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Contents
List of Tables
vi
Acknowledgements
vii
List of Abbreviations
viii
Introduction
1
1 The Italian State, the Catholic Church and Women
8
2 The Cultural, Political and Ideological Context of
Femminismo Cristiano
44
3 Femminismo Cristiano
64
4 The Radicalization of Femminismo Cristiano in Elisa Salerno
113
5 The Conservative Catholic Women’s Movements
151
Conclusion
215
Notes
219
Select Bibliography
265
Index
268
v
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Introduction
In the early 1900s Italy was a battlefield of diverse intellectual, cultural
and political forces, with different ideologies competing for hegemony.
This was the context in which the Catholic Church, for the first time in
its history, appealed directly to women for help in defending Catholic
values in society. As a result, various Catholic women’s associations
came into being, with the aim of assisting the Church in its mission
by disseminating religious propaganda and alleviating serious social
problems. By this time, Italy had already experienced the emergence
of the first secular feminist movements, which had their origins in the
Enlightenment, the French Revolution, the intellectual currents of the
nineteenth century and socialist doctrine. Two important national feminist organizations, the Federazione romana and the Milan-based Unione
femminile, had come into existence in 1899, with the objective of
pursuing philanthropic and women’s rights issues.1
Relatively little is known outside Italy about the rise and development of early Italian women’s movements, either Catholic or secular.
Yet Italy was in the forefront of writing on women’s issues. In fact, the
seminal English work The Subjection of Women (1869), by the philosopher and women’s rights advocate John Stuart Mill, was preceded by
two Italian publications on the woman question. The first, Woman
and Science (1861), was written by the Neapolitan politician Salvatore
Morelli (1824–1880),2 while the author of the second, Woman and
Her Social Relationships (1864), was a feisty young Lombard woman,
Anna Maria Mozzoni (1837–1920).3 Published in Italian, these books
failed to gain attention abroad. Nevertheless, in their own country,
not only Mozzoni but also several other middle-class women became
famous – or infamous – for their feminist demands and campaigns. This
group of early activists includes Maria Montessori (1870–1952), better
1
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Catholic Women’s Movements in Liberal and Fascist Italy
remembered for her achievements as an educator, as well as the flamboyant Sibilla Aleramo (1876–1960), who embraced feminism not only
in her writings but also in her personal life, being the quintessential
embodiment of the adventurous and self-reliant donna nuova. Another
notable figure was the fascinating Russian-born socialist Anna Kuliscioff
(1854–1925), who through her intellect and personal charisma left an
indelible mark on early Italian feminism. Many others made a reputation as indefatigable fighters for women’s suffrage; the most notable
among them was Ersilia Majno Bronzini (1859–1933), also known as
the director of a rehabilitation home for “fallen” girls and for girls “at
risk”, the Asilo Mariuccia, which was the first of its kind in Europe.4
While secular women’s movements have received wide attention,
women’s organizations within the Catholic system in Italy during the
Liberal and Fascist periods have not generated the same level of interest.
Yet here, too, one comes across women of great determination, dedication and talent, such as the young school teacher Adelaide Coari
(1881–1966). In a period when women were not expected to travel
unaccompanied, let alone assume any kind of public role, Coari would
not hesitate to hire a coach to go to late-night meetings to unionize women or to organize factory strikes.5 Another Catholic leader,
Armida Barelli (1882–1952), made a brilliant career as an organizer
of young Catholic women and girls. No less memorable are Countess
Elena da Persico (1869–1948), the editor of the first Catholic women’s
journal, L’Azione muliebre, and Princess Cristina Giustiniani Bandini
(1866–1959), the founder of the Unione fra le donne cattoliche d’Italia,
for the vital role they played in the conservative Catholic women’s
movements. The poetess Luisa Anzoletti (1863–1925) and the feminist
journalist Antonietta Giacomelli (1857–1949), though less well known,
were in their time significant participants in feminist debate. So was the
belligerent Vicenza feminist Elisa Salerno (1873–1957), who, in seeking
to ameliorate women’s condition and status, confronted the Church on
various social and doctrinal issues.
The earliest Catholic women’s movement, femminismo cristiano, was
promoted by progressive members of the clergy who recognized the vital
role which women could play in maintaining the Catholic presence in
Italian society after Unification. Until then, the involvement of Catholic
women in Church-sponsored activities had typically been of a charitable
nature. They were now called on to operate in an entirely new environment, to deal with various religious, social and class issues which had
emerged in the wake of rapid industrialization, urbanization and migration. Often in rivalry with socialist and other leftist agitators, they would
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3
be faced with problems stemming from abject working conditions, long
working hours, low rates of pay and social dislocations. Simultaneously, the Italian Catholic women’s movement had to take cognizance
of developments in the wider world. With the campaign for women’s
emancipation gaining momentum in Europe and the United States, the
question of women’s civil and political rights became topical also in
Italy. There, too, men and women had to take a stand on the question of
women’s suffrage, which was being debated with regard to both national
and local elections. As a consequence, the Catholic women’s movement
had to come to terms with the clash between the patriarchal religious
values underpinning Catholic attitudes and the claims for equal rights
which were requisite for women’s entry into modern society.
Among Italian Catholic women, women’s suffrage and women’s rights
in general would prove deeply divisive. In fact, it is not possible to
speak of a single, continuous Catholic women’s movement, since the
earliest form, femminismo cristiano, differed in its goals from the subsequent, more conservative movements, the Unione fra le donne cattoliche
d’Italia and the Gioventù femminile cattolica italiana, precisely on these
issues. This discontinuity in orientation resulted from the firm line
adopted by the ecclesiastical hierarchy against women’s rights while following the dual policy of conditioning women to the acceptance of
traditional Catholic values and mobilizing them in the defence of the
Church. Moreover, the fragmentation of the Catholic women’s movement was the inevitable outcome also of the differences in their members’ social status and political alignment. The exponents of femminismo
cristiano came from humble social backgrounds and often personally
shared the concerns of their working-class constituency, while the
Unione donne and the Gioventù femminile were led by women from the
aristocracy or the upper middle class, and necessarily reflected the social,
political and cultural attitudes of these classes on a range of issues.
Since the concept of the family and the role of woman as mother
and educator were central to Catholic teachings, the Church could not
countenance developments alienating women from what it perceived to
be their primary function. For this reason, the Church leaders, including the popes Pius X, Benedict XV and Pius XI, took a close interest in
the Catholic women’s movements, sanctioning and controlling them in
order to hold feminism at bay. This did not, however, predicate a uniform approach to the woman question throughout the clergy, whose
responses ranged from outright rejection of feminism to forming an
integral part of the Catholic feminist movement. Antipathy towards
liberal and socialist ideologies was the common starting point for the
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Catholic Women’s Movements in Liberal and Fascist Italy
clergy and Catholic feminists, although the latter soon alienated, in
particular, the upper echelons of the Catholic hierarchy through their
openness to secular feminism. Inseparably linked to official attitudes
is the question of how appropriate were the precepts of Catholic doctrine in defining women’s status and role in the rapidly modernizing
environment of early twentieth-century Italy, and how such precepts
affected women’s self-perception and social aspirations. Alone the strategy of enlisting women’s help in re-Christianizing society meant that
the Church had to rethink the roles it assigned to women, both lay
and religious. As for the Catholic women’s movements, the manner in
which they pitched their appeal to women from diverse social and cultural backgrounds, and the manner in which they handled potentially
divisive gender and class-related issues is worth looking into, as is also
their role in the wider national political context. Because of their proximity to the Church hierarchy, the question arises whether the women
leaders were true “protagonists” setting their own agendas or whether
they simply took their cue from the clergy. Furthermore, what were the
reasons for the tremendous success of the Catholic women’s organizations in the Fascist period, when other non-Fascist women’s movements
were no longer allowed to function?
