the
influential individuals and organizations which your RHO has identified
as being most concerned with these issues. People like to give to
organizations they know. Your RHO needs to publicize its work,
accomplishments, and current level of public support.
What your RHO communicates needs to be based on its research into
its supporters’ motivations and its organizational requirements.
Consider how well your organization meets the needs of its various
supporters or potential supporters. These features will become the
substance of the image it creates.
People like to give to
organizations they know.
! How successful is your RHO in meeting the needs and wants of
its clients? How is your RHO currently viewed by its clients?
How does its ability to provide these benefits compare with that
of other organizations accessible to its clients? Use the client
profiles prepared in Chapter 7 to answer these questions.
! How well does your RHO satisfy the requirements most donors
have? Draw on the results of the organizational diagnosis
(Chapter 8) to identify to what extent your RHO has clear
organizational goals, a history of program effectiveness, dynamic leadership, operational efficiency, and a commitment to
sustainable services.
! How well does your RHO meet local community needs? You
will find from the community profile (Chapter 8) that communities
need and want many things. It is unlikely that your RHO will be
able to demonstrate a contribution to all the issues that interest
them. But it can certainly show its relevance to a wide range of
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social and economic concerns—from its role as a local employer
to the services provided to its program beneficiaries.
The time, place, and location of communication activities is vital.
Four broad types of contacts should be included in a communications program:
1. Personal contacts—these are face-to-face encounters between
individuals from your RHO and the supporter. Examples include:
! Informational interviews or discussions initiated by either
party to identify areas of mutual interest. It is useful to leave
written materials with the potential donor which support
your RHO’s organizational image, e.g., its mission statement
and program objectives, how and where it operates, and its
measurable achievements.
! Participation by your RHO in professional functions hosted
by others. These can create an opportunity for an individual
discussion, or provide a forum to demonstrate the capabilities of your RHO and its leadership. Examples of such
functions are government-sponsored commissions to
investigate a particular issue, professional meetings, and
participation in a donor-supported sector review.
! Invitations to supporters to participate in your RHO’s
activities and special events that would be of interest to them
based on research into their goals. These might be training
courses, project reviews, or public meetings to present and
discuss lessons learned from your RHO’s implementation
experience.
! Visits to your RHO’s facilities and project sites that supporters might make in the course of their own operations. Favorable impressions of your organization’s effectiveness and
efficiency can serve as a solid platform for more formal followup discussions with your senior management.
2. Media contacts—these are “encounters” between your RHO
and supporters through various mass media. Examples of such
encounters include:
! News coverage of your RHO’s activities. This typically
requires a sustained effort to establish good working relationships between your organization and the local press—
print and electronic.
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! Professional visibility in the form of letters to the editor,
newspaper articles, and participation in radio or television
discussions of issues of concern to your organization. These
serve the dual purpose of raising donor awareness of your
RHO’s activities and enhancing its credibility as a respected
source of expertise and leadership.
Chapter 111
| Image and Influence
3. Reputation—these are “encounters” that are mediated through
word-of-mouth within the community. Examples of such
encounters include:
! Unsolicited comments about your organizational performance that a potential client may have heard from a current
client or a donor may have received from a group which is
familiar with your RHO’s work.
! References or referrals by other donors or groups (e.g., the
ministry of health or other local organizations) in response
to a donor’s current or anticipated need for a relationship
with an organization such as your RHO.
RHO’s have very little direct control over these types of
encounters. Nevertheless, they can influence them indirectly
through existing relationships with clients, other donors, and
organizations within the community.
Preparing an organizational brochure
A br
oc
hur
ay tto
o con
ve y tthe
he imag
broc
ochur
huree is an eexx cellent w
wa
conv
imagee of an or
orgganization.
It should be sim
ple and easy tto
o rread,
ead, and giv
he rreader
eader a ttas
as
simple
givee tthe
astt e of who
you ar
e, yyour
our philosoph
our goals ffor
or tthe
he community
are,
philosophyy, and yyour
community.. It is no
nott a
he or
ec
hnical eexplanation
xplanation of
com
ple
echnical
histtor
oryy of tthe
orgganization nor is it a ttec
comple
plett e his
oc
hur
es should be
ains no rreq
eq
ues
ts ffor
or mone
the w
or
k . It cont
hures
eques
uests
moneyy. Br
Broc
ochur
wor
ork
contains
oposal, or fface-t
ace-t
o-f
ace solicit
ations.
o go along wit
h a le
tt
er
designed tto
ace-to-f
o-face
solicitations.
tter
er,, a pr
proposal,
with
lett
Cos
ts can be kkep
ep
o a minimum bbyy cr
eating tthe
he br
oc
hur
Costs
eptt tto
creating
broc
ochur
huree in-house or
asking a com
pan
o pa
or pr
inting. A br
oc
hur
compan
panyy tto
payy ffor
printing.
broc
ochur
huree should:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ha
ve ggrreat pho
ts of tthem
hem
Hav
phottos and lo
lots
Include open spaces tthat
hat do no
ve w
or
ds
nott ha
hav
wor
ords
Be rreadable—shor
eadable—shor
ences wit
h bulle
ts
eadable—shortt sent
sentences
with
bullets
Br
ief
xplain what yyour
our pr
og
o enr
ic
h tthe
he community
Brief
ieflly eexplain
prog
ogrrams do tto
enric
ich
Identify oppor
tunities ffor
or people tto
o suppor
ou
opportunities
supportt yyou
Pr
ominentl
he RHO’
ess, and phone number
Prominentl
ominentlyy displa
displayy tthe
RHO’ss logo, addr
address,
4. Service delivery contacts—your clients’ direct experience of the
services your RHO offers. Their impression of the RHO’s organizational image will be formed almost entirely by what they
experience when they seek its services. The quality of those
products and services, the condition of the facilities, and the
nature of the interactions between its staff and clients are crucial
to the image clients will take away and communicate to others.
Your RHO’s organizational image will impact the success of its leveraging
strategy. Creating a good image is a strategy all organizations should
employ, no matter what sources or types of support they seek.
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Resources
Corporate Communication. Paul A. Argenti. (New York: Irwin McGrawHill, 1998).
Effective Public Relations. Scott M. Cutlip, Allen H. Center, and Glen M.
Broom. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1989).
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Chapter 12
Leveraging Resources
from Clients
This chapter discusses how the purchase of program and programrelated products and services can be financed by implementing a
system of individual user fees or entering into contractual agreements
with other organizations.
Establishing a user-fee system
In previous chapters you should have:
! Identified any potential individual fee-paying clients you might
have (Chapter 4)
! Collected some basic information on these potential clients
(Chapter 7)
Be clear about what
you want your fee
system to accomplish.
! Analyzed carefully whether charging individual clients is a suitable
leveraging strategy for your organization (Chapter 10).
If, on the basis of this analysis, you have concluded in favor of charging
clients or charging clients more, consult this section for guidance on
what services to charge for, how much to charge, whom to charge, and
what administrative procedures are involved.
Before considering these issues, however, it is vital to be clear from the
outset about what you want your fee system to accomplish. How this
system is structured and administered will impact whom you serve and
how effectively you address their needs and wants—that is, it will impact
on your ability to achieve your strategic mission.
The practice of setting prices
For which services should your RHO charge?
Your RHO might decide to charge for some, but not all of the goods
and services it provides.
! What goods and services do people buy from other providers?
It might be easiest to charge for those goods and services that
people are already used to purchasing. Charging for goods and
services they currently receive elsewhere free of charge may
require more persuasion.
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Pricing your services
Pr
icing tthe
he goods and ser
vices
Pricing
services
you of
eq
uir
es tthat
hat yyou…
ou…
offfer rreq
equir
uires
•
•
•
•
Know your costs
Know your clients
w yyour
our com
pe
tition
Kno
compe
petition
Know
Know your financial
objectives
Pr
ices ma
oo high if
Prices
mayy be se
sett ttoo
t he
y…
hey…
•
Limit access of int
ended
intended
client populations tto
o
needed ser
vices
services
• Mo
tiv
at
o switc
h
Motiv
tivat
atee clients tto
switch
to o
iv
at
ovider
otther pr
priv
ivat
atee pr
pro
viderss
• Encour
ag
Encourag
agee o
otther or
orgganizations tto
o of
offfer similar
pr
oducts and ser
vices at
products
services
a lo
wer pr
ice
low
price
Pr
ices ma
oo lo
w
Prices
mayy be se
sett ttoo
low
if tthe
he
y…
hey…
•
Lo
wer utilization bbyy
Low
int
ended clients who
intended
belie
ve lo
w pr
ices rref
ef
lect
believ
low
prices
eflect
lo
w ser
vice qquality
uality
low
service
• Fail tto
o mee
meett or
orgganizational cos
eco
ver
costt rreco
ecov
eryy
objectives
Se
tting pr
ices is a tr
ial and
Setting
prices
trial
er
ocess.
errror pr
process.
! Are there any services for which no fee should be charged?
Some services may be of such critical public health importance--for example, immunizations---that the objective is to eliminate or
minimize any potential barriers to their utilization, particularly
among low-income groups. Others may be services for which
fees are difficult to determine or charge in practice, such as
health education.
! Are there any products or services that are expected to pay for
themselves or are intended to subsidize other services by
being sold at higher rates?
These could include non-critical services and products but ones
with general appeal that people are willing and able to pay for,
such as ultrasounds or cough medicines.
How much should your RHO charge?
To help you decide how much to charge, consider the following
questions and complete the exercise in Annex 9. You will find your
client profiles (Chapter 7) very useful in this process and you should
also consult with your staff.
! What are the goods and services your RHO currently offers
individual clients?
! What do people pay other providers for goods or services
similar to those your RHO offers?
This is a useful starting point for two reasons. One is that it is an
indication of what people are prepared to pay. The other is that
it gives you an idea of some kind of upper limit of the prices
your RHO might charge. If you charge more than that, clients
might go to the other, cheaper provider.
Free or heavily-subsidized products and services from government providers are likely to be your greatest competition,
particularly among the low-income groups your RHO is committed to serve. But it is also important to identify any private
providers—either individual practitioners or other RHOs---who are
reaching your intended clients with similar goods and services.
! Are the clients who use your competitors’ services the same
kind of clients (in terms of socio-economic status, education, and
employment) that your RHO wishes to attract to its facility?
If there are important differences, you will need to consider the
implications of this for your RHO’s charging policy. If your
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| Leveraging Resources
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RHO’s client population is rural, for example, it may not be
appropriate to compare its service fees to those charged to
urban clients, who may have access to different forms of
employment and income.
! Are the goods and services offered by your RHO different from
the competition in terms of quality or accessibility?
If your RHO’s products have clear advantages over similar
products offered by other organizations, this might allow it to
charge more. There must be benefits the clients themselves
perceive—use your client profiles to establish this. If you feel
your RHO offers other, unappreciated benefits, you will need to
make sure that clients are also made aware of these benefits
through promotional communications. It might be useful to talk
informally with other providers to get their impression of your
organization’s strengths and weaknesses.
Whom should your RHO charge?
Based on the fees identified in Annex 9 consider:
! What percentage of your RHO’s intended client population
could not reasonably be expected to pay these prices?
It is important to identify those clients who may be discouraged
from using your RHO’s products and services as a result of user
fees. Fee exemption systems are one possible means of allowing those clients who cannot afford fees to continue using
services. A fee exemption system may be suitable if the percentage of clients who cannot afford fees is low in relation to the
total client population, but not if this group represents a high
proportion of the client population. Setting a price and then
exempting most people from payment involves administrative time
and effort with few benefits.
If a significant proportion of the intended clients cannot be expected to
pay, an appropriate question is:
! How much lower would fees have to be to be affordable
to most of the intended clients?
If this implies very low fees, you might decide that it is not worth
the administrative burden to establish charges. You may even
conclude that it is necessary to close this site since it is not
financially viable. However, if there are enough other clients
who could pay, some kind of means testing system—with a
sliding scale for fees or a two- or three-tier system—would
probably be appropriate.
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! What would it cost to establish a suitable means
testing procedure?
Means testing can be done in different ways:
• On the simplest and least expensive level, it can consist of an
auxiliary nurse excusing a patient from payment because the
nurse knows, or suspects, that the client is poor. The nurse’s
assessment may or may not be accurate, and making the
assessment could put the nurse in an uncomfortable position.
However, such simple techniques are low cost and can be
very effective in community health centers where the
service population is well known.
• Socio-economic questionnaires, possibly including home
visits, are a more costly approach involving significantly
greater staff effort. If done well, they can produce precise
and objective assessments, although some people are
reluctant to discuss their economic level, especially if they
are extremely poor. This problem can usually be overcome
by indirect assessments of wealth or income such as “Do
you own a television?” or “Does the head of household
have a regular job?” Clear procedures are necessary to
avoid multiple points of exemption, and some means of
identifying the class of each patient must also be devised: a
card, for example, which can be presented at subsequent
visits to determine the appropriate rate. This approach is
usually only cost-effective in hospitals and large clinics.
Estimating the effect of client fees on the use of services
Having considered all the issues above, decide what appears to be a
workable fee structure which is compatible with your RHO’s mission
and calculate the likely effect on the utilization of its services, particularly for those services and those clients about whom your RHO is
most concerned.
This can be estimated in a number of different ways. Some involve
looking directly at the relationship between prices charged and demand by:
! Studying the utilization of services provided by others and the
prices they charge
! Studying past responses to price changes made by the RHO itself
! Setting up pilot studies and experimenting with price changes
on a limited scale.
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Others involve questionnaires about hypothetical price changes which
can be addressed to existing or potential clients or community leaders
either as a group (e.g., focus groups) or individually (e.g., household
surveys). The next box presents a simple example of such a “willingness to pay” questionnaire.
It may be possible to estimate likely demand from knowing certain
characteristics of the clients or potential clients---e.g., their income,
occupation, housing characteristics---information which again can be
gathered through focus groups or household or other surveys and
should be available in your client profiles (Chapter 7).
Estimating income from client fees
Income from client fees can be calculated as the product of utilization
and price.
In the light of your calculations of demand and income, reconsider
what a suitable price structure might be. Analyze how much, whom,
and for which services to charge until you are satisfied that you have a
reasonable system.
Setting prices is a trial and error process, as is the marketing of almost
any product. Monitor the effect of your fee-paying system on utilization, particularly by the target group, and adjust the pricing strategy as
necessary. If declines in demand are recorded, it is important to understand what these represent—for example, wealthier patients may be
going to other private providers, or poorer patients may no longer be
seeking care.
Introducing a client fee system
The manner in which fees or fee increases are introduced can make a
big difference to the response from clients. A sudden sharp price
increase without any advance warning or discussion can provoke
resistance from clients and even negative political repercussions.
Involve your clients and
community before establishing or increasing fees.
To minimize this risk:
! Involve the community in the preparatory phase so that
it understands the need for fees. Invest in an information
program to promote understanding and reduce resistance
among various subsections of the community—formal
and informal opinion leaders as well as current and
potential clients.
! Refer to the profiles of current clients to see how they perceive
your services. Before making any fee changes, make improvements in the quality of your services and in patients’ perceptions
of the services. Both strategies will help make any fee increase
more acceptable. Major additional investments may not be
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Measuring willingness to pay
One sim
ple appr
oac
h tto
o measur
ing willingness tto
o pa
eatur
es a shor
simple
approac
oach
measuring
payy ffeatur
eatures
shortt lis
listt
of qques
ues
tions tthat
hat can be rrapidl
apidl
ed tto
o cur
uestions
apidlyy adminis
administt er
ered
currrent or po
pott ential
clients. To implement it, you:
•
•
•
Tak
he cur
ice as a sstt ar
ting point
akee tthe
currrent pr
price
arting
o pa
at
Ask a ser
ies of qques
ues
tions about willingness tto
moderat
atee and a
series
uestions
payy a moder
lar
ease (being consider
ed bbyy manag
ement)
considered
management)
largge incr
increase
Ask ffor
or tthe
he maximum pr
ice clients ar
o pa
price
aree willing tto
payy.
This appr
oac
h is illus
tr
at
ed in tthe
he ffollo
ollo
wing eexxam
ple of a “willingness tto
o
approac
oach
illustr
trat
ated
ollowing
ample
pay” questionnaire used in Mali:
1. How much do you usually pay for your pills? ______CFA
2. If tthe
he pr
ice of yyour
our pills w
er
o incr
ease bbyy 1100
00 CF
A, w
ould yyou
ou
price
wer
eree tto
increase
CFA
would
continue tto
o buy fr
om yyour
our usual sour
ce?
from
source?
1) Yes
2) No---go
go tto
o4
3) Don
w - go tto
o 4
Don’’t kno
know
3. And if tthe
he pr
ice of yyour
our pills incr
eased bbyy 1150
50 CF
A, w
ould yyou
ou
price
increased
CFA
would
continue tto
o buy?
1) Yes
go tto
o 5
es---go
2) No---go
go tto
o5
3) Don
w---go
go tto
o 5
Don’’t kno
know
4. If tthe
he pr
ice of yyour
our pills incr
eased bbyy 50 CF
A, w
ould yyou
ou continue tto
o buy?
price
increased
CFA
would
1) Yes
2) No
3) Don
w
Don’’ t kno
know
5. What w
ould be tthe
he highes
ice yyou
ou w
ould be willing tto
o pa
or
would
highestt pr
price
would
payy ffor
1 cycle of pills? ______CFA
6. If tthe
he pr
ice of pills at yyour
our usual sour
ce incr
eased bbyy mor
han yyou
ou
price
source
increased
moree tthan
would be willing tto
o pa
her
e, what w
ould yyou
ou do ins
payy tther
here,
would
insttead?
1) Look ffor
or ccheaper
heaper br
and/me
he same sour
ce
brand/me
and/metthod at tthe
source
2) Look ffor
or a ccheaper
heaper sour
ce of tthe
he same me
source
metthod
3) Look ffor
or ccheaper
heaper me
heaper sour
ce
metthod and ccheaper
source
4) St op contr
acep
tion
contracep
aception
5) Ot
her_________________________________
Other_________________________________
Using Sim
ple Sur
ve y T
ec
hniq
ues tto
o Se
ices. FFor
or
eit, K ar
en, (The FFutur
utur
es Gr
oup, 11998).
998).
Simple
Surv
Tec
echniq
hniques
Sett Pr
Prices.
oreit,
aren,
utures
Group,
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necessary. Relatively inexpensive improvements such as
painting the building and reducing waiting time may be more
successful in appealing to clients than more expensive technical improvements that go unnoticed. In some cases, it may
simply be a matter of pointing out why price increases were
necessary, or the benefits of the service.
Impact of increasing fees
A pr
iv
at
ar
e, Zimbab
we, no
ticed a decline in ffamil
amil
priv
ivat
atee clinic in Har
Harar
are,
Zimbabw
noticed
amilyy planning clients when tthe
he pr
ice of contr
acep
tiv
es incr
eased due tto
o tthe
he de
valuaprice
contracep
aceptiv
tives
increased
dev
tion of tthe
he Zimbab
we dollar
ough a sur
ve y of clients and community
Zimbabw
dollar.. Thr
Through
surv
he clinic lear
ned tthat
hat tthe
he community ffelt
elt tthe
he pr
ice it cchar
har
member
s, tthe
price
hargged
members,
learned
o buy commodities fr
om tthe
he public
for pills w
as ttoo
oo high. P
eople pr
ef
er
was
People
pref
efer
errred tto
from
o tthese
hese
er
o 110
0 Zimbab
we dollar
esponse tto
sect
or wher
Zimbabw
dollarss less. In rresponse
sector
wheree pills w
wer
eree 5 tto
findings, tthe
he clinic ssttaf
ver
he neighbor
hood a le
tt
er
afff sent eev
eryy household in tthe
neighborhood
lett
tter
st ating tthat
hat while tthe
he cos
as higher tthan
han in tthe
he public clinic, once
costt of pills w
was
the cos
anspor
as ffact
act
or
ed in,
costt of tr
transpor
ansportt ation w
was
actor
ored
“y
ou will ha
ve paid $20.00 and 4 hour
tr
ess. Y
ou could sa
ve tthis
his bbyy
“you
hav
hourss of sstr
tress.
You
sav
walking [t
o our clinic] wher
ou ggeet ser
ved cof
ea, or a cold dr
ink
[to
wheree yyou
serv
cofffee, ttea,
drink
while yyou
ou w
ait. Or w
atc
h tthe
he 6 o
’cloc
k ne
ws on our T
V. T
ime spent is less,
wait.
watc
atch
o’cloc
’clock
new
TV
Time
amount paid onl
5.00.
onlyy $1
$15.00.
5.00.””
This sstr
tr
at
egy w
or
k ed
client visits rreetur
ned tto
o pr
vels and ggrrew
trat
ategy
wor
ork
ed---client
turned
preevious le
lev
fr
om tther
her
e.
from
here.
