international foundation for development alternatives
fundacion internacional para alternativas de desarrollo
fondation internationale pour un autre developpement
IFDA DOSSIER 15 , JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1980
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
BU ILDI NG BLOCKS/MATER IAUX
.
P e r c e p t i o n p o p u l a i r e du developpement en A f r i q u e o c c i d e n t a l e (Environnement
e t Developpement en Afrique,ENDA)
. R e d u i r e l a surconsommation ( P h i l i p p e d 1 1 r i b a r n e , CEREBE)
.
.
.
.
.
L o c a l a c t i o n f o r s e l f - r e l i a n t development i n Bangladesh (B.K. J a h a n g i r )
A n o t h e r development f o r Japan (Nishikawa Jun)
What t o do a b o u t housing - I t s p a r t i n a n o t h e r development (John F.C. T u r n e r )
T h i r d World commodity p o l i c y a t t h e c r o s s r o a d s : some fundamental i s s u e s
(Carlos F o r t i n )
S o v e r e i g n t y o f needs, r e v e r s a l o f u n j u s t enrichment: themes toward a n o t h e r
development (Jose R. E c h e v e r r i a )
INTERACTIONS
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
S e l e c t i v e North-South approaches : a roon: f o r m i n i - N I E Q . (Helge Hveem)
General remarks on i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n and r e s o u r c e t r a n s f e r s (Moinuddin Baqai)
Les ressources, 1 ' a l i m e n t a t i o n , l e p a t r i m o i n e commun, l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n
e t l a t e c h n i q u e (Ben S a l i a h Kouyf a t e )
Experiences
Breast i s best (Vic Sutton)
L u i s E c h e v e r r i a : Forwards and upwards ( F r a n c i s c o Fernandez Mora)
Development and Human needs (Soedjatmoko)
Towards an endogenous i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n geared t o s a t i s f y i n g t h e needs o f
t h e poor (Abd-el Rahman Khane)
FOOTNOTES
Contributions t o t h e IFDA Dossier are presented under t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
t h e i r authors. They are not covered by any copyright. They may be reproduced
o r transmitted 'in any form or by any means u-i-thout permission o f t h e authors
or IFDA. I n case o f r e p r i n t , acknouledgement of source and r e c e i p t o f a copy
uould be appreciated. IFDA Dossier i s published bi-monthly.
executive committee : ismoil-sabn abdollo. ahmed ben solah lco-chairman), qomani corea, mahbub ul haq, enrique iqlesias,
,an meiler (co-chairman), marc nerfin (president), justinian f rweyemamu, ignacy sachs. juan somavia, mourice f. strong.
lnga tnorsson
sectetoilot
2. place du marche. cfi - 1760 nyon, switzerland: telephone 41 (22) 61 8 2 8 2 - telex 28840 ifda c h ; cable fipad, qeneva
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
The IFDA Dossier appeared twice in 1978, and every month in 1979. The present
issue of the Dossier is printed in 8,400 copies, of which 7,200 are directly
mailed by IFDA (half to the Third World, half to industrialized countries).
Bulk mailing to institutions in various countries amount to 400 copies. Requests for back issues are received daily, and some have had to be reprinted.
The 1979 acceleration was the result of the Third System Project undertaken by
IFDA at the request of the Dutch government and with the support of the Dutch,
Norwegian and Canadian governments. 119 activities were undertaken in the
context of the Project. At the time of writing (28 November), 108such activities had virtually been completed (66 papers published, 11 approved for publication, 20 activities otherwise completed, 9 reports under consideration by
the secretariat, 2 cancellations). Some 5 0 institutions and ad hoc groups and
more than 300 individuals have been or are participating in the Project
through carrying out specific activities, contributing to the Dossier or attending meetings. Three fifths of the participants are from the Third World.
The Third System Project having been conceived as a contribution from the
Third System to the discussion of the New International Development Strategy
(to be approved by the United Nations General Assembly next summer), it
operated within strict time constraints. Most of IFDA internal energies are
devoted, at this stage, to the analysis of the material generated in the
context of the project (of which published papers sometimes represent no more
than the tip of the iceberg). The aim of the analysis is to publish a synthesis of the material as a 'final report' (which is not the main output of
the Project, the Dossier itself and the on-going discussion being at least
of equal importance).