While a number of literary contributions exist on prominent members
of the Catholic women’s movements, such as Adelaide Coari, Elena da
Persico, Elisa Salerno and Armida Barelli, there are few comprehensive
works on the movements themselves. The earliest scholarly publication
on femminismo cristiano is Paola Gaiotti de Biase’s pioneering work Le
origini del movimento cattolico femminile (1963), which shows the young
Catholic feminists at the centre of the intricate relationship between
the Church and the modern world, conscious of the demands of their
social apostolate as they try to reconcile their faith with yearnings for
emancipation.6 Francesco Maria Cecchini views femminismo cristiano as
an integral part of the early Christian democratic movement, and its
suppression as the inevitable outcome of the disbandment of the parent
movement.7 Lucetta Scaraffia perceives the post-Unification relationship
between the Church and Catholic women as an alliance of two losers –
an alliance seemingly offering an opportunity for the reconquest of
secular society. Propelled into action by modern clerics, Catholic feminists were simultaneously restricted in their role by their obligatory
obedience to the Church. The new model of womanhood that they
came to represent was therefore not an opponent of the male power
of the Church hierarchy but rather its expression and instrument.8
Isabella Pera compares the attitudes of two women leaders, Adelaide
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Coari and Elena da Persico, towards the religious authority,9 and elucidates the material role which the young priest Carlo Grugni played in
the evolution of femminismo cristiano.10
Studies of the conservative Catholic women’s associations throw light
on their popularity, proliferation and longevity in terms of their ability
to satisfy women’s desire for companionship, solidarity, shared religious experience and public roles in welfare and social organization, as
well as their proximity to the Church hierarchy, their inclusive organization concept, their readiness to cooperate with Fascist institutions
and their novel methods of recruitment. Paola Di Cori attributes the
success of the conservative women’s movements to the intrinsic solidarity among women, based on a common awareness of the oppression
of their sex, and to the skilful manner in which the women’s sentiments were manipulated by their leaders.11 Michela De Giorgio and
Paola Di Cori find that, in addition to their willingness to cater to
all categories of women, the Catholic women’s movements prospered
due to the constant interest expressed by the Vatican in nurturing and
supporting them and to the enormous commitment shown by the professors of the Università cattolica and the group around Armida Barelli.12
According to Cecilia Dau Novelli, the Unione donne was more widely
accepted than the contemporary feminist movements because it was
better attuned to the mindset of the average housewife. It played a
major positive role in bringing women out of their social isolation and
their world of fantasies by introducing them to the realm of rationality,
judgement and study.13 In Cattoliche durante il fascismo, focusing on the
Veneto region during Fascism and the early post-World War II period,
Liviana Gazzetta demonstrates the growing cooperation of the Catholic
women’s organizations with the Fascist welfare network, which Catholic
women leaders regarded as a concrete opportunity to mould institutions
in a Christian spirit.14 In the case of Gioventù femminile, Luciano Caimi
speaks of its “apostolic protagonism”15 and Lucetta Scaraffia of its “militant apostolate” and “strikingly original initiatives” 16 to explain the
phenomenal growth of this movement.
By comparison, apart from the already identified topics, the present
study shows the instrumentality of the women’s movements for the
Catholic Church hierarchy – a topic briefly touched on by Scaraffia – in
ensuring the Church’s social, political and religious presence in Italian
society amid controversies with the Liberal and Fascist states and leftwing political elements, all of which the Church perceived as adversaries
on political and ideological grounds. Thus, Catholic women became
ardent paladins on the Church’s crusades against the Liberal State, most
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Catholic Women’s Movements in Liberal and Fascist Italy
notably against the legalization of divorce. On another front their organizations fought socialism, so that frequently the principal motive for
Catholic women’s organizations to set up unions and patronages was to
pre-empt socialist initiatives in unionizing female labour, while the very
reason for the founding of the Gioventù femminile was to prevent the
spread of socialism among young women. Rivalries between the Fascists and the Catholics over the recruitment of Italian youth into their
respective organizations – with the demonstrable success of the Gioventù
femminile in this regard – led in 1931 to a serious conflict between the
Vatican and the Fascist regime.
There is yet another level at which the instrumentality of the women’s
organizations was manifest. This involved using Catholic women,
through their associations and through appeals to their faith and religious sensibilities, to undermine the advocacy of secular feminist organizations and thus to oppose measures intended to bring about equal
rights in marriage, the workplace and society. After all, the very raison d’être of founding the Unione donne was to mobilize women against
feminism. One also has to bear in mind that, as soon as early Catholic
feminists ceased to be compliant instruments of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, their movement was suppressed. In the long run, the Church’s
pursuit of disenfranchisement of women denied them the opportunity
of developing a sense of political awareness and discernment, and led to
their willing cooperation with the Fascist regime.
The book is thematically arranged into five chapters, and within each
chapter the narrative is largely chronological, although overviews of
particular topics are included. Relying mostly on secondary sources,
the first two chapters set the contemporary context. Chapter 1 outlines the political, social, economic and juridical environment, first in
Liberal and Fascist Italy in general, and then more specifically with
regard to women, while Chapter 2 focuses on the cultural, political and
ideological elements conducive to the emergence, development and disintegration of Catholic feminism. The remaining three chapters mostly
draw on material from primary sources, such as the correspondence
and published works by the personalities discussed, papal encyclicals
and articles in contemporary periodicals, especially those produced by
women themselves. Chapter 3 follows the evolution of Catholic feminism from the early Christian democratic movement, highlighting the
impetus given to it by two women’s periodicals, L’Azione muliebre and
Pensiero e azione, and exploring the reasons for its suppression. Also
discussed is the Christian democratic leader Romolo Murri’s approach
to the woman question as well as the role he envisaged for women
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in his political movement. Chapter 4 examines the radicalization of
femminismo cristiano in Elisa Salerno’s work, concentrating on her
journalism, her doctrinal studies and her relations with the Catholic
women’s movement and with the ecclesiastical and secular authorities. Chapter 5 examines the origin, development and programme of
the conservative Catholic women’s movements, the reasons for their
widespread appeal and their capacity for mobilizing Catholic women
on a mission to re-Christianize society, ultimately against the backdrop
of Fascist Italy. In essence, the intention of this study is to show the fundamental role which the Catholic women’s movements played in Italian
society from the early 1900s to the mid-1930s.
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1
The Italian State, the Catholic
Church and Women
When Italy underwent immense social, economic and political transformations in the early part of the twentieth century, the material rewards
of the modernization process were unevenly distributed, just as the unification of Italy previously had brought very few benefits, if any, to
the majority of the population. The one group which, in particular,
saw no improvement to its condition was women, as they continued
to be discriminated against by limited access to education and employment, unequal treatment under the law and disenfranchisement. The
Catholic Church, the only truly unifying element of the country at
the time of Unification, had become a bitter enemy of the Italian State
after losing its temporal power. In these circumstances, women and their
organizations proved crucial to the Church in dealing with its perceived
adversaries: the State, the political left and modern society. To appreciate fully the social and political role which the Catholic women’s
movements played in this period, it is necessary to examine their contemporary context. With this objective, Section I explores the broad
setting of post-Unification Italy and the troubled path of Church–State
relations, and Section II looks more specifically at women’s position in
Italian society from the Risorgimento to World War II.
Section I: The Italian State and the Catholic Church
The Italian State
Modern Italy has its roots in the nineteenth-century Risorgimento,
which aimed at liberating Italy from foreign domination and unifying
the various political entities on the Italian peninsula under one government. Unification was preceded by decades of either overt or clandestine
revolutionary activity against the Austrians in the north, the Bourbon
8
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The Italian State, the Catholic Church and Women 9
dynasty in the south and the administrative system of the Papal States.
It involved three wars of independence against Austria (in 1848–1849,
1859 and 1866) under the political and military leadership of Piedmont,
and the expedition of Giuseppe Garibaldi and his “Thousand” to Sicily
in 1860. A united kingdom, headed by the Piedmontese monarch, was
formally established in March 1861. The process of Unification continued with the acquisition of the Veneto in 1866 and Rome in 1870, and
with further territorial additions, including Alto-Adige, Trentino, Trieste
and Istria, after World War I. The loss of the pope’s temporal power
through the annexation of Rome and the Papal States created among
the higher echelons of the Church an aura of almost visceral animosity
towards the State.
None of the heroes of the Risorgimento – neither its theoretical
champion, Giuseppe Mazzini, nor its revolutionary activist, Giuseppe
Garibaldi, nor its political tactician, Count Camillo Benso di Cavour –
envisaged the Catholic Church as playing an important part in a unified Italy. The principal forces behind the thrust for Unification had
been the members of the modernizing agricultural and industrial bourgeoisie and aristocracy in the north, who saw in the existence of trade
barriers between the states on the peninsula a hindrance to further
economic development.1 This new ruling élite of unified Italy failed
to address, through the subsequent Liberal governments, the inherent
social and economic problems of the country. Its administration was
hampered by the absence of a common language, and communication
was rendered difficult by the high illiteracy rate. Although schooling
was made compulsory, the law was not strictly enforced, so illiteracy and dialects persisted to underline class and regional differences.2
For the most part, the country was economically backward, possessing relatively few natural resources, and for the majority of people the
only route to escape from poverty, or to improve their station in life,
was by way of emigration. New infrastructure and industrial projects
tended to benefit northerners while, with the removal of internal tariffs, the southern markets were suddenly flooded with imports, to the
detriment of local industry. For many southerners, crippled by new
heavy taxes, the Risorgimento represented another form of colonization
rather than deliverance from foreign domination. Owing to the lack of
resources and foresight, the central government failed to commit sufficient funds for the maintenance of law and order in the south, which in
turn led to brigandage and the emergence of the criminal mafia organization. The Risorgimento would not bring emancipation to Italian
women, who, on the contrary, “in Lombardy, Venetia, and Tuscany
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Catholic Women’s Movements in Liberal and Fascist Italy
lost political rights and in some instances private authority previously
exercised”.3
Nineteenth-century liberalism and Catholicism embodied different
ideologies, and these differences played no small part in the evolution
of Church–State relations after Unification. As a political doctrine, liberalism emphasizes the importance of limited government, while as a
philosophy of life it calls for individual freedom, imagination and selffulfilment. The notions of liberalism include the idea of the State’s
positive role in ensuring all citizens equal protection under the law,
equal opportunity to exercise the privileges of citizenship and to participate fully in national life, regardless of race, religion or sex. While
nineteenth-century theorists regarded the advance of democracy as
inevitable, and even desirable, they at the same time dreaded that the
extension of democratic rights to all classes of people would lead to the
tyranny of the masses and the trampling on the rights of the minorities.4
Yet in practice the opposite proved to be the case: “liberal” principles
continued to be applied selectively by the liberal governments, excluding wide sections of the population from their covenant, as was the case
in Italy with the sole recognition of men as “citizens” and with the treatment of women as minors under their family’s or husband’s tutelage.