Administering the fee system
Fee systems need to be supported by adequate administrative arrangements. Be prepared to allocate staff time or hire additional staff
to perform the necessary administrative tasks. Even when staff have
spare time it is not uncommon for them to resent additional administrative responsibilities, so a system where the responsibilities are
clearly delineated is needed.
Establish a system with accurate, transparent, and well-defined procedures (relating to recording, safeguarding, and reporting on revenues)
and make sure these are well understood. This system should be
designed to minimize the danger of funds leaking out of the system and
to maintain the trust of clients. It should cover:
1. Clarifying the amount that has to be collected. The appropriate staff person should have access to a current fee schedule, and an accurate description of the service or services
provided. In situations where there is a permanent patient
classification, staff should also know if the client is a full-pay,
partial-pay, or exempt user.
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Know the costs of
administering your fee
system and keep them
low relative to the
income you expect to
generate.
2. Collecting the appropriate amount. A cashier needs to
request and receive the payment, record it in a daily log book,
store it in a secure cash box or cash drawer, and issue a receipt
to the client. Fees that have been waived or adjusted should
also be recorded.
3. Recording and analyzing total charges. The daily tallies of the
gross amounts charged, adjusted, and waived should be reviewed. This will reveal whether or not the collection policy is
being applied consistently and whether the criteria for waivers
and exemptions are too strict or too lenient. This could be done
in weekly presentations at staff meetings, thereby keeping staff
informed and involved in the system.
4. Reconciliation and deposit of the revenues collected. There
should be a daily cross-checking and matching of (i) funds
collected, (ii) services provided, and (iii) cash received. The
funds should then be deposited with an appropriate financial
institution.
5. Preparing reports. Financial summaries and management
reports should be done routinely on a daily, monthly, and annual
basis. It is useful to have some of this information disaggregated
by service/product in order to see trends. This may reveal how
demand is being shaped by the user-fee system.
The costs of administering a fee system will vary according to the
system the RHO adopts. It is important to know what the costs are and
to keep them low relative to the income expected to be generated.
In designing the implementation of fee collections, give some thought
as to when, in the flow of the patient through the clinic, is the best
moment to collect fees. Try to minimize the time patients spend in
queues while ensuring that fees are collected from anyone receiving
care.
Contractual agreements
In previous chapters you have:
! Learned about the variety of mechanisms for leveraging resources from organizations including:
• Selling supplies, health, or administrative services to other
providers
• Managing another organization’s clinic---e.g., a work-site
facility established by a company for its employees, a public
(e.g., municipal) health center, or a clinic established by a
local NGO
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• Selling products and services to individuals whose fees are
paid by a third party, such as their employer or an insurance
company.
! Identified any potential organizational clients you might have
(Chapter 4)
! Collected some basic information on these organizations
(Chapter 7)
! Analyzed carefully whether organizational clients are a suitable
leveraging source for your RHO (Chapter 10)
If, on the basis of this analysis, you have concluded in favor of leveraging
resources from this source, consult this section for guidance on the kinds
of services you should offer and how much to charge.
Before considering these issues, however, it is vital to clarify from the
outset what you want to accomplish through your sale of products and
services to other organizations. Are you primarily interested in building
strategic alliances with these other organizations, in facilitating their
own ability to service a shared or overlapping client community, or in
generating revenues for your own organization? Your answers are
important, as they will influence what you should offer and at what
price.
Deciding what to offer
Charging organizational
clients can be a way to
develop strategic alliances. But its primary
purpose is usually to
make money.
To help you decide what goods and services your RHO might sell to
other organizations and for how much, consider the following questions and record your answers in the table in Annex 10.
! What are the products or services your RHO already makes
available to its individual clients? For example:
• contraceptive supplies
• laboratory services
• reproductive health consultations
• surgical contraception
! What are the services your RHO provides internally to support
its own program? For example:
• staff training
• communications—the design and production of
information materials
• administrative services—bookkeeping, accounting, procurement
• logistics services—transportation of people or materials,
distribution of products or information
• technical services—needs analysis, client satisfaction surveys,
program evaluations
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! Do organizations pay other providers for these products and
services? Which ones?
Answering this question will give you an idea of the kinds of
products and services other organizations expect providers to
furnish. Such information can help you anticipate the likely
demand for your own products and services. Success will
depend on your ability to distinguish your offerings from those of
others in quality, convenience, or price, for example.
! Is your RHO aware of a potential demand for these services or
goods?
! What products can your RHO offer at minimal additional cost
to the organization?
If your RHO can take advantage of spare capacity in the organization—existing staff and facilities—to produce the needed
products and services, consider offering them to potential
organizational clients. For example, if your RHO already conducts training courses for its staff, consider whether it could
make available places in those courses, or even run additional
sessions, for other organizations. Doing so would take advantage of existing staff and materials within the organization to
create a service it could market to another group.
Deciding how much to charge
! How much does it cost your RHO to provide the product or
service?
If your purpose in
charging organizational
clients is to make
money—then costs
provide the benchmark
for deciding prices.
Costs are the basis for prices of these products and services,
assuming your RHO is only offering them to generate resources. Charging less than the cost would mean losing, not
making, money. If your RHO is taking advantage of spare
capacity within the organization, it may find that its additional (or
marginal) costs are quite low.
! What competition will your RHO face from other providers?
Identify other individuals and organizations—public, commercial,
or not-for-profit—which are reaching your RHO’s intended
organizational clients with similar goods and services.
! What are the going rates for the products and
services your RHO plans to offer?
These rates will give your RHO an indication of what potential
organizational clients are prepared to pay. They also suggest an
upper limit of the prices it could charge. It may be possible to
charge more, but only by offering some benefit that clearly
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distinguishes your RHO’s services from those of your competitors---perhaps direct access to technical staff, higher quality
materials, or services that are customized to the organizational
client’s specific needs.
! How do the going rates compare with your RHO’s costs?
If your RHO’s actual costs for a particular good or service are
higher than the prices being charged by other organizations, it
will be difficult for it to make a business selling that good or
service (unless it can take advantage of quality or other differences).
Consider, however, the possibility that its high costs might reflect
some inefficiency that could be addressed. Making improvements in the organization to reduce that inefficiency would be
worthwhile whether or not it subsequently proves possible to
fashion a business out of selling the service. On the other hand,
having higher costs than those of other sellers does not necessarily mean that your RHO’s costs can be reduced. It may be,
for example, that other organizations operate on a larger scale
and can share some of their costs across a higher output
(economies of scale), thus reducing their costs per service.
! Are third parties willing to subsidize the cost of the products and
services other organizations purchase from your RHO?
Donors are sometimes willing to subsidize the cost of services
provided to other community-based organizations that may
have difficulty paying the full price. The donor does this either
through a subcontract with, or grant to, your RHO or through a
grant to the grassroots organization so that it can pay the full
price. Either way, your RHO could recoup the full cost of the
service or products while effectively charging the clients a
reduced price.
Donors are sometimes
willing to subsidize the
cost of services provided to other community-based organizations
that may have difficulty
paying the full price.
This discussion on charging individual and organizational clients only
touches the surface of the issues related to pricing and administering fee
systems. A number of references for pricing services are available and
are included below and in the resource list.
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Resources
Designing a Family Planning User Fee System: A Handbook for Program Managers. Larry Day. (Family Planning Service Expansion and
Technical Support (SEATS), 1993 Revised Version).
Means Testing in Cost Recovery: a Review of Experiences. Ruth E.
Levine, Charles E. Griffin, and Timothy Brown. (HFS Technical Note
#23, Jan. 1992).
Means Testing in Cost Recovery of Health Services in Developing
Countries. Carla Y. Willis. (HFS Major Applied Research Paper No. 7,
Nov. 1993).
Pricing: Making Profitable Decisions. K.B. Monroe. (New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1990).
Using Simple Survey Techniques to Set Prices for Social Marketing
Products. Karen Foreit. (Washington, DC: The FUTURES Group, 1998).
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Chapter 13
Accessing Support from the
Community
In previous chapters you have:
! Identified potential organizations and individuals in your community who may be interested in supporting your organization
(Chapter 5)
! Collected some basic information on these organizations and
individuals (Chapter 7)
! Analyzed carefully whether community support is a suitable
leveraging source for your organization to pursue (Chapter 10).
If, on the basis of this analysis, you have concluded in favor of leveraging
resources from the community, consult this section. It offers further
guidance on what you should do to implement this strategy.
Cultivating your supporters
”Put the relationship between your organization and your
supporters first. Whatever strategies and techniques are employed to boost funds, the overriding consideration in this
�relationship fundraising’ is to care for and develop that special
bond … Every activity of the organization is therefore geared
towards making donors feel important, valued and considered. In
this way relationship fundraising will ensure more funds per
donor in the long term.” 9
It is much easier to solicit donations from current donors than from
people who have no commitment to your organization. It makes
sense, then, to build on and sustain your RHO’s base of supporters,
and focus on creating an enduring relationship with them. Fundraising
is a people business. Supporters need to identify with your organization, to feel a sense of shared ownership. Making friends should
come before raising money.
Making friends should
come before raising
money. If you open
people’s hearts and
minds, they may open
their wallets.
Building a good relationship is easier if you follow the rules outlined
below:
! Be honest and sincere. Let your commitment show.
! Be prompt. Reply quickly and efficiently to any request from
donors.
9
Relationship Fund Raising. Burnett, Ken. (White Lion Press, 1982).
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! Be interesting. Use dramatic and compelling material.
Tell a story.
! Be involving. Encourage regular feedback and dialogue from
donors.
Business solicitations—
common mistakes
•
•
•
•
•
Asking for donations at a
or tthe
he business.
busy time ffor
Thinking tthat
hat tthe
he cont
act
contact
ve is tthe
he bes
you ha
hav
bestt
cont
act—t
her
contact—t
act—ther
heree might be a
be
tt
er one.
bett
tter
For
hat businesses
orgge tting tthat
ar
o ggener
ener
aree in business tto
ener-at
of
it.
atee a pr
prof
ofit.
Thinking tthat
hat yyou
ou will ggeet
a donation on tthe
he ffir
ir
irsst tr
tryy.
Failing tto
o publicize
business donations.
! Be helpful. You are there to help your donors.
! Be faithful. Stick to your promises. Stand by your
organization’s mission and do not compromise what it stands
for.
! Be cost-effective. Donors do not want to see their funds wasted.
! Be informative. Show donors that their money is in good
hands. Share problems as well as successes.
! Be respectful. Treat each small donor as though they might
become a large donor.
Actively soliciting help
While your RHO may have a large number of supporters, it is unlikely
that any will simply offer their resources. At some point, supporters
must be asked for their help. Prospective donors need to be asked and
asked again. Use every opportunity to ask and try to be as effective as
possible each time. Make it as easy as possible for the donor to respond.
How to ask for support depends on which donor is being approached
and how much support is being sought. In general, however, your
RHO must:
! Ask in the right way. The most effective way to solicit individuals is with the personal approach---if you open their hearts and
their minds, they may open their wallets! Arrange to meet at a
clinic or project site, introduce potential donors to clients and
staff, or set up meetings with members of the board of directors. Find the right person to do the asking and have them
practice what they will say and how they will ask.
! Ask for the right thing, and be clear. Know how much to ask
for, and when. People need to be asked for a specific amount
or service. They do not automatically know “how much” is
expected of them. Always state exactly what you need or give
them a range of options.
! Be convincing. RHOs need to convince potential
supporters that:
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• There is a need and that something should be done about it.
People give to people, not to organizations or even causes.
They don’t want to hear about the need for office space or
equipment, but they do want to know the needs of your clients.
Chapter 131
| Accessing Support from
the Community
• A contribution from them will make a difference.
• By supporting the organization, they are also satisfying their
own needs or addressing their own interests. The challenge
is to identify the donor’s motivation for giving and link your
appeal to it.
! Make a gift yourself first. Actions speak louder than words.
Givers make better askers. Even if a convincing case for giving
to the organization is made, people may not give if they don’t
see the organizers prepared to give as well. Successful
fundraising campaigns start with participation by every staff and
board member as well as volunteers. Even if it is a tiny amount,
the goal is 100 percent participation by the organization before
approaching the community.
! Acknowledge every donation with a friendly, personal letter.
Make sure to send a note the same day thanking the donor for
the donation. Give larger donors special treatment.
Holding special events
Special events are an important approach to raising funds from the
community. They often take up to one year to plan, so they need to be
organized well in advance. This section outlines a procedure for
deciding what special event might be appropriate and planning for its
implementation.
To initiate the process, get together with the staff, board members, and
volunteers and brainstorm special events ideas. The purpose of this
brainstorming is to work through the first four steps in the procedure
outlined below. The group can then appoint an events committee and
coordinator to organize and manage the implementation of the event.
The events coordinator could be a staff member (who will need to be
given specific time to work on this), a board member, or a reliable
volunteer.
Individual solicitations—
common mistakes
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
One hundr
ed per
cent of tthe
he
hundred
percent
board members do not
contr
ibut
ir
contribut
ibutee ffir
irss t.
h
Boar
d does no
Board
nott help wit
with
solicit
ation.
solicitation.
Mat
er
ials ar
Mater
erials
aree poor
poorlly
designed.
Poor rrecr
ecr
uitment, tr
aining,
ecruitment,
training,
and coordination of volunt eer
s.
eers.
Not enough personal
cont
act.
contact.
Failing tto
o ac
kno
wledg
ackno
know
ledgee
donor
olunt
eer
donorss and vvolunt
olunteer
eerss in
a timel
timelyy manner
manner..
Asking ffor
or what yyou
ou tthink
hink
people will give and not
what you really need.
First—Start by clarifying what your RHO wishes to accomplish with the
event.
! What financial goal should be reached with this event? Specify
the net profit your RHO wants to realize.
! What other goals can be reached with this event?
• Increase the visibility of your RHO in the community?
• Promote a specific cause?
• Build a greater sense of community?
! Which internal and external audiences can be involved? Will the
event be designed to generate funds from current supporters
or solicit support from new donors?
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Second—Put together a list of possibilities that satisfy your RHO’s goals.
Consider the following issues:
! What events has your RHO already organized in the community?
Tips for organizing
successful special events
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ge
h as possible
Gett as muc
much
donat
ed—t
he space ffor
or tthe
he
donated—t
ed—the
e vent, pr
inting of tic
k e ts,
printing
tick
s, and o
er
tising,
pos
adver
ertising,
postt er
ers,
ott her adv
as w
ell as tthe
he ffood
ood and dr
ink
s.
well
drink
inks.
Consider rrunning
unning a special
event in ttandem
andem wit
h a rraf
af
with
afffle.
Pr
oceeds fr
om tthe
he rraf
af
Proceeds
from
afffle can be
used tto
o co
ver some of tthe
he cos
cov
costt
of tthe
he eev
vent.
Think about honor
ing an
honoring
individual or business at tthe
he
event. It is of
o ffill
ill a
oftt en easier tto
room if yyou
ou honor contr
ibucontributor
o yyour
our RHO or tto
o tthe
he
orss tto
lar
largger community
community..
Ge
olunt
eer
o rrun
un tthe
he
Gett vvolunt
olunteer
eerss tto
event. Alt
hough time consumAlthough
ing, rrunning
unning an eev
vent is also
ver
ding.
eryy rree war
arding.
Tr y and mak
he eev
vent an
makee tthe
annual one. If people enjo
enjoyy
themsel
ves, tthe
he
hemselv
heyy will look
for
war
d tto
o tthe
he ne
xt one.
orw
ard
next
Alw
ays mak
he eev
vent
Alwa
makee tthe
enjo
our
enjoyyable. Do no
nott mak
makee yyour
gues
ts sit tthr
hr
ough hour
guests
hrough
hourss of
speec
hes. Giv
hem tthe
he
speeches.
Givee tthem
oppor
tunity tto
o ming
le and tto
o
opportunity
mingle
mee
s. 10
meett o
ott her
hers.
SEATS II
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to Leveraging
! What events have similar groups organized and how successful
were they?
! What activities does the organizing group enjoy preparing?
! How many volunteers are available to help with the event?
Third—Consider the following features of each:
! Which group of people might the event appeal to? How can
the event be designed to best suit that group? For example, if
the idea is to have a dance, the kind of music played should be
based on the type of audience invited.
! Does your RHO have the necessary resources?
Do staff and volunteers have the time and talent necessary to
conduct the event? If not, what would it cost to get the necessary
additional resources?
Prepare a budget that details expenses and projected income.
If the financial return is unattractive, either look for an alternative
event or, if the event has other merits, explore the possibility of
individual or corporate sponsors to underwrite the cost of the
event.
! What special requirements may be necessary?
Review all applicable laws and regulations in the local community. If the event includes a raffle or the distribution of beer,
wine, and liquor, see if a license or permit is required. Regulations concerning crowds and noise must also be reviewed and
proper permission requested. Determine if security is needed,
particularly in the case of concerts and other public gatherings.
Fourth—Choose the event. Appoint an events committee and coordinator.
Fifth—Choose possible dates and times for the event after consulting
the local community calendar. Be certain that there are no other major
events scheduled for that date, or that it is not a time where people
would rather stay home or are away on holidays. Certain holidays may
be a good time to hold a special event. Make sure that the proposed
date is realistic. Some events may be planned in a matter of weeks.
Others may require up to a year to plan.
10
Securing Your Organization’s Future. Seltzer, Michael. (The Foundation Center, 1997).
Chapter 131
Sixth—Decide about such issues as the location of the event, whether
to sell raffle tickets or offer door prizes, and what kind of costs are
involved. Pay close attention to the site of the event, particularly if it is
outdoors. Remember to consider the weather. The site should be
accessible and attractive.
Seventh—Consider how your RHO can use the event to cultivate
support. Be sure that the event will provide opportunities for donors to
become more aware of your RHO. The event could include an educational component—an occasion for people to learn more about your
RHO’s work—such as a tour of a clinic or the offices. Your RHO could
set up a photo display or a video presentation highlighting the its
services.
The Cambodian Midwives Association’s special event
For se
ver
al yyear
ear
s, tthe
he eexx ecutiv
ect
or of tthe
he Cambodian Midwiv
es
sev
eral
ears,
ecutivee dir
direct
ector
Midwives
Association (CMA) ffelt
elt tthat
hat a fundr
aising eev
vent w
ould be a good idea. But
fundraising
would
ther
esis
om Ex
ecutiv
ee member
s. Some
heree had been rresis
esisttance fr
from
Executiv
ecutivee Committ
Committee
members.
er
ned
hat CMA
her
thought tthat
donorss might no
nott be pleased. Ot
Other
herss w
wer
eree concer
concerned
CMA’’s donor
he
wever
that tthe
he eev
vent might lose mone
er,, af
aftt er some discussion, tthe
moneyy. Ho
How
ky
or Char
ity
committ
ee decided tto
o hold a “Concer
ity,,” a dance, and a luc
lucky
committee
“Concertt ffor
Charity
dr
aw on tthe
he Satur
da
vening bef
or
ear
dra
Saturda
dayy eev
befor
oree Khmer N
Neew Y
Year
ear..
| Accessing Support from
the Community
Tips for approaching
local businesses
•
•
•
•
•
•
Highlight tthe
he benef
its ffor
or tthe
he
benefits
business.
Sugg
es
ic
Sugges
estt some
sometthing specif
specific
o suppor
t.
for tthem
hem tto
support.
he cont
acts yyou
ou
Use all tthe
contacts
ha
ve in tthe
he community
hav
community..
Carefully consider who in
your or
ould be
orgganization w
would
the bes
son tto
o mak
he
bestt per
person
makee tthe
approach.
Ask for in-kind donations.
Each time you purchase
some
om a business,
sometthing fr
from
ask for a discount.
Member
he Ex
ecutiv
ee visit
ed vvar
ar
ious com
panies and
Memberss of tthe
Executiv
ecutivee Committ
Committee
visited
arious
companies
minis
tr
ies tto
o solicit suppor
t. Donations of sof
ink
s, a mobile phone,
ministr
tries
support.
softt dr
drink
inks,
pens, cloc
k s, and o
ems w
er
eceiv
ed and some w
er
af
clock
otther it
items
wer
eree rreceiv
eceived
wer
eree used as rraf
afffle
or dr
aw pr
izes. Se
ver
al businesses donat
ed cash and some also pur
dra
prizes.
Sev
eral
donated
purcchased
tic
k ets ffor
or tthe
he luc
ky dr
aw, or allo
wed vvolunt
olunt
eer
o sell tthem
hem tto
o ttheir
heir
tick
lucky
dra
allow
olunteer
eerss tto
em
plo
vent w
as adv
er
tised tthr
hr
ough Medicam, an umbr
ella N
GO
emplo
ployyees. The eev
was
adver
ertised
hrough
umbrella
NGO
in tthe
he healt
h sect
or
bout 600 tic
k ets w
er
h, ear
ning
health
sector
or.. A
About
tick
wer
eree sold at $2 eac
each,
earning
revenues of rroughl
oughl
,200.
oughlyy $1
$1,200.