Papers still to be published and the final report
(which is planned to constitute the bulk of Dossier 17) will probably require
four more issues of the Dossier.
The Dossier, which was boosted by the Third System Project, has become a regular activity of IFDA, and will continue to appear regularly, but less often,
after the completion of the Project. It will in particular continue to try
and give a hearing to unheard voices through the dissemination of relevant
and useful material volunteered by the Third System. It will give priority
to papers of local and national origin which normally do not have access to
the international circuit. Two regular issues are planned for late 1980.
In 1980, the IFDA Dossier will thus appear every two months instead of every
month. This implies an appeal to the understanding of its voluntary contributors - and incidentally to those who are writing to us and may not always get
a speedy answer or acknowledgement. Having to give priority to papers emanating from the Project, we may be slow in publishing other material, either
available in an already long pipeline, or forthcoming. However, please do
We particularly welcome
not stop sending us material, but be patient
interactions to published papers. Short pieces will be given priority.
...
1980
PERCEPT1ON PGFULAI RE
DU DEVELOPPEMENT
EN AFRICUE CCCIDEN TALE
p a r Environnement e t Developpement en A f r i q u e (ENDA)
B.P. 3370
Dakar, Senegal
Langue o r i g i n a l e :
Francais
POPULAR P E R C E P T I O N OF DEVELOPMENT I N WEST A F R I C A
Abstract: What Third World people, and e s p e c i a l l y the young, t h i n k about t h e i r
future is a component and an impor>tant element which p o l i t i c a l leaders should
take i n l o account. I t i s not, easy to know hou expZicitZy or - i m p l i c i t l y de' approach,
ve topment i s perceived.
Contrary t o the t r a d i ~ ' i - o n d' i n t e r v i e i ~
ENDA attempted t o dei-@?>minet h i s by employing an approach d i c h g i v e s t o men,
wornen and c h i m e n i n some West African c o u n t r i e s the p o s s i b i l i t y t o express
theinse t o e s ii)ith the mini-mum amount o f c o n s t r a i n t s , not a s they r e l a t e t o t h e
prvmco u t s i d e i n t e r l o c u t o r > , but in r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r concerns, t h e i r d&
cupations, t h e a c t i o n s i n uhic'h they find themselves engage&. The perception
o f t e n i n d i c a t e s u rapid and. radical a s s i m i l a t i o n of l i f e s t y l e s and landscape
of i n d u s ~ r i a t - i s e dc i t i e s , an v r t t u ~ i o r zof modern &an
c i v i l i s a t i o n . Sometimes i t suggests devezopment s t e m i n g from t h e demands, p o s s i b i l i t i e s and
c u l t u r e s e x i s t i n g l o c a l l y . The report r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n as t o h m p o l i t i c a l
and economic leaders and i n s t i t u t i o n s or i n t e r n a t i o n a l organisations concerned
uitk development can in the future r e a l l y take -into account popular percept i o n s and a s p i r a t i o n s . I t suggests t h i s i s possible f i r s t l y through a n a l y s i s
of t h e s e perceptions, then being open t o a range o f possible p o l i c i e s , on t h e
une hand in t h e ,"ace of the mimetic perceptions, and on the o t h e r , i n l i g h t
of t h e a s p i v a t i o n s touards endogenous development.