The interests of the propertied classes were fiercely protected, which
allowed the concentration of economic wealth in the hands of a relatively small number of citizens, while leaving unresolved, for instance,
the problem of the landless peasantry in southern Italy. Full participation in national life was out of the question for most people, male or
female, under a system which kept them disenfranchised.
The nineteenth- and early twentieth-century papacies opposed liberalism because they saw it as having negative effects on society for
religious, ethical, political and economic reasons. Such views are elaborated by, for instance, “Antonietta” in the Catholic women’s magazine
L’Azione muliebre in March 1901. As regards religion, the harmful repercussions included the separation of State from Church and the secularization of schools, the family and society. Ethically, the objectionable
characteristics of liberalism included the independence of reason, the
laws and government, and morals without God. Politically, liberalism
elevated popular sovereignty to a divine role, since it viewed social
power as deriving from the people, to be exercised in its name. Economically, the principle of laissez-faire had legitimized the prevalence
of ever-increasing competition, monopoly, usury and social injustice.
Liberalism had not only given rise to capitalism but had also led to the
enslavement of the proletariat. Moreover, with the disappearance of the
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Index
Note: The letters ‘n’ following locators refer to notes.
abortion, 186, 208, 209
accentramento nel decentramento,
160, 213
Adam, 54, 119, 121
adiutorium simile sibi, 69, 122
Adua, battle of, 11
adultery, 26, 28, 80, 123
Adveniat regnum tuum, 110
Aeterni patris, see encyclicals, papal
Agnes, St, 190, 195
Agostini, Delia, 195
agriculture, 12, 36, 37–8, 39, 60,
170, 208
Albertario, Davide, 46
alcoholism, 180
Aleramo, Sibilla, 2, 62, 207, 231n,
263n
Alleanza nazionale (National
Alliance), 169
Almanacco della Lega democratica
nazionale, 109
Almanacco-manuale democratico
cristiano, 109
altercentrism, 205
Altobelli, Argentina, 238n
amicizie cristiane (Christian
friendships), 44
Andolfato, Elisabetta, 144
Andolfato, Giulia, 114
Antici-Mattei, Carlotta, 165
anti-feminism, 53, 104, 106, 112, 113,
116, 117, 118–19, 125, 127, 128,
134, 142, 149, 150, 175–6, 182,
201, 204, 205, 215, 216, 217
Anzoletti, Luisa, 2, 61, 72, 80, 94,
100, 139
Apostolate of the Cradle, 209
Arcanum, see encyclicals, papal
Ardens, Lucilla, see Salerno, Elisa
Arena, 124
Arena, Giuseppe, 118
Aristotle, 54, 55, 119
Asilo Mariuccia, 2, 59
Associazione cattolica italiana per la
difesa della libertà della Chiesa in
Italia (Italian Catholic Defence
Association for the Freedom of
the Church), 45
Associazione nazionale delle madri e
vedove dei caduti (National
Association of Mothers and
Widows of the Fallen), 208
Associazione nazionale italiana di
dottoresse in medicina e chirurgia
(Italian National Association of
Women Doctors in Medicine and
Surgery), 133
Associazione nazionale per la donna
(National Women’s
Association), 176
Associazione nazionale professioniste,
artiste, laureate (National
Association of Women
Professionals, Artists and
Graduates), 58
Atkin, Nicholas, 53
Augustine, St, 54, 55, 120
Austria, 8, 9, 147
civil code of, 25
Austria-Hungary, 164
Averri, P., 105
see also Murri, Romolo
Avvenire d’Italia (L’), 116
Azione muliebre (L’), 2, 6, 71–86, 87,
91, 93, 97, 98, 100, 103, 105, 123,
136, 157, 158, 171, 172, 176, 215,
236n, 252n, 258n
editorial office of, 83–4
regulations of, 84–6
268
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Index
bachelor tax, 208
Baldo, Maria, 71–2, 76, 78, 82–5, 136,
236n
see also Costanza
Balilla, 23, 211
Barelli, Armida, 2, 4, 5, 187–90, 191,
192, 194, 196, 197, 200, 202, 203,
207, 210, 211, 213, 216, 259n,
264n
Baronchelli Grosson, Paola, 163
Batiffol, Pierre, 102
Bebel, August, 59, 102–3, 201
Beccari, Gualberta Alaide, 24
Belgioiso, Cristina, 41
Belzer, Allison Scardino, 163–4, 204–5
Benedettini Alferazzi, Paola, 207
Benedict XV (1914–22), 3, 15, 18, 54,
116–17, 144, 149, 162, 164, 165,
166, 167, 172, 178, 183, 185, 188,
189, 190, 203, 258n
Benincori, Giuseppe, 51
Berenini, Agostino, 26
Berico (Il), 100, 114, 115, 116, 141, 143
Bersellini Bellini, Jole, 59
Bianchi Cagliesi, Vincenzo, 104,
159, 165
Bible (the), 23, 119, 121, 146
Biederlack, R.P., 120, 142
Biennio rosso (Red Biennium), 22
birth control, 61, 186
Bisi Albini, Sofia, 61
Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna, 62
Bollettino dell’Unione femminile cattolica
italiana, 143, 172, 173, 183,
186, 196
Bollettino dell’Unione fra le donne
cattoliche d’Italia, 183
Bollettino d’organizzazione dell’Unione
femminile cattolica italiana, 171,
183, 196, 210
Bollettino ecclesiastico (Vicenza), 146
bolshevism, 133, 138, 174, 189,
210, 212
Boniface VIII, 65
Bonomelli, Geremia, 102, 145
Borciani, Alberto, 26
Borghese, Isabella, 182
Børresen, Kari Elisabeth, 54
Boschetti, Elisa, 97
269
Bosworth, R.J.B., 222n
Bourbon dynasty, 8–9
bread riots, 46, 72, 227n
Britain, 164
Brogi, Bruno, 109
Bruno, Giordano, 183, 257n
Büchner, Felicita, 98, 99, 139
Buonaiuti, Ernesto, 222n
Buttafuoco, Annarita, 61
Caimi, Luciano, 5, 196
Calabria, 72, 158, 194
Cantono, Alessandro, 104, 107, 177
Canuti, Giovanna, 161, 164, 184, 199
Caporetto, battle of, 147
Castelbarco Albani della Somalia,
Princess, 94, 238n
Castel Gandolfo, 16
Castenetto, Dora, 159
Casti connubii, see encyclicals, papal
Catania, 72
catechism
competitions on, 162, 198
copy provision of, 198, 261n
in religious practice, 161, 201
in Salerno’s doctrinal criticism, 124,
145–6
teaching of, 67, 72, 161–2, 168, 174
Catherine, of Siena, St, 129, 161, 190,
245n
Catholic Action, 20–1, 48, 51, 169,
170, 179, 183, 185, 190, 191, 201,
211, 212
confrontation with Fascists, 168–9
constitutions of, 166–7, 168, 170
Giunta centrale of, 167, 169,
183, 211
sezioni professionali of, 169
see also Catholic laity
Catholic Church, 1–5, 9, 117, 149, 169
and Fascism, 21–3, 203–4
and women, 185–7
Catholic clergy, 2, 3, 4, 15, 16, 19, 47,
48, 50, 53, 63, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71,
88, 107, 110, 111, 112, 115, 117,
124, 147, 148, 150, 159, 181, 203,
214, 215, 216, 225n, 227n, 242n
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270
Index
Catholic dogma on women, 54–6, 63,
65, 113, 118–23, 124, 147, 149,
150, 175, 185–7, 216
ordination, 55, 122
Catholic Electoral Union, see Unione
elettorale cattolica italiana
Catholicism, 10, 14, 15, 45, 56, 75,
103, 104, 175, 187, 192, 203,
210–11, 216, 218
social, 49, 103
Catholic laity, 16, 20–1, 44–52, 107,
112, 117, 139, 141, 152, 166, 170
see also Catholic Action; Christian
democracy; Opera dei congressi e
dei comitati cattolici in Italia
Catholic trade unions, 19, 49, 97, 115,
132–3
see also Fascist regime; leghe; mixed