Expenses associat
ed wit
h tthe
he eev
vent included tthe
he vvenue,
enue, tthe
he musicians
associated
with
(CMA tr
ied unsuccessfull
o ffind
ind ent
er
ould vvolunt
olunt
eer),
tried
unsuccessfullyy tto
enter
ertt ainer
ainerss who w
would
olunteer),
pr
inting of tic
k ets, banner
s, o
er
tising, and a ttele
ele
vision tto
o be used
printing
tick
banners,
otther adv
adver
ertising,
elevision
as a pr
ize in tthe
he rraf
af
ime and ef
er
vol
ved in planning,
prize
afffle. T
Time
efffor
ortt w
wer
eree also in
inv
olv
or
ollo
wing up on tthe
he collection of some pr
omised donaorgganizing, and ffollo
ollowing
promised
tions, but tthe
he eev
vent w
as judg
ed tto
o be a success. In addition tto
o tthe
he rreev was
judged
enues ear
ned, tthe
he eev
vent itself w
as good publicity
oughl
o-t
hir
ds of
earned,
was
publicity.. R
Roughl
oughlyy tw
two-t
o-thir
hirds
those buying tic
k ets att
ended. A video of tthe
he eev
vent cap
tur
es tthe
he spir
it of
tick
attended.
captur
tures
spirit
the eev
vening wit
h sho
ts of yyoung
oung people dancing W
es
n ssty
ty
le, older people
with
shots
Wes
estter
ern
tyle,
dancing Khmer ssty
ty
le, and jubilant winner
unning up tto
o collect ttheir
heir
tyle,
winnerss rrunning
pr
izes. The eev
vent also cchang
hang
ed tthe
he attitudes of tthe
he member
he Ex
ecuprizes.
hanged
memberss of tthe
Executiv
ee, who rrecognized
ecognized tthat
hat soliciting funds ffor
or a good cause w
as
tivee Committ
Committee,
was
some
o be pr
oud of, and w
as no
sometthing tto
proud
was
nott a shameful activity
activity.. Mor
Moree member
memberss
ar
el
o be activ
ting futur
vents.
aree lik
likel
elyy tto
activee in suppor
supporting
futuree eev
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Section IV1
| Implementing
Your Leveraging
Strategy
Eighth—Also consider how to measure success of the event. Include a
debriefing of staff and volunteers. Such evaluations will help your RHO
plan for the future.
Annex 11 contains a Special Events Checklist which can be used to plan
the event.
Seeking sponsorship
There are many methods for approaching businesses for support.
Sponsorship is a particularly important one and can be combined with
holding a special event. Use these two mechanisms—sponsorship and
special events—as building blocks for future local fundraising from the
community.
Many of the general points made at the beginning of this chapter,
particularly in the sections ”Cultivating your supporters” and “Actively
soliciting help” are relevant to sponsorship.
Focus on building relationships with the local business community
through a successful partnership. Decide:
! Whether to approach the business about sponsorship through a
written proposal or a meeting with the business representative.
Businesses are accustomed to relationships
based on give and take.
RHOs must “sell” their
organization, services,
and products to local
businesses.
! If the latter, who in the business should be contacted and by
whom?
! What information should be presented at the time of the initial
contact?
! What specifically do you want the business to do for you? What
are you asking the business to support?
! What can you offer the business?
Businesses are used to relationships based on give and take. They are
accustomed to dealing with people “selling” them an idea or product.
Your RHO must use this approach and “sell” the organization, services,
and products to local businesses. It needs to highlight the benefits to
business supporters in terms that they will find attractive.
Publicity, credibility, a good overall public image and, ultimately, enhanced sales, are all good selling points. Businesses are interested in
the audience that will be reached. What kind of publicity will they
receive? Be specific about the opportunities for advertising. Businesses
will be interested in the reputation of your organization, as well as its
importance to the community. Your organization and the business are
interested in the same thing—increasing visibility within the community.
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Chapter 131
| Accessing Support from
the Community
Conducting raffles
A raffle is often linked with special events and sponsorship. It can help
to defray the cost of a special event. The event can provide an occasion for the raffle draw. Business sponsorship can underwrite the cost
of the raffle through the donations of prizes for the event, printing, and
advertising.
The key to a successful raffle is paying attention to the details:
! Get the prizes. Make a list of all the vendors who might donate a
prize and organize a small committee to ask each for a donation. Be sure to highlight the publicity value for the business.
! Get the volunteers. Ask the volunteers how many tickets they will
be willing to sell. Provide tickets to people who work in large
businesses or government agencies or who have large circles of
friends and ask them to sell them. Ask the volunteers if they know
other people who may be willing to sell tickets. Have a prize for
the person who sells the most tickets.
! Get the tickets. Raffles can go on for one month or six
months—two to three months usually works best. The tickets
must be numbered and they must contain two parts —one part
for the organization to enter in the draw and one part for the
donor. Try and get the printing donated but, if this is not possible, spend money to make the ticket look professional.
! Distribute and keep track of the tickets. Note the ticket
numbers each volunteer has. Create deadlines for the return of
tickets, sold or unsold.
! Encourage your volunteers. Keep in touch with the people
who are selling the tickets. Keep them informed about who is
winning the “most tickets sold” competition. Ask them to send
in the stubs and the money they have already collected at
regular intervals.
! Set up the draw. If possible, combine the draw with another
event. This way your RHO can sell more tickets immediately
before the draw. If there is not an event scheduled, have a small
party for the volunteers and complete the draw then.
! Hold the draw. Put all the stubs in a box and have someone
special to the organization pull out the winning tickets. Give out
the last prize first. Also announce the winner of the “most
tickets sold” contest and reward the volunteer at this time. Keep
the stubs to create a mailing list for the organization.
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Section IV1
| Implementing
Your Leveraging
Strategy
How lack of planning affected a Nigerian raffle
A par
tner
ship or
er
ia decided tto
o conduct a rraf
af
partner
tnership
orgganization in Nig
Niger
eria
afffle and use
the pr
oceeds tto
o pur
k ffor
or a rreevol
ving dr
ug fund. Bookle
ts of
proceeds
purcchase seed ssttoc
ock
olving
drug
Booklets
raf
k ets w
er
int
ed and giv
en tto
o vvolunt
olunt
eer
o sell. U
nf
or
tunat
el
afffle tic
tick
wer
eree pr
print
inted
given
olunteer
eerss tto
Unf
nfor
ortunat
tunatel
elyy,
ed and pr
ospectiv
k et buy
er
pr
izes ffor
or tthe
he rraf
af
prospectiv
ospectivee tic
tick
buyer
erss
prizes
afffle had no
nott yyeet been secur
secured
k ets w
er
did no
w what tthe
he
esult, onl
wer
eree
nott kno
know
heyy might win. As a rresult,
onlyy a ffeew tic
tick
he or
sold and tthose
hose w
er
o people mor
er
es
ting tthe
wer
eree tto
moree int
inter
eres
estted in suppor
supporting
orgganization tthan
han in winning a pr
ize. In tthe
he end a number of pr
izes—including a
prize.
prizes—including
T V, a six-mont
h suppl
oducts, and lar
ice—w
er
six-month
supplyy of bab
babyy pr
products,
largge bags of rrice—w
ice—wer
eree
obt
ained. When people att
ending tthe
he rrall
all
w ho
w attr
activ
he pr
izes
obtained.
attending
allyy sa
saw
how
attractiv
activee tthe
prizes
wer
e, tthe
he
em
pt ed tto
o pur
k ets. U
nf
or
tunat
el
ere,
heyy att
attem
emp
purcc hase tic
tick
Unf
nfor
ortunat
tunatel
elyy, an insuf
insuffficient
number of tic
k ets w
as aav
vailable at tthe
he rrall
all
tick
was
allyy. The or
orgganization made onl
onlyy
ar
ound US$1
00 fr
om tthe
he rraf
af
ned fr
om its mis
es. It decided
around
US$100
from
afffle, but lear
learned
from
misttak
akes.
that ne
xt time additional tic
k ets w
ould be sold at tthe
he rrall
all
he tic
k ets
next
tick
would
allyy, and tthe
tick
would ffeatur
eatur
he pr
izes pr
int
ed on tthe
he bac
k.
eaturee tthe
prizes
print
inted
back
The most difficult task in
a raffle is not selling the
tickets or getting the
prizes donated, but
collecting the sold
tickets and the money.
! Send out the prizes and thank everyone involved. Arrange for
the winners to pick up their prizes if they are not present. Send
thank you letters to all those who donated prizes and each
volunteer who sold tickets.
! Evaluate the raffle. Create a file for all the information on the
raffle. Note how many tickets were sold, any problems that
arose, the list of winners and volunteers, and the donated items
and the donors.
A word of caution—the most difficult task in a raffle is not selling the
tickets or getting the prizes donated, but collecting the sold tickets and
the money. Do not wait until the end to collect stubs and money from
your volunteers. Many people will claim to have sold their tickets when
they have not. Account for all tickets well before the draw. Do not depend on receiving any money after the draw.
Finding volunteers
There are talented and creative people who are already involved with
your organization. You can approach past donors, family and friends of
your supporters, and even those who have received services from
your RHO—your clients. Broaden your approach by advertising in the
local newspaper or on television. Make the advertisement appealing
and illustrate the opportunity volunteering presents to the individual.
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Chapter 131
For example, if you are trying to recruit volunteers for a special event,
the ad could read: “If you know how to throw a great party, we are
waiting for you! We need talented people to help with decorations and
public relations.” If there are places that unemployed people congregate, put up a sign with the opportunities available at your RHO.
Although it is only a volunteer position, “getting in the door” of any
organization is appealing to people.
If you require specific skills, you can contact recently-retired persons or
approach local businesses, such as legal or accounting firms. You could
offer them the option of donating either time or money, thereby not
limiting either your organization or the potential donor/volunteer.
| Accessing Support from
the Community
Finding good volunteers
involves matching your
needs with theirs.
SEATS II
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Section IV1
| Implementing
Your Leveraging
Strategy
Resources
There are many types of local fundraising activities and this chapter
only highlights a few examples. Additional information can be found in
references listed below and in the resource section.
Effective Fund Raising. Leslie Brody. (Boston: Copley Publishing Group,
1994).
Fundraising for Social Change. Kim Klein. (Inverness, CA: Chardon
Press, 1994).
Grantseeker’s Toolkit. Cheryl Carter New and James Aaron Quick.
(New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1998).
Managing for Profit in the Nonprofit World. Paul Firstenberg. (New
York: The Foundation Center, 1986).
NGO Funding Strategies. Jon Bennett and Sara Gibbs. (Oxford: Intrac,
1996).
Securing Your Organization’s Future. Michael Seltzer. (New York: The
Foundation Center, 1987).
The Worldwide Fundraiser’s Handbook: A Guide to Fundraising for
Southern NGOs and Voluntary Organisations. Michael Norton. (London: International Fund Raising Group, 1996).
SEATS II
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Chapter 14
Seeking Support
from Donors—
Writing a Proposal
In previous chapters you have:
! Identified potential donor agencies who may be interested in
supporting your organization (Chapter 6)
! Collected some basic information on these organizations
(Chapter 7)
! Analyzed carefully whether donor support is a suitable leveraging
source for your organization to pursue (Chapter 10).
If, on the basis of this analysis, you have concluded in favor of leveraging
resources from donors, consult this section. It offers further guidance on
what you should do to implement this strategy.
Deciding on the type of proposal
Whether approaching a foundation, a government agency, or a corporation for funding, an organization must write some kind of proposal.
Larger donors will usually place greater importance on the proposal
than will smaller donors, who may be more influenced by personal
contacts and reputation. Most proposals follow a widely-accepted
general structure. Some donors, especially government agencies, will
have a very specific format that they expect those seeking funding to
follow.
A good proposal builds
credibility and encourages donors to include
your organization in
future funding initiatives.
A good proposal will not only build credibility for the RHO, but often
encourages funders to look at the organization for specific funding
initiatives in the future. It is worth investing time in preparing a good
proposal. The returns may be substantial.
A proposal can be a brief summary letter or a lengthy document
describing the project in detail. There are basically three types
of proposals.
! The letter of intent or letter of inquiry is a two-page summary
that includes a brief description of the project—its purpose and
the problems and issues it will address—and an overview of the
organization including the qualifications of key staff. It focuses
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Section IV1
| Implementing
Your Leveraging
Strategy
on how the proposed project fits with the priorities and interests of the donor and states the approximate range of funding
sought and the period for which it is sought. It should indicate
what the next step will be, e.g., a follow-up phone call in two
weeks. The executive director or board president should sign
correspondence.
Differences between
foundation and bilateral /
multilateral proposals
Many funders prefer letters of inquiry before talking to
prospecive recipients or accepting a proposal. They want to see
if there is a match between the proposed project and their
interests. Small donors may require nothing beyond the letter
of inquiry.
! The letter proposal is usually a three-page description of the
project plan, organizational capabilities, past project experience,
and the actual grant request. Corporate foundations often use
this type of proposal.
! The long format/full proposal is the most common type of
proposal, and is favored by large foundations and government
agencies. It consists of a cover letter and the full proposal.
Differences between foundation and
bilateral/multilateral proposals
Foundation proposals
act has usuall
Unsolicit
ed pr
oposals ar
ar
el
nsolicited
proposals
aree rrar
arel
elyy funded and cont
contact
usuallyy been
or
iting tthe
he pr
oposal.
estt ablished bef
befor
oree wr
writing
proposal.
es
ed and sim
pler
• For
mat is less sstr
tr
uctur
ormat
tructur
uctured
simpler
pler..
sonal wit
h less jar
gon and ffeewer
ty
le is usuall
• Writing ssty
jargon
tyle
usuallyy mor
moree per
personal
with
ms.
t ec
hnical tter
er
echnical
erms.
• Ther
tunity ffor
or descr
ibing cr
eativ
Theree is mor
moree oppor
opportunity
describing
creativ
eativee solutions.
• Final pr
oposal pac
k ag
ple and neat—no
proposal
pack
agee should be sim
simple
neat—nott
e xpensiv
xpensivee looking.
• Ther
o eev
valuat
he
Theree is usuall
usuallyy no scor
scoree shee
sheett or point sy
sysstem tto
aluatee tthe
proposal.
Bilat
er
al/multilat
er
al pr
oposals
Bilater
eral/multilat
al/multilater
eral
proposals
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
SEATS II
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164
to Leveraging
Ther
er
act wit
h tthe
he donor pr
ior tto
o submitting
Theree is usuall
usuallyy vver
eryy little cont
contact
with
prior
the pr
oposal.
proposal.
Specif
ic ffor
or
mats ar
eq
ues
hat need tto
o be ffollo
ollo
wed.
Specific
ormats
aree rreq
eques
uestt ed tthat
ollow
Writing ssty
ty
le is mor
ec
hnical and cont
ent is of
iv
en bbyy tthe
he
tyle
moree ttec
echnical
content
oftt en dr
driv
iven
agency’s agenda.
Pr
og
ibed in tter
er
ms of specif
ic ttar
ar
he ag
ency
Prog
ogrrams ar
aree descr
described
erms
specific
arggets of tthe
agency
ency..
Pr
oposal pac
k ag
he funder
Proposal
pack
agee is clear
clearlly outlined bbyy tthe
funder..
Ev
aluation of tthe
he pr
oposal is usuall
Evaluation
proposal
usuallyy based on a scor
scoree shee
sheett and
point sy
sysst em.
Chapter 141
| Seeking Support
From Donors
Before writing the proposal
Good proposals will not get a bad project funded. The quality of the
idea is crucial. Thoughtful planning must precede proposal writing. The
management, staff, and in some cases, members of the board of
directors, should develop a project plan and seek the support of staff
and beneficiaries. This plan can then be used to outline the proposal.
Make preliminary contact with your potential donor, preferably through
a phone call or personal visit. Be prepared to talk about the project and
anticipate any questions the potential donor might have about the
inquiry. Issue an invitation to visit your RHO or to meet with staff or
board members. Ask for the organization’s annual report, funding
guidelines, and application form. Find out as much information as
possible about deadlines. Donors typically have funding cycles. There
are deadlines for the submission of proposals and a timetable of
review, approval, and release of funds. Failure to heed this cycle can
result in rejection of the proposal simply because all funds for the year
have already been allocated, or because the deadline for proposal
submissions has just passed.
Shortlisting proposal ideas
Ideas w
or
veloping int
o pr
oposals should:
wor
ortth de
dev
into
proposals
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fit wit
hin tthe
he mission of tthe
he ag
within
agency
ency
A ddr
ess aspects of community need
ddress
ell-def
ined ttar
ar
Ha
ve a w
argget ggrroup
Hav
well-def
ell-defined
or of tthe
he RHO
he eexx ecutiv
ect
Ex
cit
ecutivee dir
direct
ector
Excit
citee tthe
vices tthe
he clients use, lik
e, and “buy”
Focus on ser
services
like,
Mee
he needs of tthe
he funding ag
ency
Meett tthe
agency
Enhance/suppor
ency de
velopment
Enhance/supportt futur
futuree ag
agency
dev
heinber
g. (Sag
990).
Proposal Writing.. Cole
Coleyy, S.M., and C.A
C.A.. Sc
Scheinber
heinberg.
(Sagee Publications, 11990).
Decide who should write the proposal. In some large organizations
there are professional “grant writers” on staff. Unfortunately, this often
leads to proposals that fail to show any real understanding of the
problem or the organization. The most effective proposal writers are
staff, the board of directors, trainers, and association members—anyone
who has have been involved in the strategic planning process and
organizational assessment of your RHO. Select one individual to be
responsible for the writing—someone with good written communication skills—and a team of people to review the proposal. The “team
leader” of the proposal writing should be a facilitator, with access to the
donor, the decision-makers in your RHO, and the beneficiaries of the
program.
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Before you begin to write, gather the following information. It will
make the job of writing easier:
The “Credibility File”
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
R esumes of sstt af
afff
Le
tt
er
om
Lett
tter
erss of suppor
supportt fr
from
donors, community leaders,
go
ver
nment of
ernment
offficials
gov
An
he
Anyy publicity about tthe
or
wspaper
new
orgganization, i.e, ne
ar
ticles, ffllyer
s, ne
wsle
tt
er
articles,
ers,
new
slett
tter
erss
Financial sstt at
ements
atements
Brochures
Lit
er
atur
ting tthe
he
Liter
eratur
aturee suppor
supporting
value of tthe
he RHO’
or
k
RHO’ss w
wor
ork
Copies of publications b
byy
s t af f
! Donor profile. Review the profile of the donor. Identify the
connections between your RHO and the donor. Find out what
the donor’s requirements are.
! The selling points. Outline a few key reasons why the work
you are doing is important and why the donor should support it.
! Credibility of your organization. Collect any articles, statements of support, and references from others that illustrate the
importance of your work.
! Facts and figures about your work. Compile statistics and
information that shows the extent of the need, the value of your
work, and the success of the methods you are proposing.
Collect annual reports, brochures, and other information that
enhances your case for support.
! Plan and budget for your project. Outline a simple project
plan. Make sure it is clear what you intend to do, how you
intend to do it, and when and what the benefits will be. Put
together a rough budget.
Large foundations and government agencies will often provide an
example of the “scoring sheet” they use for assessing the merits of the
proposal. This will help you decide some of the aspects to emphasize
in your proposal.
Writing the proposal
When you actually get down to writing the proposal it is advisable to
do it in stages. For example:
! Make detailed notes. Start by making detailed notes on each
component of the proposal using the questions at the end of
each proposal section heading (below) as a guide. Short descriptive phrases are sufficient at this stage. Go through the
whole proposal in this way.
! Summarize the information. Once you have completed these
notes, summarize this information. Highlight the main points in
each component of the proposal.
! Write the detailed narrative. Use this summary to structure a
detailed narrative leading to the final proposal.
! Review the proposal. When the proposal is complete, review it
using the checklist in Annex 12.
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From Donors
As you are writing, bear in mind that the donors are looking for:
! A proposal which is written concisely, accurately, and without
jargon, has a clear logic, and follows any specific guidelines the
donor provides.
! A project that addresses an important problem, is realistic and
cost-effective, and is compatible with donor priorities and
requirements.
! An organization with a track record of sound and effective
management, competent and professional staff, and funding
from other sources.
The content of the proposal
This section describes the structure and content for a standard full
proposal. It provides an overview of each section of the proposal
followed by several questions to help you think about information to
include in your RHO’s proposal. Investing time in preparing a proposal
is worthwhile. A poorly organized and poorly written proposal could
seriously jeopardize your chances of receiving funding even for a
good project.
Executive summary
The executive summary is a “sales” document designed to convince
the donor to consider supporting the project.