PERCEPCION
POPULAR D E L DESARROLLO E N A F R I C A D E L O E S T E
e s w n u n : f'.Qu&iip'ina e l 'pueblo d e l Tercer Mundo, y especiaLmente l o s .jovenes,
de su future? Este e s un elementc c l a v e que 10s l i d e v e s p o l i t i c o s deben
tenet' en cuania corn parte c o n s t i r u t i v u de B U S proyectos. No e s [ac-il saber
c24rrio se percibe el desa'p~oLlo, ya sea en forrna concreta o irnpl'icita. En vez
dc usar el metodo trudicior~aLde La entrev-ista, ENDA se acercb a t problems
yipleando un pLa'nbecm~iento que pr'ovocara de l o s hombres, mujeres y fivenes
ae ~ l ~ g u n opuises
s
de A f r i c a Occidental, u r n reacciSn i f e x p r e s i f " ~no en
r e l a r f i ' y form reaceii'n a1 i n t e r l o c u t o r , s i n o en r e l a e c i f n concrete. u sus
~ ~ ~ ~ u ~ :c ii not e nr e see ss quotidianas, s u s a c t i v i d a d e s . Los vesuttudos
z n u z ~ a na memido unu aeimilac-i"n ri'ipida y rwdical de e s t i l o s de vidu g
e s t r ' - i ~ c t ~ < rai'quitcr'turole.~
iis
de ( ~ ~ h d a d e¥indufstr'i(il7~r.ada
s
en irr.it,ac'i^n dc
( c o n t . en l a pagina lG(20)
Environnement e t Developpement en A f r i q u e (ENDA)
1/
PERCEPTION POPULAIRE D U BEVELOPPEMENT EN AFRIQUE OCCIDENTALE' C ' e s t au bout 2-2 I'ancienne cur& qu'on
t r e s s e l a nouve 7. Le" ( p w v e r h e fon, Gnir:!.
Ce que pensent de l e u r a v e n i r l e s hommes du T i e r s Monde - e t , t o u t
p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t , 1es jeunes - c o n s t i t u e une des composantes de 2'4volution en
eours e t Z'un des elements importants a prendre en eompte par l e s responsabtes
politiques.
O r , i 1 n ' e s t pas a i s e de s a v o i r comment, e x f l i e i t e r e n t , ou implicitement, e s t
p e r p Ie developpement. Des enqustes, menees avec enqueteurs e t q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , a u r a i e n t a p p o r t e des renseignements p l u t 6 t s u r l e s r e l a t i o n s e n t r e
c e l u i q u i e s t i n t e r r o g e e t c e l u i q u i i n t e r r o g e - p e r c u p l u s ou moins comme
r e p r e s e n t a n t de l ' a d m i n i s t r a t i o n - que s u r des o p i n i o n s q u a n t au f o n d du
probleme.
Une a u t r e approche s ' i m p o s a i t : donner aux hommes, femmes e t e n f a n t s de ces
pays l a p o s s i b i l i t 6 de s ' e x p r i m e r avec I e minimum de c o n t r a i n t e , non p a r
r a p p o r t 2 un i n t e r l o c u t e u r e x t e r i e u r z / , mais en r e l a t i o n avec l e u r s preocc u p a t i o n s , l e u r s s o u c i s q u o t i d i e n s , l e s a c t i o n s dans l e s q u e l l e s i l s se
t r o u v e n t engages ...
Pour l e s e n f a n t s ou 1es jeunes - d o n t beaucoup ne se l i v r e n t pas 2 des a c t i v i t e s p r o d u c t i v e s - l a page d ' e c r i t u r e ou l e c r o q u i s l i b r e , a p a r t i r d ' u n theme
suggere, s e r e v e l e n t des moyens d ' e x p r e s s i o n commodes. Pour l e s adul t e s , l e ?
d i s c u s s i o n s en t s t e 2 t s t e ou en groupe, a propos d ' u n probleme a c t u e l , d ' u n
p r o j e t , ou d ' u n e a c t i o n en cours, donnent sans doute un gage s u f f i s a n t de
credibilite.
Pour l e s p l u s jeunes comme pour l e s p l u s ages, en r i i l i e u u r b a i n comme en
m i l i e u r u r a l , on s ' e s t a t t a c h e a ne pas p r o c e d e r " g r a t u i t e m e n t " , mais 2 r e l i e r ,
au c o n t r a i r e , l ' i n t e r r o g a t i o n s u r l e f u t u r aux p e r s p e c t i v e s d ' a c t i o n s en
cours ou envisagees.