unions
Catholic Women’s Congress, First,
176–7
Catholic youth organizations, 45, 168,
169, 183, 191–2, 211
see also Catholic Action
Cavallanti, S.A., 76, 100
Cavour, Camillo Benso di, 9, 15,
29, 30
Cecchini, Francesco Maria, 4, 103, 110
Cenacolo di Lentate, 73
Cerutti, Luigi, 48
chambers of commerce, 97
chaplains of work, 73
charity, 47, 48, 49, 54, 59, 62, 67, 77,
78, 92, 98, 108, 133, 161, 195, 213
see also welfare
children’s employment, 13, 19, 31, 38,
40, 51–2, 60, 96, 97, 131, 182, 184
Christian democracy, 4, 6, 20, 22,
47–52, 53, 54, 64, 69–70, 73, 74,
78, 80–3, 87, 103, 104, 105, 107,
108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 135,
145, 149, 152, 177, 178, 215, 216,
233n
see also Catholic Action; Catholic
laity; Murri, Romolo; Opera dei
congressi e dei comitati cattolici in
Italia; Sturzo, Luigi; Toniolo,
Giuseppe
Church-State relations, 5, 6, 10,
14–18, 21–3, 42, 151, 168, 173–4,
185, 191, 203–4, 210, 211
see also Fascist regime; Liberal State
Cimini, Antonietta, 100
Cimino, Folliero de Luna, Aurelia, 24
cinema, 180
Circolo femminile di Milano (Milan
Women’s Circle), 93
Circolo universitario femminile cattolico
(Catholic University Women’s
Circle), 168
Circolo verde (Green Circle), 154, 155
Cisotto, Gianni A., 138, 250n
Civiltà cattolica (La), 153, 157
Clerical-Moderates, 20, 21, 48,
103, 183
Coari, Adelaide, 2, 4, 5, 72–3, 74, 76,
78–9, 82–90, 93–8, 100–3, 110–12,
116, 140, 151–5, 216, 217, 233n,
236n, 239n, 240n, 247n, 251n,
262n
Cocco Ortu, Francesco, 26, 27
co-education, 107, 128
Colombo, Adele, 74, 76, 234n
Comitato italiano per la protezione della
giovane (Milan), see Patronato per la
protezione della giovane operaia
Comitato nazionale per il voto alla
donna (National Committee for
Women’s Suffrage), 59
communism, 14, 187
Confederazione delle corporazioni fasciste
(Confederation of Fascist
Corporations), 134
Confederazione italiana dei lavoratori
(Confederation of Italian
Workers), 179
Congregazione delle Figlie missionarie
dell’Immacolata (Congregation of
the Missionary Daughters of the
Immaculate), 180
Congregazione del Santo ufficio
(Congregation of the Holy
Office), 147
congregazioni di carità (congregations
of charity), 97
Consiglio nazionale delle donne italiane
(National Council of Italian
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Women), 58, 94, 99, 135, 166,
175–6
Consiglio superiore della pubblica
istruzione (Board of Public
Education), 211
Consiglio superiore del lavoro (Board of
Work), 97, 238n
Consorzio di emigrazione (Emigration
Consortium), 180
Conti Odorisio, Ginevra, 24, 59
Convegno femminile (Milan), 76,
94–100, 111, 140, 153, 176, 216,
238n
convent schools, 31, 32, 57, 65, 127
convents, see women religious
Corbetta, Pierina, 74, 76, 234n
Cordelia, 61
Corrierino, 171
Cortini, G.F., 107
Cosenza, 72
Costanza, 75–6, 77, 234n
see also Baldo, Maria
Cotonificio Rossi, 130, 131
Council of Trent, 15, 65
Crawley Boevey, Matéo, 188
Crispi, Francesco, 11, 29
Critica sociale, 49, 237n
Cultura sociale, 49, 104–8, 111, 112,
241n, 242n
Cunsolo, Ronald S., 21
Curci, Carlo Maria, 47–8
Cyrenaica, 11
D’Alessandro, Dr, 148, 250n
Dalla Torre, Giuseppe, 254n
Dalla Vecchia, Giacomo, 118, 146
Dalmazzo, Fanny, 182
Dante, 171, 255n
da Persico, Elena, 2, 4, 5, 71, 80–1,
84–6, 93, 94, 98, 100, 136–7, 139,
141–2, 153, 155–9, 184, 238n,
247n, 248n, 251n, 252n
da Trobaso, Antonio Bosio, 71, 88
Dau Novelli, Cecilia, 5, 155, 158,
160–1, 170, 251n
DeCrane, Susanne M., 54
De Gasperi, Alcide, 42
de Giorgi, Filippo, 83, 84
De Giorgio, Michela, 5, 186
271
De Grazia, Victoria, 33
De Lai, Gaetano, 129
Della Chiesa, Giacomo, see
Benedict XV
Della Croce di Doiola, Bianca, 177
de Manchi, Antonio, 117
De Micheli, Riccardo, 155
Depretis, Agostino, 41
de Ruggiero, Guido, 15
Di Cori, Paola, 5, 162, 170, 186
Difesa (La), 100
Difesa di Venezia (La), 71
Divini Redemptoris, see encyclicals,
papal
Divino afflante spiritu, see encyclicals,
papal
divorce, 6, 17, 18, 23, 26–7, 80, 83,
101, 174, 218
campaigns against, 47, 79, 80, 174
see also family; family law
Domani d’Italia (Il), 50, 86–7, 111,
233n, 234n
Donaldoni, Leone, 100
Donna (La) (Bologna), 24
Donna (La) (Milan), 71, 74, 233n
donna brava, 204–5
Donna del popolo (La), 71
Donna e il lavoro (La), 116–17, 118,
124, 132, 133, 141, 142–3, 144,
146, 149, 172
donna elettrice, 218
donna fascista, 205
donna italiana, 204–5
donna nuova, 2, 62, 205
Dotti, Angiolina, 74, 88, 216
double standards, 99, 123, 180
dress standards, 171–3
Duce, see Mussolini, Benito
Duchesne, Louis, 102
early Christian democracy, see
Christian democracy
ecclesiastical assistants, 73, 74, 75, 76,
83, 84, 85, 88, 97, 100, 145, 146,
159, 165, 177, 190–1, 238n
economic development, 9, 12
educandati, see convent schools
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education, 32–3, 47, 60, 66, 92, 98
religious, 23, 55, 75, 76, 77, 80, 91,
145, 157, 161–2, 173–4, 175,
180, 189, 239–40n
education, women’s, 8, 23, 24, 30–3,
41, 43, 57, 60, 62, 89, 90, 95,
106–8, 109, 125–9, 161, 213
Fascist licei, 33, 128
higher, 32–3, 70, 128
physical, 126, 198
secondary, 31–3, 79, 107
elections, local (“administrative”), 3,
27, 81
elections, national (“political”), 3,
13, 16–17, 20, 21, 47, 81,
148, 211
participation in, 13, 17
see also intransigence; non expedit;
suffrage
Elena, Queen, 101
emigration, 9, 19, 29, 66, 99, 180–1,
257n
see also migration, internal
encyclicals, papal
Aeterni patris (1879), 53
Arcanum (1880), 26, 186
Casti connubii (1930),186
Divini Redemptoris (1937), 187
Divino afflante spiritu (1943), 54
Fermo proposito (Il) (1905), 51, 160
Fin dalla prima nostra (1903), 82
Graves de communi re (1901), 48,
50, 82
Inscrutabili Dei consilio (1878), 47
Lux veritatis (1931), 187
Maximum illud (1919), 203
Non abbiamo bisogno (1931), 169,
264n
On the Condition of Workers
(1931), 187
Pascendi dominici gregis (1907), 53
Pieni l’animo (1906), 227n
Quadragesimo anno (1931), 169, 187
Quanta cura (1864), 14
Quod apostolici muneris (1878), 47
Rerum novarum (1891), 19–20, 47,
63, 64, 89, 114, 169, 178,
186, 209
Studiorum ducem (1923), 54
Tra le sollecitudini (1903), 67, 79, 123
Ubi nos arcano Dei (1871), 16
Engels, Friedrich, 59–60
Enlightenment, 1, 25, 53, 56, 63
Ethiopia, wars in, 11–12
Europe, 2, 3, 11, 44–5, 57, 71, 166,
181, 252n
Evangelisti, Anna, 108
Eve, 54, 121
Fall, the, 54
family
abolition of, 57, 60
apostolic activity for, 167, 180
Catholic concept of, 54
extended meaning of, 68, 90, 96
Fascist policy on, 182, 208, 209,
212–13
feminist threat to, 70, 104, 106,
184, 186
husband’s responsibility for, 51–2,
121–2, 187, 199
Marxist attitude to, 60
Partito popolare’s attitude to, 138
stability of, 55
woman’s role in, 3, 23, 41, 79, 105,
144, 170, 187, 200, 204–5
woman’s status in, 10, 24–5, 43, 57,
104–5, 107, 125
women’s duty to, 161, 183, 200,
204–5
and women’s rights, 92, 96, 137
see also divorce; family law; marital