This is the most important section of the entire proposal. It should
summarize the key information—the problem or need your organization has identified, the proposed solution (including what will take
place, for how long, and who will staff it), and the amount of funding
required for the project. The financial request itself must be clearly stated.
The history, purpose, and activities of your RHO and its capacity to carry
out the project should also be mentioned. Write this section after
completing the rest of the proposal.
Proposal contents
Mos
oposals will include tthe
he
Mostt pr
proposals
following sections:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Summar
Summaryy
Introduction
Needs assessment
Goals and objectives
Str
at
egies and activities
trat
ategies
Monit
or
ing and
Monitor
oring
e v aluation
Sus
Sustt ainability
Budg
Budgee t
Introduction
The purpose of this section is to establish the credibility of the
organization.
It should include an organizational history, future plans, and the statement of your mission (see Chapter 8). This statement should highlight
the extent to which you and the donor share a vision of what needs to
be done, and what can be done, to address problems of mutual concern. Provide information to convince the donor that your RHO is
capable of managing and implementing the proposed project. Draw on
the results of your organizational diagnosis (see Chapter 8) to identify
and highlight your organizational assets.
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This is the first major section of the proposal and should be interesting
and easy to read. Organizational structure and a list of past projects
should be included, but as annexes, not in the narrative. This section,
with a few minor changes, can often be used for other proposals.
! What is the history and mission of your organization?
A poorly-written proposal could jeopardize
your chances of having
a good project funded.
! Where does your organization work? What population(s) does
it serve?
! What programs does it manage? Which are most successful?
Which programs have not been successful?
! What are your current sources of support?
! What does your organization expect to be doing five years
from now?
Problem statement/needs assessment
In this section, the goal is to enable the donor to understand the
problem that your organization is trying to solve and give the
donor reasons for believing that funding is worthwhile.
Document the problem with facts and statistics—you want to prove that
the problem exists. Concentrate on the intended beneficiaries of the
project, not the organization’s needs. Make a logical connection
between the problem and needs you outlined and the organization’s
mission and activities.
! What are the characteristics, backgrounds, environments, and
problems of the clients you wish to serve? Use research findings, expert opinions, and your own experience.
! What are the causes of the problems you seek to address? Are
they related to any other problems?
! Why are your proposed clients blocked from solving their
problem(s)?
! What will be the impact on the clients and their community if
this problem is not addressed?
! What other organizations—public or private—are addressing
these or related problems?
! What is the most promising strategy for addressing these
problems?
Goals and objectives
Now that you have identified the need, this section should address the
following question: What difference does your RHO hope to see by
implementing the project?
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This should be expressed both in terms of broad goals and specific
objectives. Program goals—the intended end result of the change being
Chapter 141
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From Donors
undertaken—can often be extracted from mission statements. The
objectives—measurable, time-specific results that the organization
expects to accomplish as a part of the program—should be phrased in
such terms such as “to reduce,” “to expand,” “to decrease,” or “to increase” the outcome X. Include reference to the specific population being
served. Do not describe the methods here.
Goals:
! What ideal conditions will exist if you eliminate, prevent, or
improve the situation?
! What is the overall, long-term condition desired for your proposed clients?
Objectives:
! What groups/clients will this intervention or service reach? How
many?
! What will the intervention/service change (e.g., knowledge,
behavior, skills, conditions)? What are the expected benefits or
results?
! When? What is the time frame for the intervention and its
measurable outcome?
Strategies and activities
You have now discussed who you are (Introduction), the problem you
want to address (Problem Statement), and what you intend to do about
the problem (Goals and Objectives). Now you need to explain how
you will bring about these results.
You want to persuade the donor that your strategies and activities
will accomplish the objectives. Use your organizational analysis to
provide the donor with a persuasive, program-based rationale for the
additional resources you require.
For major projects or proposals, especially those directed toward
companies, you may want to convince them of the value of your
approach, demonstrating that providing family planning and other
reproductive health services could save a company money by limiting
employee absences and maternity leave.
! What is unique or innovative about the approach you propose to
implement? How does it differ from what has been done in the
past or what others are doing now? Use research findings, expert
opinions, and your own past experience.
! What services will be offered to the intended clients? How do
these activities relate to your current activities? Demonstrate that
you have the capacity to carry out the services.
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! Where will the project be located?
! Will special materials be needed? Developed? (e.g., training
manuals) Will they need to be tested?
! Are there special equipment needs? How will these be funded?
! Will other organizations be involved with this proposed intervention? How?
! How is the community involved in this intervention? Has it
participated in the development of this proposal?
! How will the activities be managed? What staffing will be required? How will they be organized (i.e., the project structure)?
Monitoring and evaluation
A monitoring and evaluation plan must be built into the project.
Many organizations make the mistake of devising an evaluation plan
that is only implemented after the project is over. Monitoring involves
on-going assessment of the progress being made while the project is
being implemented. The emphasis is usually on intermediate outcomes
and process. Evaluations are a one-time assessment of the impact and
effectiveness of the completed project. The emphasis is on final
outcomes linked to stated goals and objectives.
! How will the project activities be tracked? Will there be a
baseline study? Periodic follow-ups? How will they be managed?
! What types of data will be collected? How often will they be
collected? What method will be used?
! What reports will be generated? How frequently? For whom,
and for what purpose?
! Who will monitor/evaluate the project activities?
Sustainability
In this section, you need to answer the question—Where will the
funds come from in the future?
This is the last narrative section of the proposal and is important to
donors. They want to know that the project has a good chance of
continuing until it has achieved its goals. Avoid vague statements such
as “a variety of funding sources will be approached.” Include specifics
of donor grants, user fees, individual contributions—any likely funding
you have identified.
! Do you plan to continue this proposed intervention beyond the
initial period of funding? If so, how do you plan to fund it?
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Budget
The budget is a key element in a successful proposal. It documents
how the activity will be financed. Use Annex 13 and the questions at
the end of this section to prepare your budget.
The budget should follow the narrative description of the program so
that the donor can understand the link between the finances and the
planned activities. An RHO seeking operating or general support
should submit a budget for the whole agency. An RHO seeking funding for a specific project should develop a budget that shows the
expenses and revenue for that project. Clearly identify which funds
your RHO is seeking from this donor, particularly if the organization is
approaching several donors for support. Annex 14 provides a
worksheet for evaluating your budget and preparing your budget
justification.
If the donor requests a specific format, be sure to follow its guidelines.
Create an accurate and realistic budget. Be prepared to do what you
say you will do. Include all costs that involve spending money. Don’t
forget administration—some portion of office operations, and factor in
the cost of space, utilities, telephone, postage, and staff time.
Typical documentation in proposals for loan financing
His
ical ffinancial
inancial sstt at
ements (3 yyear
ear
s)
Histt or
orical
atements
ears)
• Balance shee
sheett
• Income sstt at
ement
atement
• Cash fflo
lo
w
low
or bes
t-, medium-, and
inancial sstt at
ements (3 yyear
ear
s) ffor
Pr
oject
ed pr
o ffor
or
ma ffinancial
ears)
best-,
ojected
pro
orma
atements
Project
ios
wor
orss t-case scenar
scenarios
• Balance shee
sheett
• Income sstt at
ement
atement
• Cash fflo
lo
w
low
• Br
eak
-e
ven anal
Break
eak-e
-ev
analyysis
Com
ple
hat includes:
Comple
plett ed business plan tthat
• Pr
oposed capit
al needs and uses, pr
oposed tter
er
ms, and collat
er
al
Proposed
capital
proposed
erms,
collater
eral
• Mar
k et rresear
esear
k eting plan
Mark
esearcch and mar
mark
• Anticipat
ed social and economic im
pact of pr
oject
Anticipated
impact
project
• K e y rrisk
isk ffact
act
or
actor
orss
• Pr
oposed pr
oject sstr
tr
uctur
Proposed
project
tructur
ucturee
Feasibility assessment bbyy outside consult
ants
consultants
Char
ws, ar
ticles of incor
ation, and o
ele
vant leg
al
Chartt er
er,, bbyy -la
-law
articles
incorpor
poration,
otther rrele
elev
legal
por
documents
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Avoid the temptation to make the proposal more attractive by understating costs. Failing to secure sufficient funds may spell disaster for
your project. And, it does not make a good impression on donors if
you have to go back for more funding. Be careful when using last
year’s costs to create the new budget—allow something for inflation.
Avoid breaking down line items into too much detail. This will limit the
flexibility in using the money allocated since most donors require that
the recipient spend the funds exactly as indicated in the budget. Too
much detail also makes it difficult to disguise padding that may be
necessary if the donor does not permit an item for contingency funds
to cover unexpected items.
Have a thorough understanding of what is and is not included in each
budget item and how essential these are to the success of the program. This puts you in a better position to negotiate, and helps you to
avoid agreeing to cuts that could seriously undermine your objectives.
! What types of staff will you need?
Express your thanks to
donors for considering
your proposal, even if
they do not fund it.
! What supplies/materials will you need?
! What equipment will you need?
! What facilities will you need/occupy?
! What materials will you be printing?
! What conferences/meetings/workshops will be conducted?
! What travel needs will there be?
! What operating costs do you anticipate (e.g., rent, communications, insurance, etc.)?
Annexes
Attach the following to your proposal: annual budget and report of
your organization, audited financial statements, legal or tax status
documentation, and letters of support.
After submitting the proposal
Follow up with the funders after sending off the proposal. An e-mail or
phone call to the contact person is often the best option. (However,
some donors request that you not make telephone contact, and this
request should be respected.)
Confirm that the proposal has been received and ask if the donor has
any questions. Find out when decisions will be made and how you will
be notified. If appropriate, invite the potential donor to visit the organization or to attend a special event.
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From Donors
Donors should be kept up-to-date on any new funding that your RHO
receives while the potential grant is being reviewed. They should also
be informed of any significant changes to the organization.
When you hear from the donor, acknowledge the response. Even if
the donor declined to contribute to your organization, be sure to
express your thanks for considering your proposal. This keeps the lines
of communication open for possible future approaches for support.
If the proposal gets funded
If you get funding, a thank-you letter should be sent immediately to
acknowledge the value of the donor’s contribution. Corporations often
expect to be thanked in a public way, either at an event or a board
meeting. They also expect regular progress reports. Many small
foundations do not have specific reporting requirements, but they
should still be informed of the project’s progress through a letter or
simple report.
Be sure to give donors
what you have agreed
to provide. Keep your
end of the bargain.
Government donors clearly outline the manner in which they want the
RHO to follow-up. Most large foundations and multi-lateral and bilateral
agencies demand periodic reporting to justify to their constituents the
support they are providing. Timely and accurate reports assist them in
this task. Donors may be reluctant to provide further funding to an
organization that is habitually late with reports.
Preparation of reports requires an information system that produces
the necessary data in an accurate and appropriately consolidated form,
and the time of someone to analyze the data and write the report. The
less time the analyst has to spend on producing tables, the more time
s/he can devote to analysis and interpretation. A well-designed information system will produce preformatted tables each month.
Many donors also require financial audits, particularly if large sums are
entrusted to the organization. These audits allow donors to judge
whether, at the very least, the accounting systems are functioning
correctly and may even point to general managerial deficiencies. Audits
are usually contracted out to qualified professional accounting firms
and this can be expensive. Any request for funding should be sure to
include in the proposed budget the resources required to prepare
reports and audits.
Perhaps most important of all is to do a good job with the resources you
have been given. Be sure to give the donors what they want and what
you have agreed to provide. Keep your end of the bargain.
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Resources
Program Planning and Proposal Writing. Norton Kiritz. (Los Angeles: The Grantmanship Center, 1980).
Proposal Writing. S.M. Coley and C.A. Scheinberg. (Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications, 1990).
Winning Grants Step by Step. Mimi Carlson. (San Francisco: JosseyBass, 1995).
Writing Better Fundraising Applications. Michael Norton and Michael
Eastwood. (London: Directory of Social Change, 1997).
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RESOURCES
Publications and Tools
PUBLICATIONS, TOOLS, WEBSITES, ORGANIZATIONS
The Budget-Building Book for Nonprofits—A Step-by-Step Guide for
Managers and Boards, by Murray Dropkin and Bill LaTouche. JosseyBass, Inc., 1998. This manual outlines the budget-making process,
paying careful attention to nonprofits’ specific circumstances and
concerns. It is divided into two sections: a narrative section, which
defines terms and explains how budgets are developed; and an appendix of budget worksheets and forms. To order the book, visit the
website www.josseybass.com. Order over the phone by calling the
U.S. toll-free phone number, 888-378-2537 or by faxing 800-605-2665.
Discounts are only available for bulk quantities.
Beyond the Annual Campaign, by Kristin Majeska. Katalysis North/
South Development Partnership, 1994. Perfecting the Alliance, by
Dennis Macray. Katalysis North/South Development Partnership, 1994.
These simple reports, written in sequence, are primarily for intermediary organizations and their partner NGOs. Although much of the
discussion relates to Northern organizations, the purpose of each
report is to find ways to financially support viable and sustainable
partnerships. The publications include fundraising methods, income
generating ideas, advice for working with board of directors, and an
introduction to partnering opportunities. To order copies, contact
Katalysis North/South Development Partnerships, 1331 N. Commerce
Street, Stockton, CA 95202, USA. Telephone: 209-943-6165 or fax:
209-943-7046.
Community Financing. PRICOR Monograph Series: Issues Paper 1,
by Sharon S. Russell and Jack Reynolds, 1985. This publication is one
technical handbook in a series that looks at the issues surrounding
community financing of health services (cost-sharing). This volume
suggests operations research methods for examining community
financing. To obtain a copy, contact Primary Health Care Operations
Research (PRICOR), Center for Human Services, 7200 Wisconsin
Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
CORE: A Tool for Cost and Revenue Analysis, published by Management Sciences for Health, 1998. This is a hands-on guide that managers
of health and family planning organizations can use to improve the
efficiency and financial viability of their services. It comes with a diskette
that contains three spreadsheets that can be used to analyze and
compare costs and revenues among facilities within the same organization. The program requires an IBM-compatible computer with
Microsoft Excel (Version 5.0 or higher) or a program that can read
Excel files. To order, contact Management Sciences for Health, Inc.,
891 Centre Street, Boston, MA 02130-1363, USA or e-mail:
[email protected]
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Corporate Communication, by Paul A. Argenti. New York: Irwin
McGraw-Hill, 1998. This publication provides a broad discussion of the
principles and methods an organization can use to develop and manage a coherent communications strategy for reaching both internal and
external audiences. Although written for private sector for-profit
business managers, the discussions of developing corporate communications strategies and of managing corporate image, identity, and
reputation can be useful to any organization. To order the book,
contact the publisher, McGraw-Hill Companies, P.O. Box 182605,
Columbus, OH 43218-2605, USA, call 800-262-4729, fax 614-759-3644,
or visit their website, www.mhhe.com/info/custordr.mhtm
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. PRICOR Monograph Series: Issues
Paper 2, by Jack Reynolds and K.C. Gaspari, 1985. This publication is
one technical handbook in a series that examines community financing
issues. This book specifically addresses principles of cost-effectiveness
analysis and guidelines for conducting cost-effectiveness analysis. To
obtain a copy, contact Primary Health Care Operations Research
(PRICOR), Center for Human Services, 7200 Wisconsin Avenue,
Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
Designing a Family Planning User Fee System: A Handbook for
Program Managers, revised edition, by Laurence M. Day. SEATS, 1993.
This handbook presents ten steps for designing or redesigning a family
planning user fee system including: setting a cost recovery target,
establishing prices, developing a waiver system, estimating utilization
and revenues, determining methods for payment of fees, managing
fees collected, determining percentage of fees to remain on site,
planning priority activities for which revenues will be used, and monitoring and evaluating the performance of the user fee system. It
includes worksheets for each step. To obtain a copy, contact JSI Library,
1616 North Fort Myer Drive, 11th Floor, Arlington, VA 22209, USA, or
visit the project website: www.seats.jsi.com
Directory of Social Change Publications List, DSC Books. Published
quarterly. This catalog lists more than eighty publications relating to
nonprofit fundraising. The publications include guides to general and
specialized fundraising techniques, reference volumes, legal manuals,
and reports. To sign up for their free mailings, which occur seven
times a year, fax your name (or organization’s name) and address to
(UK #) 0171 209 4130 requesting the publications list.
Effective Fund Raising, by Leslie Brody. Copley Publishing Group,
1994. This workbook is designed for nonprofit organizations that are
just beginning to approach fundraising from the community. It focuses
on using volunteer committees and boards of directors to first plan for
fundraising and describes the planning and implementation of simple
fundraising activities, such as annual appeals, special events, and approaching businesses. The workbook contains forms that are intended
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Resources1
| Publications
and Tools
to be reproduced and guides the user step-by-step through each
activity. Some of the discussion may not be appropriate for NGOs, but
overall, it can be helpful. To order the book, visit the Foundation
Center website www.fdncenter.org or contact the Foundation Center,
79 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, USA.
Effective Public Relations (8th edition), Scott M. Cutlip, Allen H.
Center, and Glen M. Broom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1999. This textbook is widely regarded as the single most authoritative
and complete reference for public relations professionals. It provides a
comprehensive introduction to the concepts, theory, principles, management, and practice of public relations in a variety of settings. To
order the book, contact the publisher, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458, USA, or visit their website, www.prehall.com
Endowments as a Tool for Financial Sustainability: A Manual for
NGOs. Arlington, VA: The Profit Project, 1993. This publication is
intended primarily for established, well-developed, non-governmental
organizations, but any NGO may find it helpful in deciding whether
pursuing endowment funds is a worthwhile investment of time. It
explains what an endowment is, and provides general guidelines on
how to start and operate an endowment. To order this guide, contact
USAID’s Development Experience Clearinghouse, 1611 N. Kent Street,
#200, Arlington, VA 22209, USA, call 703-351-4006, fax 703-351-4039,
e-mail: [email protected], or visit their website, www.dec.org/
order. Order number: PN-ABQ-748. Cost: US$4.29 (paper), US$1.25
(microfiche).
Enterprise in the Nonprofit Sector, by James C. Crimmins and Mary
Keil. Partners for Livable Places and the Rockefeller Brothers Fund,
1983. This book looks at the decline in government funding and other
traditional funding sources, and states that this should encourage
nonprofit organizations to develop “businesslike management practices” to support their work. The authors survey the state of entrepreneurship within nonprofit organizations by combining quantitative research with 11 in-depth case studies. The book concludes with two
chapters providing suggestions for the evaluation of entrepreneurship
within an organization and recommendations for improving the climate
for enterprise. To obtain a copy of this book, contact Partners for
Livable Places, 1429 21st Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036, USA. Tel:
202-887-5990.
Essentials of Health Care Marketing, by Eric N. Berkowitz.
Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, Inc., 1996. This textbook discusses the essential principles and concepts of marketing as they apply
to health care organizations from both a traditional fee-for-service
approach and a managed care framework. Although its examples are
limited to the U.S. health sector, its presentation of the essential aspects
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of health care marketing can be useful in other settings. To order the
book, contact the publisher, Aspen Publishers, Inc., 7201 McKinney
Circle, Frederick, MD 27104, USA, call 1-800-317-3113, fax 1-800-9019075, or visit their website, www.aspenpub.com
The Family Planning Manager’s Electronic Resource Center (ERC),
Management Sciences for Health. This is an electronic information and
communications service for family planning and health professionals.
The ERC takes advantage of e-mail and Internet technology to provide
health and family planning professionals with an opportunity to take
part in a global electronic community. The ERC allows members to
communicate with each other and to access the latest management
information and tools for improving health and family planning programs around the world. A more in-depth description is included with
the website descriptions in the next section. To access the ERC, visit
the following website: http://erc.msh.org, or send an e-mail to
[email protected]
Family Planning Manager’s Handbook: Basic Skills and Tools for
Managing Family Planning Programs, James A. Wolff, Linda J.
Suttenfield, and Susanna C. Binzen. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press,
Inc., 1991. This management text is a practical guide written specifically
for family planning program managers. It provides information on
planning, coordination, staffing, supervision, training, management
information, contraceptive logistics, financial information, and program
sustainability. It is available in several languages. To obtain a copy of
the handbook, contact Management Sciences for Health, 400 Centre
Street, Newton, MA 02158-2084, USA; e-mail: [email protected];
website: www.msh.org
Financer L’Avenir – Ressources pour la Sante de l’Adolescence.
Programmes dans les Pays en Developpement. Advocates for Youth,
1996. This directory lists forty-seven foundations and aid organizations
offering funding to programs focused on adolescent health. It includes
an appendix offering suggestions for successful grant applications, as
well as a short bibliography. This and other publications (many offered
free to organizations in developing countries) can be obtained by
contacting: Advocates for Youth, Suite 200, 1025 Vermont Avenue,
NW, Washington, DC 20005, USA. Tel: 202-347-5700; Fax: 202-3472263.