authorization
family law, 25, 28, 35, 43, 163,
182, 186
Fanciulli, see Unione fra le donne
cattoliche d’Italia
fasci (Catholic), 50, 70, 73, 102, 109,
110, 236n
Fasci femminili, 58, 179, 206–8, 210,
211, 213, 263
Fascio democratico-cristiano femminile
milanese (Milanese Christian
Democratic Women’s Group), 71,
72, 73, 74, 76, 78, 82, 83, 84, 86,
87, 88–9, 90, 92–3, 109, 110,
236n, 252n
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Fascism, 14, 21, 22
brutality of, 12, 22, 147–8, 183, 211
gender ideology of, 204–5
Fascism, confessionalized, 210
Fascist corporations, see Confederazione
delle corporazioni fasciste
Fascist regime
austerity measures by, 208
and Catholic women, 5, 6, 113, 117,
133–5, 181–5, 208–14, 217
and confrontation with Church,
168–9, 191, 211
family law by, 27–8
and feminism, 204, 205, 206
foreign policy of, 11–12
gender policy of, 186, 207–8
population policy of, 181, 182,
186, 204
and trade unions, 133–4, 179, 208,
209, 212
and women’s education, 32–3, 128
and women’s employment, 34–6,
38, 133, 135, 183, 198
and women’s movements, 4, 58,
59, 170
see also adultery; Church-State
relations; divorce; prostitution;
suffrage; welfare
fashion, 71, 127, 171, 172–3, 180,
195, 197
Fati, Argene, 195
Federazione abolizionista (Abolitionist
Federation), 94, 238
Federazione femminile (Milan)
(Women’s Federation), 72, 93–4,
100, 111, 112, 151, 152, 153, 154
Federazione italiana laureate e diplomate
d’istituti superiori (Federation of
Italian Women Graduates and
Diplomates of Institutes of Higher
Learning), 135
Federazione lombarda delle opere di
attività femminile (Lombard
Federation of Women’s Activities),
94, 152, 153, 250n
Federazione nazionale pro suffragio
(National Federation for
Suffrage), 135
273
Federazione romana (Roman
Federation), 1, 58, 219n
Federazione universitaria cattolica
italiana (Italian Catholic
University Federation), 49,
169, 191
female suffrage, see suffrage
feminism, 1–8, 24, 79, 100, 103,
104–5, 106–7, 111, 150, 161, 197,
199, 204, 205, 212, 218
bourgeois, 56–7, 58, 59, 106, 136
Catholic, 6, 63, 113, 118, 123, 143,
215–16
Catholic women’s fight against,
175–6
Latin, 205
neutral, 155
practical, 59, 62
proletarian, 106, 108
Protestant, 161
scientific, 62
secular, 4, 56–63, 70, 92, 101, 103,
104, 151, 152
socialist, 57–8, 59–62, 74, 91, 96,
102, 136
theosophical, 62–3
“transigent”, 61–2
femminismo cristiano, 2–5, 7, 63, 71,
74, 80, 86, 102, 103, 113, 115,
117, 118, 122, 125, 135, 149, 153,
204, 215–17
disintegration of, 100–4, 110–12
and industrial relations, 96, 97
and modernism, 53, 102, 110
nature of, 70–1, 90, 96
origin of, 44–52, 61, 63, 70–1
and patronages, 91–2, 94, 97
platform of, 95–6
and prostitution, 89, 98–9
split in, 98
and Unione femminile nazionale, 83,
94, 96, 101–2, 103
and women’s education, 90–1, 95
and women’s employment, 78–9, 95
and women’s rights, 95
and women’s suffrage, 78, 92–3, 96
see also Convegno femminile;
feminism; Murri, Romolo;
Pensiero e azione; Salerno, Elisa
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Index
Fermo proposito (Il), see encyclicals,
papal
Ferrari, Andrea Carlo, 71, 73, 81, 88,
93, 100, 103, 112, 124, 142, 145,
157, 163, 188–9, 210, 233n, 238n
Ferrari, Giovannina, 177
Ferrari, Signora, 155
Feruglio, Antonio, 145
Fiamma viva, 171, 185, 198–9, 203,
212, 261n
Figlie della Regina degli Apostoli
(Daughters of the Queen of the
Apostles), 81
Figlie di Maria (Daughters of
Mary), 153
filofascismo prepolitico funzionale, 208
Fin dalla prima nostra, see encyclicals,
papal
Fogazzaro, Antonio, 61, 94, 107, 116,
124, 145
Fortes in fide, 161, 194
Forza e grazia (Strength and Grace),
197, 211
see also Gioventù femminile
Fossati, Roberta, 61
Fourier, François, 57
France, 11, 47, 65, 137, 164, 221n
Franceschini, Clara, 206
Franco-Prussian War, 221n
freemasonry, 44, 62, 139, 154, 174
French Revolution, 1, 25, 56, 63, 65,
137, 185, 212
Fuà Fusinato, Erminia, 24
Futurists, 21
Gaiotti de Biase, Paola, 4, 70, 77, 152,
154, 201
Gallini, Carlo, 27
Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 9, 17, 24
Gasparri, Pietro, 22, 165, 179, 222n,
228n
Gazzetta, Liviana, 5, 77, 179, 182, 208,
251n
Gemelli, Agostino, 187–8, 198, 200,
202, 203, 210, 247n
gender, 4, 90, 92, 103, 135, 136, 149,
151, 161, 207, 213, 214, 216, 217
attributes of, 57, 120, 135, 161
and Catholic dogma, 54–6; 119–23
collusion of Catholic and Fascist
policies on, 207, 212, 217
discrimination by, 30, 33, 34, 55,
65, 108, 126, 128, 138
Vatican policy on, 185–7
see also Fascist regime
gender equality, 25, 107, 120, 125, 135
gender jealousy, 122
gender relations, 90, 106, 124,
135, 150
gender roles, 108, 126, 127, 163–4
gender struggle, 90, 96
Genesis, 53, 69
Gentile, Giovanni, 204, 211
Gentiloni, Vincenzo, 17, 27
Germany, 99, 164
Gherardi, Raffaella, 13
Giacomelli, Antonietta, 2, 61, 94, 108,
109–10, 139, 231n, 240n
Giolitti, Giovanni, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18,
20, 21, 36, 38, 41–2, 59, 96,
170, 174
Giornale della donna, 207
Giornale d’Italia (Il), 175
Giornata della madre (Mother’s
Day), 209
Giornata della madre e del fanciullo
(Day of Mother and Child), 209
Giornata missionaria (Missions
Collection Day), 203
Giornata universitaria (University
Collection Day), 202, 262n
giovani (young), 47
Gioventù cattolica italiana, see Società
della Gioventù cattolica italiana
Gioventù femminile cattolica italiana
(Union of Young Italian Catholic
Women), 3, 6, 145, 151, 166, 214,
215, 217
angioletti of, 192
apostolic protagonism of, 5, 196
aspiranti of, 192, 195, 198, 201,
260n
beniamine of, 172, 192, 198, 201,
260n
congresses of, 190–1, 197
constitutions of, 167–8, 190–1
effettive of, 191, 192, 193, 260n
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entrenchment of conservatism by,
198–200
and Fascism, 183, 210–13
Forza e grazia of, 197, 211
geographic breakdown of, 193–4
indoctrination by, 198
and industrial matters, 179
membership of, 191, 207, 263n
and missions, 203
occupational breakdown of, 192–3
organization of, 190–4
origin of, 6, 187–90
piccolissime of, 192, 263n
and pope, 190
propaganda machinery of, 195–8
propagandists of, 195–6, 200, 214
publications by, 171, 196–7
and sport, 192
support of Catholic initiatives by,
202–3
training programmes of, 196, 200–1
value system of, 194–5
Giustiniani Bandini, (Maria) Cristina,
2, 94, 132, 142–3, 152–60, 162–3,
164, 165, 166, 175–6, 177–8, 188,
207, 213, 238n, 251n, 252n
Gonzaga, Princess, 76
Gouges, Olympe de, 56, 57
Gozzi, Gaspare, 111
Gran consiglio, 199
Grasso, Enrica, 108
Graves de communi re, see encyclicals,
papal
Great Depression, 38, 181
Grosoli, Giovanni, 81–2
Grugni, Carlo, 5, 72, 73–5, 76, 78, 83,
84, 88, 91–2, 99, 102, 103, 110,
111, 112, 155, 215–16, 234n,
238n
Guido, Ignazio, 148
Harmel, Léon, 48
Holy See, 16, 84, 86, 125, 143,
163, 176
Humanité (L’), 108
illiteracy, 9, 30
Imelda, Blessed, 198, 261n
275
Immaculate Conception, doctrine
of, 123
In alto!, 171, 172, 174, 183
In cammino, 61, 108
Incisa di S. Stefano, Marianna, 177
industrialization, 2, 12, 56, 62, 70,
90, 114
Ineffabilis Deus, see Immaculate
Conception, doctrine of
Inscrutabili Dei consilio, see encyclicals,
papal
International Alliance for Women’s
Suffrage, 9th Congress of, 184
International Council of Women,
58, 175
International Women’ Suffrage
Alliance, 59
intransigence, 14, 15, 16–17, 44, 45,
47, 49, 58, 61, 64, 77, 91, 95, 97,
102, 114, 124, 145, 152, 187
see also elections, national; non
expedit; suffrage
Iolanda, 108
Istituto cattolico di attività sociali
(Catholic Institute of Social
Activities), 169
Istituto nazionale di san Michele
(National Institute of San
Michele), 135
Italian Socialist Party, see Partito
socialista italiano
Italy, Kingdom of, see Fascist regime;
Liberal State
Jeffrey Howard, Judith, 24
Joan of Arc, St, 159, 161, 190, 195
John XXIII (1958–63), 69
see also Roncalli, Angelo
Käppeli, Anne-Marie, 57
Key, Ellen, 61
Kuliscioff, Anna, 2, 27, 34, 59–61,
230n, 237n, 263n
Labriola, Antonio, 49, 205
Labriola, Teresa, 34, 205
Laetitia, Princess, 256n
Lamentabili sane, 53
larghi (broad-minded), 47
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Lateran Pacts, 22–3, 168, 174, 185,
209, 211
Lateran Palaces, 16, 197
Law of Guarantees, 16, 22
Lazzari, Costantino, 174
League of Nations, 12, 30, 208
Lega cattolica femminile per la
rigenerazione del lavoro (Catholic
Women’s League for the
Regeneration of Labour), 77
Lega democratica nazionale (National
Democratic League), 20, 50, 94,
102, 108, 109–12
women in, 108–11
see also Murri, Romolo
Lega femminile del lavoro, 74–5
Lega lombarda, 107
Lega nazionale delle cooperative italiane
(National League of Italian
Cooperatives), 238n
Lega per la tutela degli interessi
femminili (League for the
Safeguard of Women’s Interests),
94, 97, 176, 229n
Lega promotrice degli interessi femminili,
see Lega per la tutela degli interessi
femminili
leghe (leagues), 74–5, 102, 109
see also Catholic trade unions
leghe dei genitori, 145, 162
Leo XIII (1878–1903), 15, 16–17, 19,
20, 26, 47, 48, 50, 53, 56, 63, 64,
66, 67, 68, 81, 82, 149, 163,
186–7, 233n
Liberal State, 2, 6, 8–14, 173–4, 181
foreign policy of, 11–12
and laws on women, 24–30
and women’s education, 30–2
and women’s employment, 33–41
see also adultery; Church-State
relations; divorce; prostitution;
suffrage; welfare
liberalism, 10–11, 12–14, 18, 20, 43,
54, 56, 77
Liberatore, Matteo, 19
Libyan War, 11, 21, 164, 176
Liguori, Alphonsus, St, 55, 116,
118, 123
Loisy, Alfred, 53, 102, 139
Lombroso, Cesare, 205
Lombroso, Gina, 205
Lovison, Filippo, 65
Lucciardi, Mayor, 148
Lund, Ragnhild, 228n
Lupi, Bernardino, 107
Luraschi, Signora, 97
luxury, 172–3
Lux veritatis, see encyclicals, papal
Maffi, Pietro, 145
Maggioni Baldo, Maria, see Baldo,
Maria
magisteri, 31
Magri, Francesco, 116
Maiocchi Plattis, Maria, see Iolanda
Majer Rizzioli, Elisa, 206, 263n
Majno Bronzini, Ersilia, 2, 59, 94, 96,
100, 176, 238n
malattia delle bacinelle, 131
male clergy, see Catholic clergy
Malnati, Linda, 94, 96, 101, 238n,
251n
Manzoni, Alessandro, 116
Marangoni, Guido, 174
Marchesini, Daniele, 30
Margherita, Queen, 143
Margotti, Giacomo, 16
Mariani, Francesco, 75, 76, 83–5, 236n
marital authorization, 25, 27, 28, 58,
96, 121, 176
see also family law
marriage
attitudes to, 62, 104–6, 128, 131,
160, 192, 199, 200, 208, 237n
and Catholic dogma, 55, 65, 120,
121, 122, 185–7
civil, 16, 26, 228n
equality in, 6, 107, 200
and girls’ education, 32, 62, 127
hidden, 56
and prostitution, 29, 99
religious, 23, 26–7, 160, 174, 218
see also divorce; marital
authorization; patria potestas
marriage goods, 55
Martini, Antonio, 146
Marx, Karl, 57
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Marxism, 27, 49, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61,
189, 230n
Mary, 123, 161, 187
mas occasionatus, 54, 119
Massaie rurali (Rural Housewives),
207, 208
Matelda, 162
materfamilias, 200
maternity fund, 13, 40, 97
Mattei Gentili, Paolo, 107
Mattei, Ida, 195
Matteotti, Giacomo, 22, 211
Mauri, of Monza, 76
Maximum illud, see encyclicals, papal
Mazzini, Giuseppe, 9, 23–4, 41
Mazzinians, 24, 58, 61
Mazzola, Calimero, 132
Meda, Filippo, 20, 21, 81–2, 254n
Medolago Albani, Stanislao, 51, 86, 93
Melegari, Dora, 61
Meletti, Adelina, 97, 238n
Menelik II, 11
Mercier, Desiré, 119
Merry del Val, Raffaele, 51, 82, 97, 158
Messina, 72
migration, internal, 130, 180, 208
see also emigration
Militello, Cettina, 102
Mill, John Stuart, 1, 57, 135, 201, 229n
Minimum Feminist Programme, 90,
95, 99
Minoretti, Dalmazio, 79, 83, 84
Mirabelli, Roberto, 41
missions, 66, 196, 203
mixed unions, 19, 49, 97
see also Catholic trade unions
modernism, 52–4, 61, 72, 100, 102,
123–5, 155, 159, 240n
Molteni, G., 107
Montessori, Maria, 1, 41, 63, 72
Morelli, Salvatore, 1, 26, 41
Moretti, Angiola, 206
motherhood, 79, 105, 120, 122, 186,
205, 212
divine, 121
extended meaning of, 62, 69, 79,
93, 96, 217
Mozzoni, Anna Maria, 1, 24, 27, 41,
57–8, 59, 60, 223n, 229n
277
Murri, Romolo, 20, 49–50, 53, 69, 72,
73, 87, 94, 100, 102, 103, 124,
139, 155, 178, 216, 233n, 240n,
242n
excommunication of, 20, 102, 228n
survey on feminism by, 106–8, 241n
and woman question, 104–12
see also Lega democratica nazionale
Mussolini, Benito, 12, 14, 21–3, 27,
28, 30, 35, 42, 133, 135, 138, 144,
148, 149, 150, 168, 169, 179, 181,
183–5, 186, 206, 207, 208, 209,
210, 211, 222n
mutual aid societies, 46, 92, 114, 139,
166, 178
Napoleonic Code, 25
Nathan, Ernesto, 174
Nathan, Sara, 24
National Congress of Italian Women
First, 58, 100–1, 151, 153, 196, 240n
Second, 175–6
Nationalists, 21
naturalism, 14
Naudet, Paul Antoine, 102
Nedrato, Maria, 98
Negri, Ada, 59, 207, 263n
Neo-Thomism, 54, 233n
Newman, John Henry, 102
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 21
Nitti, Francesco, 144
Non abbiamo bisogno, see encyclicals,
papal
non expedit, 16–18, 20, 45, 47, 48
see also elections, national;
intransigence; suffrage
non licet, 16, 221n
normal schools, 31, 32, 33
Nucleo fisso, 52, 76, 82, 84, 86, 87, 89,
93, 236n
Nuns, see women religious
O’Brien, Albert, 168
Oeuvre, Belgian, 181
Olcott, Henry Steel, 62
Olgiati, Francesco, 200, 201, 203,
247n, 261n
ONMI, 40, 181–2, 208
see also welfare
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On the Condition of Workers, see
encyclicals, papal
Opera dei congressi e dei comitati
cattolici in Italia (Organization of
Catholic Congresses and
Committees in Italy), 20, 26,
44–52, 69, 80, 81–2, 86, 87, 100,
108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 240n
and women, 46, 51–2, 63, 68–70,
74–6, 82, 86, 87, 93, 94, 234n
Opera dei ritiri operai (Workers’
Retreats), 169
Opera della protezione della giovane, see
Patronato per la protezione della
giovane operaia
Opera della regalità di Nostro Signore
Gesù Cristo (Institution of the
Sovreignty of Our Lord Jesus