Grants from Europe: How to Get Money and Influence Policy, by
Ann Davison. The Directory of Social Change, 1997. This edition gives
up-to-date information on key contacts in Brussels and the UK, including addresses, telephone, and fax numbers; how to apply for grants
and assess the chances for success; and what problems to expect
along the way. To obtain a copy, contact the Directory of Social
Change (Publications), 24 Stephenson Way, London NW1 2DP, UK.
Fax: 0171-209-5049; e-mail: [email protected]
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Guide to European Population Assistance. Deutsche Stiftung
Weltbevoelkerung, 1999. This directory profiles European grant
providers who offer population assistance to governmental and nongovernmental projects. It includes a country index, a general subject
index, and a list of important addresses worldwide. To order a copy, fax
your address, requesting the Guide, to this number in Germany: 49511-9-43-73-73 or e-mail: [email protected]
A Guide to European Union Funding, by Peter Sluiter and Laurence
Wattier. The Directory of Social Change, 1999. This handbook explores the complexities of funding procedures for those attempting to
raise money from the European Union. It gives an overview of EU
activities and budgets relevant to the voluntary sector. In addition, it
details contact information and procedures of EU institutions and offers
advice on making the right approach. To obtain a copy, contact the
Directory of Social Change (Publications), 24 Stephenson Way, London
NW1 2DP, UK. Fax: 0171-209-5049; e-mail: [email protected]
Integrating Reproductive Health into NGO Programs. Volume 1:
Family Planning, by Joyce V. Lyons and Jenny A. Huddart. Family
Planning Service Expansion and Technical Support (SEATS) Project,
1997. This handbook is designed for NGOs that are interested in
exploring opportunities to integrate family planning services into their
existing activities. It focuses on the unique aspects of family planning
programs that are key to successful implementation of these programs.
Of particular interest may be some of the annexes of this guide, which
include discussions of basic principles of fundraising and preparing a
project proposal. The guide also includes an annotated bibliography of
publications on several subjects, including management and finance. To
obtain a copy, contact JSI Library, 1616 North Fort Myer Drive, 11th
Floor, Arlington, VA 22209, USA, or visit the project website,
www.seats.jsi.com
Issues in Cost Recovery, J. Holley, M. Huff-Rouselle, and A. De Matos.
Social Sectors Development Strategies, Inc., 1998. This paper reviews
key “lessons learned” to date from various approaches that require full
or partial payments by patients to help cover the costs of providing the
health care services they receive. The review covers the reasons for
pursuing a cost recovery approach to service provision, the goods and
services to charge for, pricing, cost recovery’s relationship with quality
and its effects on utilization and equity, and administrative and accounting issues. To obtain a copy, contact: SSDS, Inc., 464 Shawmut Avenue, Boston, MA 02118, USA; call 617-421-9644 or fax 617-421-9046.
Issues in the Financing of Family Planning Services in SubSaharan Africa, by Barbara Janowitz, Diana Measham, and Caroline
West. Family Health International (FHI), 1999. This publication provides
an analysis of the issues involved in financing family planning programs.
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It examines the gap between necessary and available funds, discusses
charging for family planning services, expanding the commercial sector,
and the cost of services. To obtain a copy of this publication, contact
Publications Coordinator, FHI, PO Box 13950, Research Triangle Park,
NC 27709, USA.
Leveraging: Mobilizing and Diversifying Resources for Reproductive Health Workshop. These are workshop materials (Facilitator’s
Guide and Participant’s Workbook) available from the Family Planning
Service Expansion and Technical Support (SEATS) Project. The workshop was held in March 1999. Topics covered include (but are not
limited to): marketing orientation, organizational and environmental
assessment, sources and means of leverage, cost control and savings,
individual fees for products and services, fees and contracts for program goods and services, grants, loans, mobilizing volunteers, and
developing funding proposals. To obtain a copy, contact JSI Library,
1616 North Fort Myer Drive, 11th Floor, Arlington, VA 22209, USA, or
visit the project website, www.seats.jsi.com
Managing for Profit in the Nonprofit World, by Paul Firstenberg. The
Foundation Center, 1986. This book, although an older publication,
contains a good overview of managing a nonprofit or NGO as one
would run a business. It stresses the importance of professional
management and entrepreneurial vision as well as analysis of specific
managerial functions and processes. Although it does not contain
exercises, Firstenberg presents solid business concepts from the
perspective of the nonprofit organization. To order the book, visit the
Foundation Center website www.fdncenter.org or contact the Foundation Center, 79 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, USA.
Methods for Costing Family Planning Services, by Barbara Janowitz
and John Bratt. Family Health International (FHI), 1994. This manual is a
guide to the uses, frameworks, and fundamentals of cost analysis, and
explains how to conduct a cost analysis in both clinic and non-clinic
settings. It also explains how to convert cost into cost per couple-year
of protection and gives applications for costing. For a copy of this
publication, contact FHI, PO Box 13950, Research Triangle Park, NC
27709, USA.
NGO Funding Strategies, An Introduction for Southern and Eastern NGOs, by Jon Bennett and Sara Gibbs. INTRAC Publications, 1996.
This publication is one of the few books written specifically for NGOs
and it presents organizational and resource development from the
perspective of the NGO community. Jointly produced by the International NGO Training and Research Centre (INTRAC) and the International Council of Voluntary Agencies (ICVA), this short book focuses
on shifting from project mode to organizational mode and offers an
overview of the current funding situation facing emerging NGOs. It
includes an excellent chapter on sources of funding and presents the
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information in a clear and simple manner. The appendix contains a list
of NGO support organizations. To order a copy, contact INTRAC
Publications, P.O. Box 563, Oxford OX2 6RZ, UK. Telephone: 01865201562 or Fax: 01865-201852.
Program Planning and Proposal Writing, The Grantmanship Center
Reprint Series, by Norton J. Kiritz, The Grantmanship Center, Los
Angeles, CA, 1980. The Center, in conjunction with its training program, uses this article, and it is one of the best resources for proposal
writing available today. The components of the proposal are each
briefly discussed with both good and bad examples included. This
reprint is very useful for introducing staff and board members to
proposal development. It is available from the Grantmanship Center,
Department DD, P.O. Box 17220, Los Angeles, CA 90017, USA, or by
calling 213-482-9860.
Saving Money in Nonprofit Organizations, by Gregory J. Dabel.
Jossey-Bass, Inc. 1998. This book can help a nonprofit organization
become more financially sound through exercises such as effectively
balancing budgets, negotiating the best possible price with vendors,
and developing long- and short-term strategies for expense reduction.
Although not specifically targeted at developing country nonprofit
organizations, it contains useful advice on financial management. To
order the book, visit the website: www.josseybass.com. Order the
book directly over the phone by calling the U.S. toll-free phone number, 888-378-2537 or by faxing 800-605-2665. Discounts are only
available for bulk quantities.
Securing Your Organization’s Future, by Michael Seltzer. The
Foundation Center, 1987. This handbook is designed for all organizations that are involved in fundraising. The first section covers many of
the organizational issues that precede successful fundraising, such as
mission statement, building a board of directors, and developing
realistic budgets. The second section, which is the most helpful for
NGOs, discusses approaching individuals and institutions for support.
The third section presents ways to help choose the funding mix and
develop overall fundraising plans. It includes examples and case
studies of U.S.- based organizations and successful fundraising initiatives. To order the book, visit the Foundation Center website
www.fdncenter.org or contact the Foundation Center, 79 Fifth Avenue,
New York, NY 10003, USA.
Social Marketing: Strategies for Changing Public Behavior, by Philip
Kotler and Eduardo Roberto. New York: The Free Press, 1989. This
was one of the first book-length discussions of marketing as a social
change management technology. It provides a good introduction to
the social marketing approach to social change, mapping and analyzing
the social marketing environment, and developing and managing social
marketing programs. The discussion draws on examples and experience
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with family and reproductive health programs in a variety of international settings. To order the book, contact the publisher, Simon &
Schuster, Attn: Dino Battista, 1230 Avenue of the Americas, New York,
NY 10020 USA, call 1-800-32307445, or visit their website,
www.simonsays.com/academic_professional/ordering.cfm
Strategic Marketing for Nonprofit Organizations (5th edition), by
Philip Kotler and Alan Andreasen. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1995. This textbook provides a comprehensive discussion of marketing principles as they apply to the unique needs of both public and
private nonprofit organizations. Its discussion covers developing a
customer-oriented organization, strategic planning, developing and
organizing resources, designing the marketing mix, and evaluating and
controlling marketing strategies. Many of its examples are drawn from
international settings. The book assumes that the reader will already
have some familiarity with marketing principles. To order the book,
contact the publisher, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458,
USA, or visit their website, www.prenhall.com
Successful Business Ventures for Non-Profit Organizations, by
Charles Cagnon. The Northern Rockies Action Group, 1982. This
study analyzes the efforts of nonprofit organizations to generate
income through business ventures. The majority of such undertakings,
Cagnon claims, do not fare well, as they suffer from biases against
business practices, lack of financial skills, under-capitalization, underestimating financial risk, and poor business planning. Nonetheless, he
concedes that current economic and political dynamics are pushing
many nonprofits to seek some financial stability from commercial
ventures. He outlines the types of business which nonprofits can
establish and offers advice for successful implementation. To order,
contact Public Service Materials Center, Inc., 111 N. Central Avenue,
Hartsdale, NY 10530, USA.
The Third World Directory 1997/98, by Lucy Stubbs. The Directory of
Social Change, London. This directory includes data on more than 200
organizations based in the UK that work in development, and approximately 100 trusts who fund development work. It also includes information on cash available from the National Lottery Charities Board and
the DFID, articles on subjects such as campaigning and education, and
information on volunteer opportunities in the UK and overseas. To
obtain a copy, contact the Directory of Social Change (Publications), 24
Stephenson Way, London NW1 2DP, UK. Fax: 0171-209-5049; e-mail:
[email protected]
Towards Greater Financial Autonomy—A Manual on Financing
Strategies and Techniques for Development NGOs and Community Organizations, by Fernand Vincent and Piers Campbell. Development Innovations and Networks, 1989. This publication is designed to
help NGOs serving communities in the developing world achieve
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greater financial autonomy. It is divided into five sections: 1) a guide to
carrying out a preliminary audit of the organization and to developing a
strategic financial plan; 2) a description of models for alternative funding sources; 3) a list of techniques useful for establishing financial
stability; 4) a description of traditional funding sources and suggestions
for improving their effectiveness; and 5) an explanation of sound
financial management practices. A copy can be purchased at Intermediate Technology, 103-105 South Hampton Row, London WC1B 4HH,
UK, phone: 0171-436-9761, fax: 0171-436-2013, e-mail:
[email protected]
U.S. Foundations: A Review of International Funding Priorities, by
Diane E. Ray and Adrean E. Scheid. USAID/ANE Bureau, 2000. This
document outlines the funding priorities of U.S. foundations operating
in the Asia and Near East Region of the world as of January 2000. Data
for 56 U.S. foundations that fund international programs are included in
this study. With a few exceptions, the foundations represented gave at
least US$1,000,000 in grants in the year before the study. The findings
indicate that funding in the region is concentrated in the Democracy
and Governance, and Population, Health, and Nutrition sectors. This
document is available on the Internet and can be downloaded from:
http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/pnacg896.pdf/
User Fees for Sustainable Family Planning Services: Background
Discussion for the Handbook for Program Managers, revised edition,
by Laurence M. Day. Family Planning Service Expansion & Technical
Support Project (SEATS), 1993. This publication provides an overview
of the issues involved in implementing a user fee system, including its
impact on utilization, the importance of quality, and the contextual
factors that must be considered. To obtain a copy, contact JSI Library,
1616 North Fort Myer Drive, 11th Floor, Arlington, VA 22209, USA or
visit the project website, www.jsi.com/intl/seats
Using Simple Survey Techniques to Set Prices for Social Marketing
Products, by Karen Foreit. The FUTURES Group International, 1998.
This paper presents a relatively simple and low-cost approach to
determining client willingness to pay for health services at different
price levels. It includes three country applications of this willingness to
pay survey methodology—Ghana, Pakistan, and Ecuador. To obtain a
copy of this paper, contact the Librarian, The FUTURES Group International, 1050 17th Street, NW, Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20036, USA;
fax 202-775-9694.
The Worldwide Fundraiser’s Handbook—A Guide to Fundraising
for Southern NGOs and Voluntary Organisations, by Michael
Norton. International Fund Raising Group, 1998. This handbook aims
to help Southern NGOs improve their fundraising capabilities, especially by focusing on local sources of income. Norton provides a
comprehensive outline of the fundraising process, from developing a
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fundraising strategy to identifying sources of aid; from adopting practical fundraising techniques to improving communication skills. Enlivened by examples of unusually creative fundraising by individual
organizations, the text covers a lot of ground in a clear, organized
fashion. For copies, contact the Directory of Social Change, 24
Stephenson Way, London NW1 2DP, UK. Tel: 0171 209 5151; Fax: 0171
209 5049; email: [email protected]
Winning Grants Step by Step, by Mimi Carlson. Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA, 1995. This workbook is designed for organizations that are relatively new to proposal development. It is clearly
written and contains worksheets and helpful hints in each of the 11
steps. The first step helps the organization to determine what program
or project ideas may be fundable. Steps two through seven take the
identified program idea and help develop the idea into an effective
proposal. There is also a discussion of putting the package together
and following up with funders. An excellent special resource section is
included with worksheets for all steps discussed. For a copy of the
workbook, visit the Jossey-Bass website, www.josseybass.com. Discounts are available for bulk quantities by calling 415-433-1740 or by fax
800-605-2665.
Writing Better Fundraising Applications, by Michael Norton and
Michael Eastwood. The Directory of Social Change, London, 1997.
This guide focuses on writing good proposals, as well as the information an organization will need before writing the proposal. Discussions
include building credibility, developing fundable ideas, and creating
realistic budgets. There are short exercises throughout the text and
questions to answer in each chapter. This guide contains many examples of letters and proposals that are evaluated and used to illustrate
the key concepts of proposal writing. This guide can be ordered
through the Directory of Social Change, 24 Stephenson Way, London,
NW12DP, by calling 0171 209 5151 or by sending an e-mail to: [email protected]
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Websites
The Electronic Resource Center (ERC) and Health
Manager’s Toolkit: (http://www.erc.msh.org)
The ERC website is produced by the Family Planning Management
Development Project of Management Sciences for Health and is
supported by the U.S. Agency for International Development. The site
contains a guide to managing for quality; a calendar of events; the
health manger’s toolkit; a member database; a reading room; and
electronic forums for managers of reproductive health programs. It is
available in English, Spanish, and French.
The site includes eight management topic areas: Managing Health
Policy & Reform, Managing Community Health Services, Managing
Information, Managing Human Resources, Keeping Your Organization
Sustainable, Managing Your Organization’s Finances, Planning for Your
Organization, and Managing Clinical Services.
Each of the eight management topic areas includes information organized into four more specific categories: Tools and Techniques, State
of the Art, Idea Exchange, and For Email Users. Tools and Techniques
features basic concepts and guiding principles for managers regarding
the chosen management area. In addition, practical tools are easy to
locate and use through the Health Manager’s Toolkit, which can be
accessed through a link under each management area or from the ERC
home page.
The Health Manager’s Toolkit is an electronic compendium of management tools designed to help managers of health and family planning
programs in several management areas. The tools have been developed by various agencies working around the world in health and
family planning.
The tools are organized into the following categories: information
management, health policy and reform, financial management, clinical
services management, drug and supply management, community
health services, human resource management, organizational planning,
quality services, and organizational sustainability. Some examples of
tools that are accessible through the site in the category of organizational sustainability include: Management Development Assessment,
Family Planning Situation Analysis Approach, Guide to Assessing
Management Capacity among NGOs, and Management and Organizational Sustainability Tool (MOST).
The site describes the purpose of each tool, its intended users, its
advantages, and limitations. For example, the MOST Status Assessment
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Instrument’s purpose is to help organizations map the development of
key management components and use the results for planning improvements and monitoring progress. It includes an instrument and
user’s guide designed to help perform a management self-assessment,
as well as support management improvement strategies in the context
of a workshop. MSH developed the tool in 1996-97 for public and
nongovernmental organizations. One advantage of the tool is that
little training is required to use it, and one limitation is that it is necessary to use it with an organization that welcomes a participatory approach. This particular tool is free to individuals in developing countries; others must pay US$10. The name and address, as well as an email address, to order the tool are listed on the website. Tools can be
accessed and downloaded directly from the site, or ordered from a
contact listed on the site.
The type of information described above is available on the website for
every tool. Prices and availability of individual tools vary.
Funders Online: (http://www.fundersonline.org)
This site is designed to help individuals and organizations find out more
about funding information online. The site lets users search online
information (Internet sites, publications) to find background information
on European funding organizations; helps users decide/locate European grants to apply for; and provides tips for writing proposals.
Because there are a lot of links to other Internet sites, as well as a lot of
information on this site itself, expect a thorough search and exploration
to take between one and three hours.
The benefits of this website can be roughly divided into three parts:
Advice to applicants: The “Grant Seekers” introduction provides
useful background information for people applying for grants. It
stresses the importance of research and careful matching between an
organization’s needs and the grant sources; outlines steps to researching grant monies; and provides a link to the European Foundation
Center grants database. A “Checklist” provides a series of questions
that will guide applicants in sending their applications to suitable
funders.
“Proposal Basics” offers advice on how to write an effective grant
proposal and includes the essential components of successful
proposals.
Search for funders: To search for funding information online, users
can conduct a regular or an advanced search, both of which will
typically lead to the website of a funding organization. The regular
search feature is not very specific, and is useful mainly for doing background research on funding organizations, such as getting to know
who they are, what kind of work they do, and what kind of funding
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they offer. Under “Advanced Search,” users can specify which professional area and geographic region they are interested in, and thus
access much more specific funding information and make good
matches with funding organizations.
Resources: Funders Online also offers access to databases, which is
another way to search for funds. Use of a database generally works
better after the user is familiar with the funding organizations’ missions
and their scopes of work. Under “Resources,” there are links to the
following databases:
European Foundation Centre Social Economy Library
Orpheus Network Libraries
Directory of Social Change—Charity Centre
Foundation Center—Online Librarian
There are also several publications available online, as well as links to
other websites that provide information on funding. The “Links” section
provides valuable links to the Internet sites of other organizations,
including the World Bank, UN Agencies, and numerous NGOs and
nonprofit organizations.
Other services:
Listserv—Funders Online provides a monthly update on funders that is
sent out by e-mail. To access this site, click on
whatsnew@fundersonline.
Website development—Funders Online also provides the service of a
“Web Toolkit.” This is a step-by-step guide to designing a website,
which can be used by anyone. This could be useful to small development organizations or even individuals who would like to publicize
themselves.
Upcoming/Current Events—The “News Room” section contains
information on upcoming conferences/events, predominately European, relevant to either grant administration or fundraising. There is a
call for a proposals section as well. The “News Room” section seems
to be aimed more at funders than applicants, although it is good to
check the current request for proposal (RFP) section.
The Foundation Center (http://www.fdncenter.org)
The information in this website can be classified in three categories:
links to other Internet sites (over 600!); information on American
foundation giving; and informational material on grant writing. It is
designed to help applicants access online information about grants and
foundations. Careful use of this Internet site will provide a lot of information about U.S. foundations and corporations which give money—
information that is crucial for finding grants and ensuring that appropriate
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applications are submitted to appropriate sources. In addition to helping to locate grants, the site gives advice on how to successfully apply
for a grant. In general, this is a good site to learn about American
funding organizations, which are more numerous than European
ones (although many grants are directed specifically to U.S. organizations).
Links to Other Organizations: Under the “Grantmakers” icon are
links to the Internet sites of many foundations. U.S. foundations and
corporations are ranked in terms of asset size and amount of money
spent on funding in the last fiscal year. To access the websites of
funding organizations, click on the “Grantmaker Websites.” Then
perform a search to pick which organizations provide funding specific
to your RHO’s area of work or geographical region. (Interestingly,
Africa is not listed as a geographical region, and only South Africa is in
the list of countries. There is, however, a category of “Developing
World.”) There is also a “Prospect Worksheet” that can be used to
help decide whether that funding is appropriate to your organization.
Information on Foundations: The “Foundation Folder” section provides information on how much money organizations gave to funding.
However, it is not necessarily useful for determining how they fund.
Information for Applicants: The section called “Grant Seeker Orientation” is more comprehensive than the information on foundations, as
it gives tips about both the background research (deciding where to
apply) and the actual grant-writing process. It also provides links to
databases that have extensive lists of American organizations that
provide funding, and features some standard grant application forms
that are common to different regions in the U.S. There are some very
useful tips included in these sections. Although the site is geared more
to an American audience than an international audience (e.g., asking
for internal revenue service tax status or other details that are specific
to the U.S.), much of the information is applicable in all cases, and it
could be useful to know the American context. For example, it suggests using the active rather than the passive voice in the proposal, and
it would be the opposite when applying for a grant in England!
Other Resources: The “Library” section lists selected books on
fundraising, nonprofit organizations, and related topics. Limited text,
such as the introduction, is provided. Again, much of this is more
relevant to American organizations, but it is interesting to see some of
the current thinking. Also under “Online Library” is a database of
literature related to the nonprofit sector. Searching under such topics
as “Africa” or “Public Health” will provide references for relevant
articles from a selection of journals.
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Current Events: From the home page, click on “Digest” to see a
monthly update on articles on philanthropic funding, and, for those
seeking funds, a list of request for proposals from subscriber organizations organized by subject heading. A job listing section for U.S. jobs is
also included. Users can sign up via e-mail to receive this digest weekly
for free.
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Organizations
CIVICUS
CIVICUS’ purpose is to help nurture the foundation, growth, protection, and resourcing of citizen action throughout the world and especially in areas where participatory democracy, freedom of association
of citizens, and their funds for public benefit are threatened.
CIVICUS is an international alliance dedicated to strengthening citizen
action and civil society throughout the world. Specifically, CIVICUS
seeks to fulfill its mission by serving as:
! A global alliance of citizens and their organizations, to help
advance regional and national agendas of common initiatives to
strengthen the capacity of civil society.
CIVICUS is committed to: 1) strengthening the visibility and
understanding of civil society; 2) working to develop a more
supportive environment of laws, policies, and regulations; 3)
developing permanent, self-sustaining, and creative resource
mechanisms.
! An open forum, serving to facilitate and establish cross-sectoral
dialogue, exchange information, develop a common understanding and shared identity, solidarity, cooperation, and communication within civil society from various regions, and promote a common vision about the role of civil society.
CIVICUS meets these challenges through a variety of programmatic
activities, including:
! Regional and global meetings;
! Publications, including the bimonthly newsletter CIVICUS World;
! Special projects on developing the infrastructure of civil society;
! Networking and partnering efforts with other civil society
organizations and global agencies;
! A growing information clearinghouse.
CIVICUS is a membership association. Its members include nongovernmental organizations, private charities, corporate philanthropic
programs, research institutions, and interested individuals from more
than 60 countries around the world. For more information, contact:
CIVICUS Secretariat, 919 18th Street, NW, 3rd Floor, Washington, DC
20006 USA, tel: 202-331-8518, fax: 202-331-8774, e-mail:
[email protected], website: http://www.civicus.org
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Institute for Development Research
The Institute for Development Research (IDR) is recognized worldwide
for its analysis and documentation of existing and emerging issues that
organizations working hard to improve the lives of ordinary citizens
must address. National and international support providers across Africa
and Asia have also seen the fruits of IDR’s research become the seeds
of innovation—for themselves and their constituents.
IDR’s collaborative consultation engages clients and participants from
the outset, and encourages innovative results. Its practical, learnercentered training is grounded in a tradition of action-based research
and “train the trainers” dissemination. These customized services build
local capacity through direct local involvement in four program areas.
! Democratic governance/policy advocacy. Addresses the
evolving relationship between the state and civil society. IDR
share perspectives and strategies gleaned from experience,
develops influencing skills, and positions NGOs as advocates.
! Partnerships and alliances. Stresses the innovative results that
emerge from diverse views and resources. IDR presents proven
models for partnerships between northern and southern institutions, as well as alliances involving civil society, government, and
the private sector.
! Institutional development. Focuses on building the capacity of
organizations to build capacity among their constituents. IDR
stimulates strategic thinking, disseminates successful management practices, and trains facilitators.
! Financial sustainability. Lays the foundation for long-term
results and continued growth of civil society organizations. IDR
demonstrates funding strategies and business models that work,
and offers practical tools and tactics to spark entrepreneurial
thinking.
For more information, contact: Institute for Development Research,
Director of Training and Consulting Services, 44 Farnsworth Street,
Boston, MA 02210-1211 USA, tel: 617-422-0422, fax: 617-482-0617,
e-mail: [email protected], website: http://www.jsi.com/idr
The International Fund Raising Group
The International Fund Raising Group (IFRG) is a non-profit organization dedicated to enabling people in the voluntary sector throughout
the world to mobilize resources for their causes by sharing and developing their skills, knowledge, and experience.
IFRG believes that to establish a true partnership is to support local
organizations in becoming more self-sufficient. Greater financial
independence through diversifying sources of income will reduce
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dependence on overseas aid and improve overall capacity and
sustainability of local organizations. Generating resources from its own
community roots an organization firmly into society, and this support of
a local constituency also brings validity, strength, and independence.
IFRG believes that skills and experiences in fundraising and income
generation can be shared and that techniques practiced in one part of
the world will be successful in another, as long as they are judiciously
adapted to local culture and tradition. It therefore advocates that the
development of skills in planning resource mobilization programs, and
the technical and other skills needed to put the plan into effect, should
be seen as an integral part of any capacity building program.
IFRG believes that raising income and other support from domestic
sources is essential in building independent and sustainable organizations. IFRG seeks to enable people in the voluntary sector to be more
effective, by providing and increasing access to training and education
in fundraising and other resource strategies.
For more information, contact: the International Fund Raising Group,
295 Kennington Road, London SE11 4QE, Tel: 44 (0) 171 587 0287,
Fax: 44 (0) 171 582 4335, e-mail: [email protected], website:
http://www.ifrg.org.uk
Pact
Pact’s mission is to contribute to the growth of civil societies—where
citizens acting together can express their interest, exchange information, strive for mutual goals, and influence government.
Pact accomplishes this by targeting efforts on strengthening the community-focused nonprofit sector worldwide and working with strategic
partners to identify and implement participatory development approaches at the community level that promote economic, social, and
environmental justice.
Pact is a leading facilitator of leadership and organizational development for both nascent and established NGOs, networks, and intermediary organizations in countries in transition and in emerging economies
around the world. Through training, technical assistance, mentoring,
and direct financial support, Pact strengthens local organizations’
capacity to further development goals. At the same time, Pact encourages the establishment of permanent ties to grassroots communities
and cooperative but equal relationships with donors, government, and
business.
At the heart of Pact’s organizational development approach is the
concept of teamwork, a natural extension of the two guiding principles
that characterize all Pact programs—participation and partnership.
Pact’s local partners share in Pact’s values and demonstrate a strong
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commitment to development goals as well as a capacity to grow organizationally. Pact focuses on eight core areas of program excellence:
! Capacity building
! Forging coalitions and strategic alliances
! Building democracies
! Grants management
! Strategic communications services
! Organizational capacity assessment
! Exit strategies
! Private sector initiatives
Pact maintains field offices in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and a
headquarters office in Washington, DC. For more information, contact:
Pact Headquarters, 1901 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, 5th Floor,
Washington, DC 20006, USA, tel: 202-466-5666, fax: 202-466-5669,
e-mail: [email protected], website: http://www.pactworld.org
Vibrante International
Vibrante International designs and conducts fundraising training for
African NGOs. The high-energy workshops promote self-esteem and
personal empowerment which result in tangible change. The trainings
emphasize:
! Promotion of the concept and practice of philanthropy and
advocacy within developing countries.
! Involvement of community businesses and the identification of
models for success.
! Practical application of entrepreneurial techniques.
! Emphasis on developing alliances with private sector sponsors
and partners.
! Techniques for women’s empowerment issues.
! Exploration of income-generating projects for economic independence.
Vibrante was recently contacted by a PVO, and funded by USAID, to
create and conduct a training in fundraising for participants of eight
anglophone countries in Africa for the Africa Alive! Initiative to raise
awareness about the prevention of AIDS in the youth of Africa. The
purpose of this training was to teach fundraising techniques, with
special emphasis on empowering women, entrepreneurial techniques,
advocacy, and creating alliances and relationships with the private
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Resources1
| Organizations
sector which benefit community development. Vibrante’s training,
followed by unique ongoing consultations and support beyond the
training itself, resulted in tangible increase in funding for the participants.
For more information, contact: Susan C. O’Neal, Vibrante International,
4600 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 332, Washington, DC 20008,
USA, tel: 202-244-0812, fax: 202-244-0784, e-mail:
[email protected]
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Feczko, R., R. Kovacs, and C. Mills (Eds.). 1994. Guide to Funding for
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Firstenberg, P. 1986. Managing for Profit in a Nonprofit World. New
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Holley, J. 1997. Endowment Planning for Sustaining PROSALUD Health
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Lyons, J.V., and J.A. Huddart. 1997. Integrating Reproductive Health into
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Uphoff, N., M.J. Esman, and A. Krishna. 1998. Reasons for Success:
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Annex 8
Annex 9
Annex 10
Annex 11
Annex 12
Annex 13
Annex 14
Selected Funding Sources for RHOs
Profile of Individual Client
Profile of Organizational Client
Profile of Community Supporter
Profile of Business Sponsor
Profile of Donor
Self-assessment of Organizational Strengths and
Weaknesses
Analysis of Income---A Case Study
Identifying a Suitable Fee for Your Goods and
Services
Identifying Program-related Goods and Services to
Offer Organizational Clients
Special Events Checklist---Twelve Week Planning
Guide
Checklist for Reviewing Proposals to Donors
Proposal Budget Worksheet
Budget Justification
ANNEXES
Annex 1
Annex 2
Annex 3
Annex 4
Annex 5
Annex 6
Annex 7
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Annex 1
| Funding Sources
Annex 1: Selected Funding Sources for RHOs
Name, Address,
Contact Person
Major Areas of
Involvement
Regional/Country
Preferences
Major Conditions/
Limits
BILATERAL AGENCIES
Canada
Canadian International
Development Agency
(CIDA)
200 Prommenade du
Portage Hill, Quebec,
Canada, K1A064
(Tel) 819 997 5006/
800 230 6349
(Fax) 819 997 5510
http://www.acdi-cida.
gc.ca/index.htm
Basic human needs
Denmark
Center for
Udviklingsforsking,
Gammel Korgevej 5,
1610 Kobenhavn
(Tel) 33 85 4600
(Fax) 33 25 8110
Human rights and
democratization
Finland
Ministry for Foreign
Affairs, P.O. Box 127, FIN
- 00161, Helsinki
(Tel) 358 9 1341 6370/
6349
(Fax) 358 9 1341 6375
http://global.finland.fi/
Sexual and reproductive
rights
Most assistance goes
Women in development directly to low income
countries.
Infrastructure services
Human rights
Democracy
Private sector development
Environment
Bangladesh, Benin,
Bhutan, Bolivia, Burkina
Women and development Faso, Egypt, Eritrea,
Ghana, Guatemala, India,
Environment and
Kenya, Mozambique,
development
Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger,
Poverty reduction
Tanzania, Uganda,
Vietnam, Zambia, and
Zimbabwe
All regions
Development Information
Program – financially
supports activities that
inform Canadians about
development in international cooperation issues.
Will consider proposals
seeking $5,000 –
$250,000. Issues at least
one request for proposal
each year, issued by
regular mail or electronic
mail to organizations on
mailing list. Call 1-800230-6349 to be put on
the mailing list.
Deadlines: 15 June and
15 December. Contact
respective Danish Embassy for funding possibilities and procedures.
Deadline: End of
September.
Social equity
Democracy
Human rights
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| Annexes
Name, Address,
Major Areas of
Contact Person
Involvement
France
Health
Bureau de la Vie
Education
Associative (DEV/IVA)
Rural development
20, rue Monsieur F75700 Paris 07 SP France
http://
www.france.diplomatie.fr
Germany
GTZ Dag-Hammarskjold
Weg 1-5, 65760 Eschborn
GERMANY
(Tel) 496179 0
(Fax) 496179 1115
http://www.gtz.de/home/
english/
Health improvement
Ireland
Irish Aid, Department of
Foreign Affairs, 76-78
Harcourt Street, Dublin,
Ireland
(Tel) 353 1478 0822
http://www.irlgov.ie/
iveagh/irishaid/
Capacity building
Human rights
Democracy
Japan
Japan International Cooperative Agency (JICA)
Shinjuku Mines Tower, 21-1 Yoyogi, Shibuya-ku,
Tokyo
(Tel) 03 5352 5311/5314
http://www.jica.go.jp
Medical care
Japan Foundation
http://www.cgp.org
Healthcare
Contact local Japanese
Embassy for application
Poverty Relief
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Sub-Saharan Africa
South Africa
APC Countries (Africa,
Caribbean, Pacific States)
Developing countries
Nutrition
Disease control
Major Conditions/
Limits
Co-financing for French
NGOs. Average grant
size is FRF600,000 per
project.
Maximum grant size is
DEM200,000 per project.
No Deadlines.
Reproductive rights
Africa
Near East
Gender and social equality
Food security
Environment
The major targets of
Japan’s grant aid are
aspects of Basic Human
Needs (BHN) which are
essentially low in profitability and cannot easily be
funded by official development assistance loans.
Developing countries
Support for projects
proposed by NGOs/
PVOs and local government authorities. Administered by the local Japanese Embassy not by
JICA.
Domestic water supply
Rural and agricultural
development
Human resources
development
Education
Public Welfare
Deadlines and requirements vary by program.
The role of women must
be incorporated in each
proposal. It is also important to integrate the
environment into
projects.
Developing countries
Public health
Environment
SEATS II
Regional/Country
Preferences
Annex 1
Name, Address,
Contact Person
Major Areas of
Involvement
Regional/Country
Preferences
| Funding Sources
Major Conditions/
Limits
Provide grants for:
country programs, small
embassy projects, cofinancing organizations.
Requirements vary by
type.
Population
Netherlands
Netherlands Foreign
Health and nutrition
Affairs Information
Department, Postbus
20061, 2500 EB Den,
Haag, The Netherlands
(Tel) 31 70 484660/6789
(Fax) 31 70 384418
http://www.minbuza.nl/english
Developing countries
Norway
ODIN, 7 Juniplass 1,
Postbox 8114 Dep. M0032, Oslo, Norway
(Tel) 4722 24 3600
(Fax) 4722 24 9580/81
http://www.odin.dep.no/
ud/engelsk/
Poverty Reduction
Africa
Asia
Middle East
Latin America
Deadline: 1 September.
Sweden
Sida, 105 25 Stockholm,
Sweden
(Tel) 4686 98 5000
(Fax) 4682 08 864
http://www.sida.se
Economic growth
Worldwide
Deadline: 1 October.
Much of the Swedish
humanitarian assistance is
channeled through
Swedish non-governmental organizations. Approximately 1/3 of Swedish
development cooperation is channeled through
various multilateral
organizations, mainly UN
agencies, the World Bank
group, and the regional
development banks.
Developing countries
Supports activities which
promote public knowledge
and understanding of
development issues, global
interdependence, need for
international development;
and of the progress that
has been made and that is
possible. DFID will consider project proposals
which fall within this broad
aim.
Empowerment and
improved status of
women
Gender issues
New and untried initiatives
Economic and social
equity
Economic and political
independence
Democratic development
Protection of the
environment
Equality between men
and women
United Kingdom
Department for International Development
(DFID) 94 Victoria Street,
London SW1 E 5JL, U.K.
(Tel) 44 1355 843132
(Fax) 44 1355 843632
http://www.dfid.gov.uk
Education
Health and population
Engineering and research
Other areas
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Major Areas of
Involvement
Name, Address,
Contact Person
United States
United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) Center for
Population, Health and
Nutrition, Washington,
DC 20523
(Tel) 202 712 5851
(Fax) 202 216 3046
http://www.usaid.gov
Regional/Country
Preferences
Reproductive health
Sub-Saharan Africa
Family planning
Asia and Near East
HIV/AIDS
Europe and Eurasia
Child survival
Latin America
Nutrition
Caribbean
Major Conditions/
Limits
Funding provided
through U.S.-based
organizations or USAID
country mission
Maternal health
MULTILATERAL AGENCIES
European Union
Reproductive health
Department VIII/A/4 (NGOs) HIV/AIDS
Directorate-General for
Development Commission of the European
Union, Rue de la Loi, 200
B-1049 Brussels, Belgium
http://www.europa.eu.int/
Africa
Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO)
Via Della Teme Di Caracalla,
1-00100 Rome, Italy
(Tel) 39 0657 051
(Fax) 39 0657 053152
http://www.fao.org
Farming
Worldwide
International Labour
Organization (ILO)
Route des Morillons 4,
1211 Geneva 22, Switzlerland
(Tel) 4122 799 6111
http://www.ilo.org
Worldwide
Promotion of social
justice and internationally
recognized human and
labor rights
Joint United Nations
Programme on HIV/
AIDS (UNAIDS), 20
Avenue Appia, CH -1211
Geneva 27, Switzerland
(Tel) 4122 791 3666
(Fax) 4122 791 4187
http://www.unaids.org
HIV/AIDS
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Caribbean
Pacific States
Applications should be
submitted through local
EU Delegation Offices.
Forestry
Fisheries
Water and land management
Rural development
Worldwide
No direct funding.
Works through countrybased staff of seven
cosponsors: UNICEF,
UNDP, UNFFPA, UNDCP,
UNESCO, WHO, World
Bank
Annex 1
Name, Address,
Contact Person
Major Areas of
Involvement
UNICEF
1866 United Nations Plaza,
New York, NY 10017
(Tel) 212 686 5522/
212 922 2620
(Fax) 212 779 1679
http://www.unicef.org
Formal and non-formal
education programs
UNDP
1 United Nations Plaza,
New York, NY 10017
(Tel) 212 906 6978
(Fax) 212 906 6336
http://www.undp.org
Poverty
United Nations Educational and Scientific
Cooperation Organization (UNESCO)
7 Place de Fontenoy,
F-75700, Paris, France
(Tel) 33 1 45 68 1000
(Fax) 33 1 45 67 1690
http://www.unesco.org
Education
Regional/Country
Preferences
Major Conditions/
Limits
Worldwide
Works with other United
Nations bodies, governments, and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) to lighten
children’s loads through
community-based programs. No information on
funding found on website,
contact field office for
information.
Worldwide
For specific information
about projects and
programs contact UNDP
and see “Classification
Guidelines” document.
Worldwide
Support can be given only
to projects presented to
UNESCO by one of its
Member States and
included in the approved
program and budget. This
kind of request should
therefore be brought to
the attention of the
National Commission for
UNESCO of the
applicant’s country.
Worldwide
Funds for each special
program are usually
sought by issuing appeals,
which can be launched,
revised, and updated as
required.
Maternal and child health
programs
Gender
Environment
Governance
Science
Cultural development
Literacy
Libraries
United Nations High
Welfare
Commission for RefuAid to refugees
gees (UNHCR)
C.P. 2500 1211 Geneva 2,
Switzerland
(Tel) 41 22 739 8111
http://www.unhcr.ch
| Funding Sources
UNFPA
Family planning
Worldwide
220 East 42nd Street,
New York, NY 10017-5880 Maternal and child health
(Tel) 212 297 5384
Population policy
(Fax) 212 297 4916
http://www.unfpa.org
Directs and manages
programs, and channels
funds for multilateral and
bilateral projects and
programs. Contact field
office for more information.
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Name, Address,
Contact Person
The World Bank
1818 H Street, N.W.,
Washington, DC 20433
(Tel) 202 473 9000
(Fax) 202 473 8231
http://www.worldbank.org
Major Areas of
Involvement
Education and training
Health, nutrition, and
population
Gender issues
Poverty reduction
Rural and urban
development
Regional/Country
Preferences
Worldwide
Major Conditions/
Limits
The major institution
channeling loans for
development. The small
grants program supports
policy analysis, dissemination, publications, and
conferences.
World Food Programme
Food-for-work projects
Worldwide
Via Cesare Giulio Viola,
Food to vulnerable groups
68, Parcode Medici,
Rome, Italy 00148
(Tel) 39 06 6513 1
(Fax)39 06 6590 632/637
http://www.wfp.org
The World Health Organization Avenue Appia
20, 1211 Geneva 27,
Switzerland
(Tel) 4122 791 2111
(Fax) 4122 791 0746
http://www.who.int
Technical assistance
Worldwide
Direct funding to programs addressing selected reproductive
health issues. Other
funds funneled through
intermediaries.
Engender Health
Reproductive health
440 Ninth Avenue,
services
New York, NY 10001
(Tel) 212 561 8000
(Fax) 212 561 8067
www.engenderhealth.org
Bangladesh, Bolivia,
Cambodia, Colombia,
Dominican Republic,
Ghana, Guatemala,
Guinea, India, Indonesia,
Jordan, Kazakstan, Kenya,
Kyrgyzstan, Malawi,
Mexico, Nepal, Mongolia,
Morocco, Nigeria, Pakistan,
Paraguay, Philippines,
Russia, Senegal, South
Africa, Tajikistan, Tanzania,
Turkmenistan, Turkey
Uganda, United States,
and Uzbekistan
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
requirements differ
depending on primary
funding source.