Christ), 188
Opera delle madrine degli orfani di guerra
(Institution of Godmothers for
War Orphans), 174
Opera di assistenza religiosa per i militari
(Institution for Religious
Assistance to Soldiers), 169
Opera nazionale Balilla, see Balilla
Opera nazionale per la protezione della
maternità e dell’infanzia (National
Organization for the Protection of
Maternity and Infancy), see ONMI
opere pie (charitable works), 97
Original Sin, 121
Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, 143, 144
Osservatore cattolico (L’), 46, 72, 107,
115, 141, 155, 248n
Osservatore romano (L’), 82, 183
Pacelli, Eugenio, see Pius XII
Pacendi dominici gregis, see encyclicals,
papal
Paino, Angelo, 22
Palumbo, of Venice, 76
pantheism, 14
papacy, 14, 15, 17, 22, 44, 45, 49,
112, 196
Papenheim, Martin, 15
Paper, Ernestina, 34
parents’ leagues, see leghe dei genitori
Parola fraterna (Fraternal Word), 103
Parravicino di Revel, Sabina, 87, 94,
95, 96, 99, 153, 157–8, 163, 238n,
252n
Partito dei lavoratori italiani (Italian
Workers’ Party), 18
Partito democratico cristiano (Christian
Democratic Party), 110
Partito popolare italiano (Italian Popular
Party), 17, 18, 20–1, 50, 110, 138,
145, 169, 183, 247n
Partito socialista italiano (Italian
Socialist Party), 13, 14, 17, 18, 21,
22, 26, 27, 41, 49, 58, 59, 60, 61,
92–3, 132, 134, 136, 174, 226n,
230n, 238n
Pasini, Maria, see Salerno, Elisa
Passoni, Adolfo, 84
Pastori, Giuseppina, 199
paterfamilias, 162, 200
paternity searches, 26, 27, 28, 58, 95,
136, 138, 176
Patria, 107
patria potestas, 25, 28, 136, 182, 186,
223n
see also family law
Patrizi Gondi, Maddalena, 143, 166,
174, 183, 189, 190, 196, 207, 210
patronages, 6, 91, 94, 97, 132, 178–9,
217, 237n
Patronato di mutuo soccorso (Patronage
of Mutual Aid), 178
Patronato per la protezione della giovane
operaia (Patronage for the
Protection of Young Female
Workers), 76, 77, 80, 83, 91, 178,
180, 208
Paul, Apostle, 122
Pecci, Vincenzo Gioacchino, see Leo
XIII
Pensiero e azione, 64, 86–104
description of, 89–90
and female suffrage, 92–3
and national women’s
organization, 93
suppression of, 100–4
see also femminismo cristiano
Pera, Isabella, 4, 68, 73, 88
Pericoli, Paolo, 189
Periculoso, 65
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Per la riscossa cristiana, 110
Piedmont, 9, 15, 16, 29, 44, 110, 193
Pieni l’animo, see encyclicals, papal
Pieroni Bortolotti, Franca, 35–8, 225n
Pio sodalizio delle missionarie della
regalità di Cristo (Pious Sodality of
the Missionaries of the
Sovereignty of Christ), 188, 200
Pisanelli, Giuseppe, 25
Pisanelli civil code, 25–6, 27
Pius IX (1846–78), 14–15, 16, 56, 123
Pius X (1903–14), 3, 15, 17, 20, 35, 45,
50, 51, 53–4, 56, 66, 67, 68, 79,
81–2, 88, 93, 101, 110, 111, 123,
125, 153–4, 158, 161, 162, 166,
177, 215, 227n, 228n
Pius XI (1922–39), 3, 15, 54, 81, 144,
167, 169, 185, 186–7, 190, 198,
201, 202, 203, 211, 264n
Pius XII (1939–58), 54, 144
Plato, 54
podestà, 42
Poët, Lidia, 34
Pollard, John, 12, 258n, 264n
primary teaching, see women’s
employment
Problemi femminili, 17, 133, 134, 135,
138, 140, 144, 146, 147–8, 172
professional unions, see Catholic
trade unions
prostitution
abolitionist approach to, 30, 123
and Catholics, 69, 80, 89, 98, 99,
138, 176, 180
in colonies, 30
in Fascist Italy, 30, 42
and international trafficking, 30,
176, 184
in Liberal Italy, 29, 99
and marriage, 99
regulatory approach to, 29, 30
Protezione della giovane, see Patronato
per la protezione della giovane
operaia
Quadragesimo anno, see encyclicals,
papal
Quanta cura, see encyclicals, papal
279
Quod apostolici muneris, see
encyclicals, papal
Racca, Anna, 198
Radicals, 21, 58
Radini Tedeschi, Giacomo Maria, 52,
68–9, 71, 74, 76, 78–9, 81–8, 93,
100, 102, 111, 215–16
Rampolla del Tindaro, Mariano, 17,
81, 163
Rassegna nazionale, 163
Red Cross, 36, 165, 208, 209
“Red Week”, 21
Republicans, 21, 41
Rerum novarum, see encyclicals, papal
Respighi, Pietro, 153
Restori, Vasco, 93
rigidi (strict), 47
Rimaldi, Maria, 167
Riscossa (La), 114, 124
Risorgimento, 8–9, 15
and women, 23–4, 41, 43, 57, 61
Rivista delle signorine, see Rivista per le
signorine
Rivista di filosofia neoscolastica, 188
Rivista per le signorine, 61, 98
Rodolfi, Ferdinando, 116–17, 118,
124, 127, 129, 141–3, 145–8
Roesler Franz, Maria, 101, 154, 239n
Romanato, Gianpaolo, 66
Romanelli, Raffaele, 14
Roman Question, 16, 22, 49, 78,
81, 148
romanticism, 53, 62
Roncalli, Angelo, 69, 232n
see also John XXIII
Rosa, Enrico, 169
Rose, of Viterbo, St, 190, 195
Rösler, Agostino, 137
Rosmini, Antonio, 61
Rossi, Alessandro, 131
Rumi, Giorgio, 210, 212, 259n
Russia, 164
Sabatier, Paul, 102
Sacchetti, Giuseppe, 226n
Sacchi, Ettore, 27
Sacchi law, 27, 34, 35
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Sacra congregazione dei religiosi (Sacred
Congregation of the Religious), 67
Sacra congregazione dei vescovi e regolari
(Sacred Congregation of Bishops
and Regulars), 66
Sacra congregazione del concilio (Sacred
Congregation of the Council), 172
Sacred Heart, 187, 188, 202
sacred music, 67, 79, 123, 145
Saint Léon, E. Martin, 108
Sale, Giovanni, 104
Saint-Simon, Claude Henri, 57
Saint-Simonianism, 62
Salerno, Elisa, 2, 4, 94, 113–50, 166
and Catholic dogma, 118–23
and Catholic lay movement,
139–43, 155
and Coari, 115, 140
and da Persico, 136–7, 141–2
employment survey by, 129–31
and Fascism, 133–5, 148
and Giustiniani Bandini, 142–3
and industrial organization,
132–5, 139
and modernism, 123–5
and Mussolini, 144
and Partito popolare italiano, 138
and religious authorities, 143–8
and Rodolfi, 142–3, 146–7
and secular authorities, 143–4,
148–50
and Toniolo, 115–16, 141
and Unione donne, 133, 143
and women’s education, 125–9
and women’s ordination, 122
and women’s rights, 135–8
and women’s suffrage, 136–8
San Domenico (Bologna), 198
Sanger, Margaret, 61
Santa congregazione consistoriale (Holy
Consistorial Congregation), 181
Sant’ Anna di mutuo soccorso di Vicenza
(St Anna Mutual Aid Society of
Vicenza), 139
Santoliquado, Rocco, 29
Sarfatti, Margherita, 207, 263n
Sarogni, Emilia, 24, 25
Sarto, Giuseppe Melchiorre, see Pius X
Scaraffia, Lucetta, 5, 62–3, 68, 101, 194
Scardino Belzer, Allison, see Belzer,
Allison Scardino
Scardona, 166
Schiff, Paolina, 57, 97, 229n
scholasticism, 15, 116, 118, 119,
121, 123
Scialoja, Vittorio, 27
Scotton, Andrea, 124
Scotton, Gottardo, 124
Scotton, Jacopo, 124
Sebenico, 166
Segretariato pro famiglia (Secretariat for
the Benefit of the Family), 181
Segretariato pro risaiole (Secretariat for
the Benefit of Rice-weeders), 180
Semeria, Giovanni, 72, 102, 110
Serafini, Giulio, 153, 165
Serralunga, G.M., 107
Sertillanges, Antonin-Gilbert, 137
Settimana della madre (Mother’s
Week), 209
Settimana nazionale (Catholic), 180
Settimana sociale (Social Week)
Brescia, 156–7
Palermo, 156–7
Pistoia, 140, 141, 155
Settimana sociale (periodical), 141
Settimana sociale femminile, 177
Seveso, Gabriella, 59
Shen-Si (China), 203
Sicily, 9, 50, 51, 110, 158, 194
signore, 71, 83, 84–5, 91, 93, 132, 168
Sindacato fascista dei giornalisti veneti
(Fascist Union of Veneto
Journalists), 134
sisters, see women religious
socialism, 6, 14, 18–20, 44, 48, 70, 77,
80, 103, 133, 178, 183, 194
Socialists, see Partito socialista italiano
social work, 35–6, 66, 68, 97, 99, 176,
179–82, 209, 210, 212, 217
see also welfare
Società cattolica femminile di mutuo
soccorso S. Felicissima di Schio
(Schio Catholic Women’s Mutual
Aid Society), 139
Società della gioventù cattolica italiana
(Society of Italian Catholic
Youth), 45, 47, 167, 189, 192, 194
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Società di patronato e mutuo soccorso per
le operaie (Patronage and Mutual
Aid Society for Female
Workers), 94
Sodalitium pianum, see Sodality of St
Pius V
Sodality of St. Pius V, 53
Soderini, Edoardo, 104
Sorel, Georges, 21
Spalletti Rasponi, Gabriella, 58,
101, 175
squadristi, 22
Squilli di risurrezione, 171, 197, 211
Squilli parrocchiali, 200
Stabilimento Orefice, 131
Starace, Achille, 204
Stelluti Scala Frascara, Itta, 206
Sticco, Maria, 185, 212
Stirati, Luigi, 104, 107
stirpe, 205
Stocchiero, Giuseppe, 127
Studiorum ducem, see encyclicals, papal
Sturzo, Luigi, 18, 20–1, 50–1, 110, 138,
162, 222n
Suardo, Giacomo, 135
suffrage, 10, 13–14, 17, 26, 138
female, 2, 3, 6, 8, 28, 41–3, 51, 57,
58–61, 78, 81, 92–3, 96, 102,
107, 108, 115, 136–8, 144, 152,
175, 176, 183–5, 198–9, 200,
212–13, 215, 258n
see also elections, national;
elections, local; intransigence;
non expedit
suore, see women religious
Syllabus of Errors, 14–15
Tallet, Frank, 53
teaching, see women’s employment
Tedeschini, F., 166
Teresa, of Avila, St, 129, 245n
Terruzzi, Regina, 208
Terz’ordine francescano veneto, 139
Theimer, Camilla, 93
Theosophical Society, 62–3
Thomas, Aquinas, St, 53–5, 104,
116–17, 118–22, 142
Togliatti, Palmiro, 42
281
Toniolo, Giuseppe, 19, 48–9, 68, 88,
102–3, 115–16, 118, 139, 141,
152–9, 202, 248n, 251n, 252n
Toniolo, Maria, 155, 158
Topinard, Paul, 120
Tra le sollecitudini, see encyclicals,
papal
trasformismo, 11
Trent, 166
Tribuna sociale, 73, 103
Trieste, 9, 166
Trinitarian processions, 120
Tripoli, 11
Turati, Augusto, 206
Turati, Filippo, 14, 18, 42, 226n, 230n
Turkey, 11, 45
Tyrrell, George, 102, 139
Ubi nos arcano Dei, see encyclicals,
papal
Ufficio nazionale del lavoro (National
Labour Office), 238n
Unification, 2, 4, 8–9, 10, 15, 19, 22,
23, 24, 30, 41, 56, 70, 218
Unione cattolica delle istituzioni
economiche e sociali, see Unione
economico-sociale
Unione cattolica per gli studi sociali
(Catholic Union for Social
Studies), 48
Unione delle vergini di nostra Signora
della Mercede (Union of the
Virgins of Our Lady of Grace), 114
Unione donne di Azione cattolica
italiana, see Unione fra le donne
cattoliche d’Italia
Unione economico-sociale (Catholic
Union of Economic and Social
Institutions), 51, 160, 167,
178, 179
Unione elettorale cattolica italiana
(Italian Catholic Electoral Union),
51, 167
Unione femminile cattolica italiana
(Italian Catholic Women’s
Union), 133, 143, 166, 167, 168,
171–2, 179, 180–1, 182, 183–4,
186, 190, 191, 194, 196, 197, 203,
209, 210, 255n
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Unione femminile (Milan) (Women’s
Union), 1
Unione femminile nazionale (National
Women’s Union), 58, 59, 94, 96,
101, 102–3, 135, 176, 230n, 263n
Unione fra le donne cattoliche d’Italia
(Union for Italian Catholic
Women), 2, 3, 94, 113, 142, 151
appeal of, 170
Boys’ group of, 168–9
constitutions of, 154, 158–9, 161,
166–8, 170
and Fascism, 181–5, 208–10
and feminism, 151, 154, 175–6
under Giustiniani Bandini, 159–63
and industrial issues, 176–9
and Liberal State, 173–4
and Libyan War, 164, 176
membership of, 164, 167, 169
organization of, 166–70
origin of, 152–9
and Partito popolare italiano, 183
under Patrizi Gondi, 165–6
patron saints of, 161
and political issues, 182–5
regulation by, of members’ lives,
171–3
social work by, 179–82
and Unione economico-sociale, 160,
167, 178
and Unione popolare, 155–60, 162–3,
165, 166–7
and Vatican’s gender policies, 185–7
and World War I, 163–5
Unione internazionale delle leghe
femminili cattoliche (International
Union of Catholic Women’s
Leagues), 252n
Unione per il bene (Union for Good),
61–2, 108
Unione popolare fra i cattolici d’Italia
(Italian Catholic People’s Union),
48, 51, 116, 141, 152–3, 155–60,
162–3, 165–7, 178, 248n, 251n,
254n
Unità cattolica (L’), 76, 100, 103, 240n
United States of America, 3, 98, 181,
252n
Università cattolica del Sacro Cuore
(Catholic University of the Sacred
Heart), 5, 185, 188, 196, 200,
202–3, 210–11, 233n
Universitarie cattoliche italiane
(Catholic University Women of
Italy), 167–8, 191
Ursuline sisters, 81, 185
Vaccari, Michela, 118
Valerio, Adriana, 56
Vatican, 5–6, 16, 21, 22, 42, 46, 80, 82,
148, 222n, 254n
and women, 159, 163, 172, 185–7,
215, 217
Vatican City State, 22
Vatican I, 15
vecchi (old), 47
Veggian, Tizziano, 146
venereal disease, 29, 99, 180
Venturelli, Elisabetta, 101
Vessillo bianco (Il), 114–15, 136, 139,
140, 145
Vicentini, Elisa, 122–3
Vicenza, 2, 107, 113, 114, 116, 117,
129, 139, 140, 141, 142, 145–6,
147–8
Villa, Tommaso, 26
virginity, 55
Virgin Mary, see Mary
visitatrici, 182
Vita e pensiero, 188
Vita femminile, 98
Vita nova (La), 49
Vita sociale (La), 71
Vittoria Colonna, 81
Vodoz, A., 108
wars of independence, 9, 24, 45
welfare
Catholic, 54, 67, 77, 161
under Fascist regime, 5, 40–1, 179,
181–2, 208
under Liberal State, 12–13, 38, 40
see also charity; ONMI
widowhood, 55
Wollstonecraft, Mary, 56–7
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womanhood
Catholic ideas of, 54, 69, 104–5,
106, 123, 160
Mazzini’s idea of, 23–4
normative models of, 204–5
woman’s states of life, 55
women religious, 31, 64, 65–8, 113,
126, 128–9, 149, 203, 225n
tertiaries, 64, 67, 68, 71, 72, 77, 114,
139–40, 152, 187, 195
women’s education, see education,
women’s
women’s employment, 8, 33–41, 60,
95, 103, 126, 165, 175, 184,
192–3, 199, 217
in agriculture, 36, 37–8, 97, 208
in armaments, 37
in domestic service, 37, 38
by economic sector, 37, 39, 192–3
in higher education, 135, 199
in industry, 36–7, 38, 51–2, 60, 70,
79, 97, 129–31
in nursing and social work, 35–6,
99, 126, 217
283
in office and retail, 36, 38
in primary teaching, 33, 43, 126,
174, 199, 217, 225n
in private teaching, 34
professional, 34–5, 37, 60,
107, 108
restrictions on, 34, 27–8, 43, 108,
135, 183, 198
in secondary teaching, 33–4, 126,
183, 198, 199, 217
in State and local government, 27,
28, 36, 38
and welfare legislation, 13, 38, 40–1,
51–2, 60
women’s suffrage, see suffrage
Wood, Sharon, 231n
World War I, 9, 21, 147, 188,
249n
and Catholic women, 43, 72–3,
132–3, 163–5, 188
World War II, 12, 42
Zanardelli, Giuseppe, 26
Zarri, Gabriella, 65
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