Academy for Educational Social marketing
Development (AED)
Health education
1825 Connecticut Avenue N.W. Washington,
DC 20009
(Tel) 202 884 8000
(Fax) 202 884 8400
http://www.aed.org
Worldwide
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
requirements differ
depending on primary
funding source.
Disease prevention
Research and training for
reproductive health
INTERMEDIARIES AND PARTNERS
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Annex 1
Name, Address,
Contact Person
Major Areas of
Involvement
| Funding Sources
Regional/Country
Preferences
CEDPA
1400 16th Street NW,
Suite 100 Washington,
D.C. 20036 USA
(Tel) 202 667 1142
(Fax) 202 332 4496
http://www.cedpa.org
Major Conditions/
Limits
Family planning and
Field offices are located in: Grants administered
through Promoting
reproductive health
Egypt, Ghana, India ,
Women in Development
Family life education
Mali, Nepal, Nigeria ,
(PROWID) Grants
Women’s participation in South Africa
Program. For application
empowerment
guidelines e-mail the
Youth services
PROWID Program
Assistant at
International advocacy
[email protected]
for women and girls
The Futures Group
1050 17th St. NW, Ste. 1000,
Washington, D.C. 20036
(Tel) 202 775 9680
(Fax) 202 775 9688
http://www.tfgi.com
Health
Social marketing
Research
Training
Evaluation
Policy analysis
Sub-Saharan Africa
IPPF
Regent’s College, Inner
Circle, Regent’s Park,
London NW 1 4NS, UK
(Tel) 44 171 487 7900
(Fax) 44 171 487 7950
http://www.ippf.org
Family planning
Worldwide
JSI
44 Farnsworth St., Boston, MA 02210-1211
(Tel) 617 482 9485
(Fax) 617 482 0617
http://www.jsi.com
Maternal, reproductive, Worldwide
child, and general health
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
Near East/Asia
requirements differ
Latin America/Caribbean
depending on primary
Europe/Newly
funding source.
Independent States
Sexual and reproductive
health
Human Services
Nutrition
Activities are undertaken
through member organizations.
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
requirements differ
depending on primary
funding source.
Organizational
development
MSH
165 Allandale Road,
Boston, MA 02130-3400
(Tel) 617 524 7799
(Fax) 617 524 2858
http://www.msh.org
Worldwide
Works collaboratively
with health care policy
makers, managers,
providers, and consumers to help close the gap
between knowledge and
action in the field of
public health
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
requirements differ
depending on primary
funding source.
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| Annexes
Name, Address,
Contact Person
Major Areas of
Involvement
Marie Stopes InternaReproductive health
tional (MSI)
153-157 Cleveland Street,
London WIP 5PG
(Tel) 0171 574 7400
(Fax) 0171 574 7417
http://www.mariestopes.
org.uk
Regional/Country
Preferences
Major Conditions/
Limits
Albania, Angola,
Bangladesh, Bolivia,
Cambodia, Ethiopia, Haiti,
Honduras, India, Kenya,
Madagascar, Malawi,
Mongolia, Mozambique,
Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines,
Romania, Sierra Leone,
South Africa, Sri Lanka,
Tanzania, Uganda, United
Kingdom, Vietnam,
Yemen, and Zimbabwe.
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
requirements differ
depending on primary
funding source.
PATH
4 Nickerson Street,
Seattle, WA 98109-1699
(Tel) 206 285 3500
(Fax) 206 285 6619
http://www.path.org
Child and maternal health Program sites in
Reproductive health and Bangkok, Jakarta,
Lombok, Nairobi, Seattle,
family planning
and Washington, DC.
Communicable diseases
PATH project sites are
Financing
located in Hanoi, Kiev,
Manila, and New Delhi.
PATH affiliate offices
include PATH Canada,
The Concept Foundation
in Thailand, Fondazione
PATH in Italy, and PATH
Philippines Foundation.
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
requirements differ
depending on primary
funding source.
Pathfinder
1990 M. Street, NW,
Suite 700, Washington,
DC 20036
(Tel) 202 822 0033
(Fax) 202 457 1466
http://www.pathfind.org
Reproductive health and Africa
family planning
Latin America
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
requirements differ
depending on primary
funding source.
PSI
1120 19th Street, NW,
Suite 600, Washington,
D.C. 20036
(Tel) 202 785 0073
http://www.psiwash.org
Child survival
Caribbean
Asia
Near East Asia
Family planning
AIDS prevention
Social marketing
Empowering women
Protecting youth
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Guide
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Worldwide
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
requirements differ
depending on primary
funding source.
Annex 1
Name, Address,
Contact Person
World Education
44 Farnsworth St.,
Boston, MA 02210-1211
(Tel) 617 482 9485
(Fax) 617 482 0617
http://www.worlded.org
Major Areas of
Involvement
Regional/Country
Preferences
Non-formal education for Africa
adults and children, with Asia
special emphasis on
Latin American
income generation, small United States
enterprise development,
literacy, education for the
workplace,
environmental education,
reproductive health,
maternal and child health,
HIV/AIDS education, and
refugee orientation.
| Funding Sources
Major Conditions/
Limits
Organization serves as
intermediary. Funding
requirements differ
depending on primary
funding source.
FOUNDATIONS
Aga Kahn Foundation
Health
1-3 Ave de la Paix CP
2369 1211 Geneva 2
Switzerland
(Tel) 22 736 0344
(Fax) 22 736 0948
http://www.hon.ch/Misc/
Sponsor/aga_khan.htm
Robert d’Arcy Shaw
General Manager
Bangladesh
Canada
India
Kenya
Pakistan
Portugal
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Uganda
United Kingdom
Funding for programs
only in countries where
the Foundation has
branch offices and local
professional staff to
monitor implementation.
Applications to be made
to the Foundation office
where the proposal
originates.
Baring Foundation
60 London Wall, London
EC2M 5TQ UK
http://www.
baringfoundation.org.uk
Toby John
President
Medicine
Sub-Saharan Africa
Social welfare
Central/South America
Contact organization for
funding guidelines
The Brush Foundation
3135 Euclid Ave, Suite 102
Cleveland, OH 44115
USA
(Tel) 216 881 5121
(Fax) 216 881 1834
Sally Burton
President
Family planning and
reproductive rights
Specifically in skills and
training for women and
displaced people
Freedom of choice
Adolescent sexuality and
pregnancy
Pilot family planning
programs
Developing countries
Application form not
required. Initial approach:
letter. No deadline. Board
meets May and October.
Grants: US$500US$32,500
Emergency funds
Seed money
Technical assistance
Conferences/seminars
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| Annexes
Name, Address,
Contact Person
Compton Foundation
545 Middlefield Rd, Suite
178, Menlo Park, CA
94025 USA
(Tel) 650 328 0101
(Fax) 650 328 0171
Edith Eddy
Executive Director
Major Areas of
Involvement
Population
Regional/Country
Preferences
Sub-Saharan Africa
Family planning
Central America
General/operating support Mexico
Program development
Matching Funds
Diana, Princess of Wales
Memorial Fund c/o The
Grants Committee, The
Diana, Princess of Wales
Memorial Fund, The
Country Hall, Westminster
Bridge Road, London SE1
7PB, UK
(Tel) 44 171 902 5500
(Fax) 44 171 902 5511
www.theworkcontinues.org/
Health
The Ford Foundation
320 East 43rd Street,
New York, NY 10017
USA
(Tel) 212 573 4920
(Fax) 212 599 4584
http://www.fordfound.org
Dr. Margaret Hempel
Program Officer
Reproductive health
France-LibertГ©s Fondation
22 rue de Milan 75009
Paris, France
(Tel) 331 5325 1040
(Fax) 331 4875 0878
Danielle Mitterand
President
AIDS
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Areas of conflict
AIDS
Major Conditions/
Limits
Application form not
required. Initial approach:
brief 3-4 page proposal
(not accepted by fax or email). Board meetings:
May, December. Final
notification: 6 months
Average grants: US$100US$40,000
Applications accepted
from the UK only.
Children
Leprosy
Homelessness
Arts/Education
Population
Program development
Technical assistance
Human rights
Eastern Europe
Apply through overseas
offices (contact the
Africa
Foundation for adLatin America
dresses). Application form
Asia
not required. Initial
approach: brief letter of
Middle East
inquiry, followed by
Southeast Asia
formal proposal. QuarOffices in: Bangladesh, terly board meetings.
Brazil, Chile, China,
Grants: field offices can
Egypt, India, Indonesia,
approve up to US$75,000.
Philippines, Mexico,
No support for programs
Namibia, Nigeria, Russian for which substantial
Federation, Thailand, and support from government
Vietnam.
or other sources is readily
available.
For application of funds
include benefits of
project, description,
history of conflict, budget, and timeline.
Annex 1
| Funding Sources
Name, Address,
Major Areas of
Contact Person
Involvement
Jephcott Charitable Trust Population control
Gappers Farm Membury
Health
Axminster Devon EX13
Quality of life
7TX; UK
Meg Harris
Secretary
Regional/Country
Preferences
Developing countries
Major Conditions/
Limits
Grants mainly for smaller
projects.
Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation
P.O. Box 23350 Seattle,
WA 98102 USA
(Tel) 206 709 3100
(Fax) 206 709 3180
www.gatesfoundation.org
Global health
Worldwide
Letter of Inquiry required
before proposal should
include: Objectives:
describe in detail the goals
of the project. Project
Information: provide
details about how the
organization plans to
achieve these goals, as well
as a brief timeline. Funding
Needs: provide a brief
statement of funding that
your organization requires
to achieve its objectives.
Organizational Information: provide information
on your organization,
including past projects,
previous grants, the
qualifications of individuals
involved in the project, a
list of board members, if
applicable, and citations to
any organizational website.
General Service
Foundation
411 East Main St, Suite
205 Aspen, Colorado
81611-2953 USA
(Tel) 970 920 6834
(Fax) 970 920 4578
http://
www.generalservice.org
Marcie Musser
Reproductive health
Caribbean
Family planning
Latin America
General/operating
support
Central America
Brief letter of inquiry may
be faxed; application
form required. Initial
approach: letter of
inquiry, not longer than 4
pages. Board meetings:
spring, autumn. Final
notification: 6 months.
Grants: up to US$50,000
Public health
Nutrition
Family planning
Reproductive health
Emergency funds
Program development
Seed money
Mexico
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| Annexes
Name, Address,
Contact Person
William and Flora
Hewlett Foundation
525 Middlefield Road
Suite 200 Menlo Park,
CA 94025-3495 USA
(Tel) 650 329 1070
(Fax) 650 329 9342
www.hewlett.org
Dr. Joe Speidel
Program Officer
John D. & Catherine T.
MacArthur Foundation
140 South Dearborn St
Suite 1100, Chicago IL
60603-5282 USA
(Tel) 312 726 8000
(Fax) 312 920 6258
http://www.macfdn.org
Major Areas of
Involvement
Regional/Country
Preferences
Developing countries
Major Conditions/
Limits
Grants made primarily to
US-based organizations,
but no geographic limits
on support for family
planning projects. Initial
approach: brief letter of
inquiry, followed by
formal proposal. Board
meets quarterly.
Population
Brazil
Improving women’s
reproductive health
India
Specific grantmaking
guidelines. Initial approach: letter of inquiry.
Population
Family planning
Mexico
Shared responsibility for Nigeria
sexual behavior, and
childbearing and rearing
Mackintosh Foundation Health
1 Bedford Square LonRefugees
don WC2B 3RA; UK S
(Tel) 44 20 7405 2000,
(Fax) 44 20 7405 9421
S. Dennehy
Appeals Secretary
Monument Trust
9 Red Lion Court London EC4A 3EB UK
(Tel) 44 20 7410 0330
(Fax) 44 20 7410 0332,
Michael Pattison
Health
Moriah Fund
1634 1st St, NW, Suite
1000 Washington, DC
20006 USA
(Tel) 202 783 8488
(Fax) 202 783 8499
Mary Ann Stein
President
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Less developed countries, Decisions made weekly
especially Southeast Asia for grants under 10,000
pounds. Grants over
10,000 pounds are
decided every May and
November.
Worldwide
Contact organization for
funding guidelines.
Reproductive health
Russia
Family planning
Ukraine
Application must include
proposal checklist obtained
from the foundation. Initial
approach: letter, no more
than 2 pages, received at
least 1 month prior to
deadline. Letters are
reviewed throughout the
year. Deadlines: 1 March,
1 August. Average grants:
US$25,000-US$75,000.
AIDS
General/operating support Latin America
Israel
Program development
Seed money
Technical assistance
Annex 1
Name, Address,
Contact Person
The Nippon Foundation,
Sasakawa Memorial
Health Fund
The Sasakawa Hall, 3-12-12
Mita, Minato-Ku, Tokyo
108, Japan
Tel: 03 3452 8281
Fax: 03 3452 8283
Major Areas of
Involvement
Human resource
development
Regional/Country
Preferences
| Funding Sources
Major Conditions/
Limits
Africa
Southeast Asia
Contact organization for
funding guidelines.
Application form not
required. Initial approach:
proposal or letter of
inquiry. Board meetings
quarterly. Grants:
US$1,000 minimum.
Application form required
for certain programs.
Initial approach: proposal
or letter of inquiry.
Quarterly board meetings. Grants: US$1,000
minimum. No support for
attempts to influence
legislation.
Health care
Food
International cultural
exchange
Poverty
Refugees
Environment
The David and Lucile
Packard Foundation
300 Second St.
Los Altos, CA 94022, USA
(Tel) 650 948 7658
(Fax) 650 948 1361
http://www.packfound.org
Sarah Clark, Ph.D.
Director Population
Program
Child health
Technical assistance
Ethiopia
India
Mexico
Myanmar
Nigeria
Pakistan
Philippines
Sudan
The Rockefeller
Foundation
420 Fifth Ave,
New York, NY 10018 USA
(Tel) 212 869 8500
(Fax) 212 764 3468
http://www.rockfound.org
Dr. Steven Sinding
Director, Population
Sciences
Health and population
Developing countries
Weyerhaeuser Family
Foundation Inc
332 Minnesota St,
Suite 2100
St Paul, MN 55101 USA
Nancy N Weyerhaeuser
President
Population control
Family planning
Reproductive rights
Adolescents
Population studies
Program development
Family planning
Reproductive health
Program development
Technical assistance
Family planning
Minorities
Program development
Seed money
No grants for operating
budgets or equipment
Application form required.
Initial approach: submit
written proposal from
January through April.
Program committee
meets annually during
early summer to review
proposals. Grants: average US$10,000US$20,000.
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| Annexes
Major Areas of
Involvement
Name, Address,
Contact Person
Regional/Country
Preferences
Major Conditions/
Limits
CORPORATE FOUNDATIONS
AT&T
1301 Ave. of the Americas, Room 3100,
New York, NY, 10019
(Tel) 800 428 8652
http://www.att.com/home
Innovative technology
solutions
Worldwide
Grants awarded primarily
to U.S.-based organizations, many who work
internationally.
Abbott Laboratories
Fund
Dept. 379, Bldg 14C, One
Abbott Park Road,
Abbott Park, Illinois 60064
(Tel) 708 937 7075
http://www.abbott.com/
community
Human health and
welfare
Abbott communities
worldwide
U.S.-based recipients. The
application should cover:
mission statement;
evidence of tax exempt
status; amount requested;
last audited financial
statement; budget information; list of corporation, foundations, and
other supporting organizations.
Information not available
on website
Contact foundation
directly for funding
guidelines.
Health care with focus
on infants and children
Worldwide
Contact foundation
directly for funding
guidelines.
General education
Schering-Plough commu- Proposal should include:
specific purpose of fundnities around the world
ing; background information of project; statement
of major projects; evidence
of tax exempt status; last
audited financial statement; budget; copy of
annual report. DeadlineJuly for Fall decision.
Elementary, secondary,
and higher education
Culture, the arts, and
civic activities
BPAmoco
International Headquarters of BPAmoco,
Britannic House, 1
Finsbury Circus, London
EC2M 7BA
(Tel) 44 171 496 4000,
(Fax) 44 171 496 4630
http://www.bp.com
Johnson & Johnson
One Johnson & Johnson
Plaza, New Brunswick,
NJ 08933
(Tel) 732 524 0400
http://
www.johnsonjohnson.com
Schering-Plough
One Giralda Farms,
Madison, NJ 07940-1010
(Tel) 973 822 7000
(Fax) 973 822 7048
http://www.ScheringPlough.com
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Health care
Culture and arts
Social and civic welfare
Annex 1
Name, Address,
Contact Person
Xerox Foundation
PO Box 1600/800 Long
Ridge Road, Stanford,
Connecticut 06904
(Tel) 650 813 6950
http://www.xerox.com
Mr. Joseph M. Calahan
Major Areas of
Involvement
Education
Regional/Country
Preferences
| Funding Sources
Major Conditions/
Limits
Worldwide
No specific application
form is used. Grants
awarded to tax-exempt
organizations. Grant
reviews take place
monthly. Grants approved
for 1-3 years in length.
Worldwide
Does not provide direct
funding, but works in
cooperation with organizations with similar
projects. Provides technical assistance.
Africa
Does not provide direct
funding, but works in
cooperation with organizations with similar
projects. Provides technical assistance.
Employability
Cultural Affairs
PRIVATE VOLUNTARY ORGANIZATIONS
CARE
151 Ellis Street NE
Atlanta, GA 30303-2439
(Tel) 1-800-422-7385
http://www.care.org
Education
Emergency relief
Food security
Water and sanitation
Economic development
Environment
Reproductive and
children’s health
PLAN International
Chobham House,
Christchurch Way,
Woking, Surrey GU21
1JG, United Kingdom,
(Tel) 44 1483 755155,
(Fax) 44 1483 756505
http://
www.plan-international.org
Childrens health and
education
Project HOPE
International Headquarters Health Sciences
Education Center
Millwood, VA 22646
(Tel) 540 837 2100
(Fax) 540 837 1813
http://www.projhope.org
Humanitarian assistance
Save the Children
54 Wilton Road
Westport, CT 06880
(Tel) 1 800 243 5075
http://
www.savethechildren.org
Health and nutrition
Environment
Economic stability
Asia
South America
Central America
Worldwide
Primary/preventive health
Contact PVO directly for
funding guidelines.
Medical education and
training
Health systems development
Health care policy
Education
Africa/North Africa
Contact PVO directly for
Latin America/Caribbean funding guidelines.
Economic opportunities
Middle East
Emergencies
Children in Crisis
Southeast Asia/Asia
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| Annexes
Name, Address,
Contact Person
Major Areas of
Involvement
Regional/Country
Preferences
Major Conditions/
Limits
VOLUNTARY SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS
Japan Overseas Coopera- Education
tion Volunteers (JOCV) Development
Japan International
Agriculture
Cooperative Agency,
Shinjuku mines Tower, 21-1 Yoyogi, Shibuya-ku,
Tokyo
(Tel) 03 5352 5311/5314
http://www.jica.go.jp
Peace Corps
1111 20th Street NW
Washington, D.C. 20526
(Tel) 1 800 424 8580
http://www.peacecorps.gov
Africa
Middle East
Contact organization for
funding guidelines
Asia
Oceania
Eastern Europe
Education
Africa
Business
The Pacific
Environment
Europe/Mediterranean
Agriculture
Central/East Asia
Contact organization for
funding guidelines
Health and Nutrition
Community development
Volunteer Service Overseas (VSO) 317 Putney
Bridge Road, London
SW15 2PN, UK
(Tel) 44 20 8 780 7200
(Fax) 44 20 8 780 7300
http://www.vso.org.uk
Asia
Africa
Contact organization for
funding guidelines
Pacific Islands
Eastern Europe
Russia
Note: This list is for guidance only. It includes major donors with the widest range of family planning/
reproductive health interests, who allocate large grants, and who do not have too many country or
regional restrictions. There are other donors with interests in particular countries or regions.
Most donors have:
•
•
•
•
Specific guidelines for proposals
Restrictions on the type of project they are willing to fund
Restrictions on the location of projects
Limits on the amount they will give to any one project/organization/country
In order not to waste your time and theirs, it is advisable to obtain as much information about the above
before submitting a proposal, and to target only those donors whose criteria your project can fulfill.
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Annex 2
Annex 2: Profile of Individual Client
| Profile of Individual
Client
Name of client
• Age
• Sex
• Ethnicity
• Occupation
• Education level
• Wealth/income
• Address/residence
• How far does this client live from your
service delivery point?
Use of reproductive health services
• What RH products and services is the
client currently using?
• How frequently and consistently does the
client use that method?
• Has the client switched methods?
• What benefits is the client seeking?
• Is the client satisfied with the products
and services being used?
• What aspect is the client least happy with?
Which facilities?
• Is this a current client/user of your facility?/
Has this client ever used your
facility?/ How long ago?
• Where (else) does the client go for RH
services?
• Why does the client go to this provider?
• Are they satisfied with this provider?
• What aspect is the client least happy with?
• Where does the client go for health services?
Perceptions of your RHO
• What sources of information does the
client use to identify a provider?
• How does the client perceive your RHO
in relation to other providers?
• What criteria does this client use to judge
the quality and appropriateness of the
products and services provided?
• What aspect of your RHO is this client
least happy with?
• What does this client like most about
your RHO?
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| Annexes
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Annex 3
| Profile of Organizational
Client
Annex 3: Profile of Organizational Client
Name of organization
Contact information
• Contact person
• Address
• Tel/Fax Number
• E-mail/Web site
Type
•
•
•
•
•
•
of organization
How big is the organization? (revenues/staff)
Is it commercial or not-for-profit?
In what industry sector is it?
What proportion of employees are female?
What is the average age of the workforce?
How far is it from your service delivery points?
Purchasing procedures
• What kind of bidding procedure is used to
secure outside services?
• What is its purchasing criteria (cost, convenience, etc.)?
• What sources of information are used to
identify a service provider?
Provision of health or reproductive health services for
its staff.
• Are any RH services provided?
• Are they provided in-house or purchased from
another provider?
• Do any staff or managers have any contact
with your facilities?
• How is your RHO perceived in relation to
alternative providers?
In-house reproductive health services for its own staff
• What facilities are on-site and what RH
services are provided?
Reproductive health services purchased outside
• What services does it get?
• How frequently and on what scale?
• Who are the providers?
• How long have they provided these services?
• Why were they chosen?
• What criteria are used to judge quality and
appropriateness?
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| Annexes
Name of organization
What other social services has the organization
purchased in the past for its employees?
• What type?
• What scale?
• Over what period?
• Who are the providers?
• Why was this provider chosen?
• What criteria are used to judge quality and
appropriateness?
What administrative services has the organization
purchased in the past for its employees?
• What type?
• What scale?
• Over what period?
• Who are the providers?
• Why was this provider chosen?
• What criteria are used to judge quality and
appropriateness?
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Annex 4
| Profile of Community
Supporter
Annex 4: Profile of Community Supporter
Name of community supporter
•
•
•
•
•
Age
Sex
Education
Religious background
Residence
Association with your organization
• Has he/she used your facility?
• Does he/she have friends or family who
have used your facility?
• Has he/she supported your RHO before?
• How? (cash, volunteer, in-kind)
Associations with other groups
• Does he/she support other NGOs in the
community?
• Which ones and why?
• What community associations or
groups does this supporter belong to?
Attitudes to your RHO and RH
• Does he/she know what your RHO
does?
• Does he/she approve of your RHO?
• What does he/she like about your
RHO?
• What does he/she not like about your
RHO?
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Annex 5
Annex 5: Profile of Business Sponsor
| Profile of Business
Sponsor
Name of business
Contact information
• Name of individual in your RHO who
has contact with the business
• Contact person in the business
• Address
• Tel/Fax Number
• E-mail/Web site
Annual report or any other documentation?
Their business
• What products or services does it provide?
• Are these of possible interest to your RHO?
Policy of giving
• Does the business have a policy of
corporate giving? What is it?
• What is its motivation for giving?
Type of support provided
• What type of support has it provided
before and to whom?
• Has it ever sponsored events or organizations?
• Does it have spending limitations?
• What level of support does it normally
provide?
Funding mechanism
• What is its procedure for reviewing
appeals for support? Are there any
deadlines/timetable for:
•Acceptance of proposal?
•Review of proposals?
•Decision-making?
•When funding becomes available?
Proposal requirements
• What type of application for support is
required?
• Requirements once support is provided
(e.g., reporting conditions)?
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Annex 6
| Profile of Donor
Annex 6: Profile of Donor
(Bilateral, Multilateral, Foundation, National and Local Government, Voluntary)
Donor name
Contact information
• Contact person
• Address
• Tel/Fax Number
• E-mail/Web site
Annual report/other documentation?
Programmatic priorities
• What are the (5) priority topics?
• Through what programs could RH activities be
supported (e.g., education, health, reproductive
health)?
Health priorities
• Within health, what are the (5) priorities?
• Any future projects in RH planned?
• Any interest in involving your RHO in these plans?
Geographic priorities
• Where in your country does this donor work?
• Are there preferences or limitations in terms of
where support is provided?
Type of support provided
• In-kind, grants, loans, endowments?
Funding limitations
• Maximum, minimum, average size
Funding mechanism
• Directly or through intermediary (who?)
• What is the donor’s role?
Funding cycle
What is the timetable and deadlines for:
• Acceptance of proposal
• Review of proposals
• Decision making
• When funding becomes available
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Donor name
Proposal requirements
• What type of application is required? (Letter of
intent, formal proposal, financial statements,
resumes of staff)
• What should be the content and size of the
proposal?
• What are the award criteria?
• Are there printed guidelines, applications forms,
copy of an example of a good proposal?
Requirements once support is provided
• Reporting or other conditions
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Annex 7
| Organizational
Self-assessment
Annex 7: Self-assessment of Organizational
Strengths and Weaknesses
Using the self-assessment tool
This annex is designed to help you systematically review your own organization’s systems and
operations. It consists of a series of questions and related statements that are scored from weak (1)
to strong (4). These highlight functional areas that have important implications for an
organization’s ability to adapt to its changing environment. They do not constitute an exhaustive
list of elements of an effectively managed organization, but the process of addressing these questions is a useful starting point for what should be a continuing process of organizational selfassessment and renewal.
• Discuss each statement with the other members of your group and reach a consensus on
the extent to which it describes a current strength or a weakness of your organization.
• Mark the scale next to the statement accordingly.
• Compute a series of summary scores as you complete the schedule of questions.
• Compute the average score for each question.
• Use the overall assessment scores for each question to compute the average score for each
of the three groups of questions—enter these in the last box, and note the key strengths and
weaknesses you have identified in the space provided.
Mission and leadership
Strength
Weakness
Is there a unity of purpose within the organization?
4
3
2
1
A mission statement clearly articulates a shared common purpose for the
organization.
4
3
2
1
Staff in all functions at all levels share a common set of values and beliefs that
they reflect in their organizational activities.
4
3
2
1
There is agreement about which clients are to be served.
4
3
2
1
There is a shared vision of what the organization is seeking to accomplish
and of the principal strategies to be used.
4
3
2
1
Overall assessment: Shared Vision and Mission
Strength
Weakness
Is there effective leadership?
4
3
2
1
Leadership is a shared responsibility among many staff at various levels.
4
3
2
1
Senior executive staff routinely and regularly reference the organization’s shared
values and mission in communicating with staff and with external stakeholders.
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Strength
Weakness
Is there effective leadership? (cont.)
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
Strength
Senior executive staff and managers routinely work to foster a work atmosphere that encourages and facilitates cooperative relationships among staff at
all levels.
The organization exercises a leadership role in its community, both as an advocate for its clients and as a reliable partner for other organizations sharing similar
or related goals.
Overall assessment: Organizational Leadership
Weakness
Is there a commitment to financial sustainability?
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
Opportunities for local alternatives to donor financing of the organization’s
services are pursued.
Donor funding is rising less rapidly than other sources of income.
Reliance on a few donors is decreasing.
Cost recovery (client fees) systems are in place or are being developed.
Overall assessment: Financial Sustainability
Management Systems and Operations
Strength
Weakness
Is there an established system of strategic and annual planning in place?
4
3
2
1
A three-to-five year strategic plan for achieving organizational objectives exists and
is reviewed annually and modified appropriately to reflect changing circumstances.
4
3
2
1
The strategic plan incorporates financing implications and needs of programmatic goals and objectives.
4
3
2
1
There is an annual planning process to set program goals and budget.
4
3
2
1
A written annual operating plan includes a timeline and assigned responsibilities.
4
3
2
1
Overall assessment: Strategic and Annual Planning
Strength
Weakness
Are there basic accounting and financial management systems in place to
support programmatic operations?
4
3
2
1
Accounting system (standards, policies, records, reporting) exists, functions,
and is supported with written procedures and guidelines.
4
3
2
1
Approved versus actual budget expenditures, revenues, and cash flows are reviewed
at least quarterly-–-variances are explained and budgets are revised as appropriate.
4
3
2
1
Managers and program supervisors receive financial information on expenses and
income, and use it to make program decisions for which they are accountable.
4
3
2
1
Accounting systems can segregate the costs of delivering each principal
product/service.
4
3
2
1
Overall assessment: Financial Management Systems
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Annex 7
| Organizational
Self-assessment
Strength
Weakness
Are there basic program management systems in place?
4
3
2
1
System for routinely collecting information about program operations is in place
(re: product/service mix, utilization levels and patterns, client profiles, etc.).
4
3
2
1
Operations are guided by an implementation plan against which performance
is regularly monitored and evaluated.
4
3
2
1
Service quality guidelines are in place and routinely used by staff to monitor
operations.
4
3
2
1
Unit cost per benefit/client can be calculated for each main service.
4
3
2
1
Overall assessment: Program Management
Strength
Weakness
Is there a marketing function that is staffed and operational?
4
3
2
1
Information on the needs and wants of target clients or beneficiaries is collected or
regularly updated, and periodically reviewed in relation to the product/services
offered.
4
3
2
1
Client satisfaction and needs are regularly assessed.
4
3
2
1
Information is regularly collected on availability and prices of services offered
by actual or potential competitors.
4
3
2
1
Marketing plan exists and responsibility for its implementation is assigned to
specific individuals.
4
3
2
1
Overall assessment: Marketing
Strength
Weakness
Are programs operated efficiently?
4
3
2
1
Client volume is steady or increasing over time.
4
3
2
1
Operating costs compare favorably to those of other organizations with similar
services and clients.
4
3
2
1
Resources are shared within a collaborative network of other organizations
providing similar or related products and services to intended clients and
beneficiary communities.
4
3
2
1
Overall assessment: Program Efficiency
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Strength
Weakness
Is there a role for community participation in organizational operations?
4
3
2
1
Information about current or planned services is shared with intended
beneficiary communities.
4
3
2
1
Consultative mechanisms facilitate community input to decision-making.
4
3
2
1
Community members sit on the organization’s governing body (e.g., board of
directors or trustees).
4
3
2
1
Overall assessment: Community Participation
Structure and Staffing
Strength
Weakness
Are basic personnel systems in place and operational?
4
3
2
1
Internal regulations governing staff rights and obligations (e.g., working hours,
entitlements, discipline, codes of conduct, etc.) exist, function, and are supported with written procedures and guidelines.
4
3
2
1
Staff are encouraged to make suggestions and to share ideas to improve
organizational performance.
4
3
2
1
Staff are trained to facilitate backup coverage of multiple functions.
4
3
2
1
Staff are given opportunities for personal professional growth.
4
3
2
1
Productivity indicators exist and are used to evaluate field staff and supervisor
performance on a regular basis.
4
3
2
1
Overall assessment: Personnel Systems
Strength
Weakness
4
3
2
1
There are clear lines of authority and responsibility within the organization, and
reporting relationships are well defined.
4
3
2
1
The decision-making process includes routine follow-up activities to ensure
timely and effective action once decisions are made.
4
3
2
1
Communication lines are clear and facilitate the flow of information upwards to
top leadership as well as downwards to field managers and their staff.
4
3
2
1
Overall assessment: Communication Structures
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Does the organizational structure facilitate effective communication and
decision-making?
Annex 7
| Organizational
Self-assessment
Overall Assessment
Strength
Weakness
Mission and Leadership
4
2
Areas of strength
3
1
Areas for improvement
Strength
Weakness
4
2
3
1
Management Systems and Operations
Areas of strength
Areas for improvement
Strength
Weakness
Structure and Staffing
4
2
Areas of strength
3
1
Areas for improvement
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Annex 8
| Analysis of Income Case
Annex 8: Analysis of Income—A Case Study
Type of
Resource
P u r pose
Amount per year
Sour ce
1
2
3
Lo a n
Construction
World Bank
5 0 0 ,0 0 0
Lo a n
Operating Exp.
USAID
3 0 0 ,0 0 0
2 0 0 ,0 0 0
100,000
Fees
General Support
C lie n t s
100,000
150,000
175,000
Grant
Technical Asst.
USAID/SEATS
Grant
C o m m o d it ie s
UNFPA
Grant
Adolescents
NGO
In -K in d
Building Const.
C o m m u n it y
and Maintenance Volunteers
Total
4
Not necessar y to repeat
Must replace subsidy
2 0 0 ,0 0 0 D e p e n d s o n d e m a n d a n d t h e
ability to pay
5 0 ,0 0 0
150,000
10,000
Comments and Plans for
C o n tin u in g
Project ending
120,000
100,000
5 0 ,0 0 0
8 0 ,0 0 0
5 ,0 0 0
5 ,0 0 0
1,110,000 525,000
4 6 0 ,0 0 0
Need to find additional sources
5 0 ,0 0 0 H o p e fu ll y b e c o m e s e lfsustaining
5 ,0 0 0 H o p e fu ll y c o m m u n it y w ill
continue to provide building
maintenance
2 5 5 ,0 0 0
* All amounts in U.S. dollars
This table and graph summarize features of the income of an organization that is running a community clinic. The steep fall in income from Year 1 to Year 2 is not as alarming as it might first
appear to be. Most of this decrease is accounted for by the end of the World Bank loan which
covered one-time building, construction, and equipment costs, outlays which do not need to be
repeated in the short term.
However, putting that investment to one side, the income intended for routine management is
also falling so that by Year 4 it is at only half its original level. This is cause for concern. The income from fees is fairly steady but donor funding tapers off quite quickly. Donors are usually
unwilling to support an organization indefinitely, and expect organizations to eventually fend for
themselves.
Knowing all this ahead of time gives the organization the chance to develop long-term plans to
secure adequate financing.
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Annex 9
| Identifying a Fee
Annex 9: Identifying a Suitable Fee for Your
Goods and Services
Make a list of the goods and services you are considering charging (or charging more) for:
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
For each one, fill in a table such as that below:
• Identify main alternative providers or sources and the fee charged by them.
• Describe any difference between your product (or service) and theirs in terms of clients
served or quality.
• Note the fee, if any, that you currently charge.
• Consider what might be a reasonable fee to charge given the information you have now
collected.
NAME of the
GOOD or SERVICE
Name of other
providers
Proposed fee:
The fee you
currently charge
The fee
they charge
Differences/similarities between you and them in:
Clients served
Quality of product/service
Why this amount:
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Annex 10
| Identifying Services for
Organizational Clients
Annex 10: Identifying Program-related Goods and
Services to Offer Organizational Clients
Make a list of the goods and services that you offer individual clients or provide internally to
support your own program:
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
For each one, fill in a table such as that below:
• Identify any other organizations that offer these goods or services.
• Identify organizations that purchase their products/services and get opinions from
them concerning the nature/quality of these.
• Describe any difference in quality between these products/services and the ones you
could offer.
• Note the cost to you of making that product or service available to another organization.
• Consider what might be a reasonable fee to charge given the information you now have.
NAME of the
GOOD or SERVICE
Name of other
providers
Proposed fee:
The cost of making it available
to another organization
The fee
Differences and similarities between
they charge you and them in terms of the nature
and quality of the product or service
Organizations that
purchase their
products/services
Why this amount:
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Annex 11
| Special Events
Checklist
Annex 11: Special Events Checklist—Twelve Week
Planning Guide
Item
Person
Responsible
Task
Completed?
Comments
Preliminary steps
Coordinator selected
Committee members recruited
Theme established
Date set
Location selected
Price determined
Committees determined
Publicity
Tickets
Entertainment
Business sponsorship
Set-up and clean-up
Week 1
Location confirmed in writing
Tickets and posters designed
Week 2
Tickets and posters to printer
Sponsorship list developed
Ticket strategy designed
Public relations planned
Week 3
Finalize sponsorship list
Week 4
Tickets and posters printed
Status meeting with committees
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Item
Week 5
Article placed in newspaper, etc.
Week 6
Distribute posters
Begin to sell tickets
Sell tickets to businesses
Week 7
Promote and sell tickets
Second article placed in paper
Week 8
Confirm all volunteers for event
Continue ticket sales
Third article placed in paper
Weeks 9-10
Aggressive ticket sales
Increase advertising activity
Weeks 11-12
Facility, food, and entertainment
checked, rechecked, and
checked again!
After the event
Thank the volunteers, the staff,
and the Board
Thank the facility managers
Thank all donors
Send a letter to the newspaper
thanking all the attendees
Get feedback from the committee members
Evaluate the event
(Adapted from Leslie Brody, Effective Fund Raising,, 1994)
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Person
Responsible
Completed?
Comments
Annex 12
| Proposal Checklist
Annex 12: Checklist for Reviewing Proposals
to Donors
Summary: Clearly and concisely summarizes the request
! Appears at the beginning of the proposal
! Identifies the applicant
! Includes at least one sentence on credibility
! Includes at least one sentence describing the problem
! Includes at least one sentence relating to the project objectives
! Includes at least one sentence on methods
! Includes total cost, funds already obtained, and the outstanding amount required
! Is brief, clear, and interesting
Introduction: Describes the applicant agency and its qualifications for funding (credibility)
! Clearly identifies the source of the proposal
! Describes the applicant agency’s purposes and goals
! Describes the applicant agency’s programs and activities
! Describes the applicant agency’s previous/current clients
! Provides evidence of the applicant’s accomplishments
! Is brief, interesting, and free of jargon
Problem statement/Needs assessment: Documents the needs to be met or problems to be addressed
by the proposed activities and/or funds
! Relates to the purposes and goals of the applicant agency
! Is of reasonable dimensions (not trying to solve all the world’s problems)
! Is supported by evidence and/or statements from authorities
! Is stated in terms of client’s needs---not the applicant’s needs
! Is not stated in terms of “the lack of a program”
! Does not make unsupported assumptions
! Is free of jargon, is as brief as possible, but makes a convincing case
Goals and objectives: Describes outcomes of the project in measurable terms
! At least one objective for each problem which is to be addressed by the project
! The objectives describe the results---not how the results will be achieved
! Describes clearly who will benefit from the project
! States the time by which the objectives will be achieved
! The objectives are measurable
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Methods: Describes the activities to be carried out to achieve the objectives
! Flows naturally from the problems and objectives
! Clearly describes the project activities
! States reasons for the selection of strategies and activities
! Describes the sequence of activities
! States who will be responsible for which activities
! Presents a reasonable scope of activities that can be carried out within the timeframe and
resources of the project
Monitoring and evaluation: Includes a plan for monitoring progress in project implementation
and for evaluation of project effectiveness
! Describes the indicators that will assist in monitoring and evaluating project accomplishments
! Presents a plan for evaluating project achievements
! States who will be responsible for monitoring project implementation
! States who will be responsible for project evaluation
! Explains any instruments or questionnaires to be used
! States when formal monitoring and evaluation will be carried out
Sustainability: Contains a plan for continuation of project activities beyond the life of the current
project
! Presents a specific plan to obtain future funding if program will require continued financial
support
! Describes how the project will seek to develop self-reliance for continuation of project
activities beyond the project period
Budget: Identifies total project costs, existing source of funding, and net costs requested
! Supports information given in the description of the project
! Is sufficiently detailed to identify all calculations and unit costs
! Does not include any unexplained amounts
! Includes all items to be charged to the project
! Includes all items to be paid by other sources
! Is reasonable and sufficient to perform the tasks described
(Sour
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Annex 13
Annex 13: Proposal Budget Worksheet
Description inputs
Requested amount
RHO’s share
Partner’s share
| Proposal Budget
Worksheet
Project total
Personnel
Fringe Benefits
Materials
Supplies
Equipment
Construction/renovation
Travel
Contractual services
Training
Other
Subtotal
Indirect costs ____ percent
TOTALS
(Adapted from Leslie Brody, Effective Fund Raising,, 1994)
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Annex 14
| Budget Justification
Annex 14: Budget Justification
Budget item
Why is it needed?
Which goal(s) and objective(s) does it
support?
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John Snow, Inc.
44 Farnsworth Street
Boston, MA 02111-1211
U.S.A.
Tel. (617) 482-9485
Fax (617) 482-0617
Internet: www.jsi.com
Social Sectors Development Strategies, Inc.
464 Shawmut Avenue
Boston, MA 02118
U.S.A.
Tel. (617) 421-9644
Fax (617) 421-9046
SEATS
Family Planning Service Expansion
and Technical Support (SEATS II) Project
John Snow. Inc.
1616 North Fort Myer Drive
Arlington, VA 22209
U.S.A.
Tel. (703) 528-7474
Fax (703) 528-7480
Internet: www.seats.jsi.com