I/ L'extension de la recherche 2 d'autrpscontinents que llAfrique, envisagee
-
initialement, aurait mis en jeu des racteurs par trop h6tGrogenes,
notamment en termes culturels; il a paru souhaitable de limiter le champs
de 1'6tude 2 1'Afrique de 1'Ouest francophone. On a utilise, d'une part,
des donnees dej2 rassemblies par ENDA, mais n'ayant pas donne lieu,
jusqu'ici, 2 une exploitation synthetique et, d'autre part, les r6sultats
de recherches men6es specialement dans Ie cadre de la cooperation entre
FIPAD et ENDA. La carte ci-aprgs situe les zones dans lesquelles ont
&tG recueillies les donnGes sur lesquelles s'appuient les pages qui suivent.
21
-
Dans tous les cas, ont pris part 2 la demarche des personnes appartenant
au meme groupe culture! que celles avec qui se nouait le dialogue.
LOCAL1SATION
DES RECHERCHES ET OBSERVATIONS PRISES EN COMPTE
Grand Medina A
-0
C asamonce G
HAUTE -VOLTA
CAMEROUN
O r , dans l e s d i v e r s environnements, l a p e r c e p t i o n du f u t u r en g e n e r a l e t ,
p l u s p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t , des processus e t changements p o s i t i f s a t t e n d u s au c o u r s
des p r o c h a i n e s decennies - c e t t e v i s i o n v a r i e du t o u t au t o u t .
La p e r c e p t i o n , souvent, p o r t e s u r une a s s i m i l a t i o n r a p i d e e t r a d i c a l e aux
modes de v i e e t paysages des pays i n d u s t r i e l s , s u r un mimetisme de l a
c i v i l i s a t i o n u r b a i n e moderne. La p e r c e p t i o n , p a r f o i s , s ' a t t a c h e a l a persp e c t i v e d ' u n e e v o l u t i o n 2 p a r t i r des exigences, des p o s s i b i l i t e s e t de l a
c u l t u r e l o c a l e s . Face 2 ces t y p e s i n c o m p a t i b l e s de v i s i o n du f u t u r , un c h o i x
s'impose e n t r e plusieurs p o l i t i q u e s possibles.
I , P E R C E P T I O N DOMINANTE CHEZ L E S J E U N E S COMME CHEZ NOMBRE D E
CITADINS
ET DE RURAUX : LE D ~ V E L O P P E M E N T , C ' E S T L ' A C C E S A LA VILLE,
A L'AUTOMOBILE, A L A F O N C T I O N P U B L I Q U E .
Non seulement 1e mot "d@veloppement" (en f r a n ~ a i s )e s t connu dans de l a r g e s
couches de l a p o p u l a t i o n , mais i 1 declenche a u s s i t 6 t un c e r t a i n nombre de
clich&s g hi/siques.
Certes,
i 1 se p e u t q u ' o n y v o i e une rupture avec l e s tabous e t l e s v i e u x .
Pourtant, le contenu donne Ie plus frequemment au terrne est autre : le developpement n'est-il pas llacc@s 2 un niveau de vie et 2 un cadre de vie tels qu'on
suppose qu'ils sont dans 1es grandes agglomerations europeennes ou dans les
beaux quartiers des grandes villes africaines?
1. La manisre dont l'enfant ou le jeune percoit et dessine - en l'idealisant
le plus souvent - le m-itieu urbain exprime,pour une part, leur facon de voir
les changements futurs.
a) Ceci se verifie dans des dessin d'enfants, en majorite bidonvillois, au
Maroc et au Cameroun. Les dessins d'enfants de Douala montrent, notamment,
l'irnportance accordee 2 l'adaptation de la ville 2 la voiture ..." Curieusement, "les activites economiques, 1es usines, les ateliers ne sont jamais
representes". De meme, "les hommes et les travailleurs sont en partie exclus
de cette ville ou tout au moins sont-ils caches . . . i 1 s'agit en fait de la
ville moderne et de son centre commercial . . . " (ref. F).
"Le u e s . ~ : Y. ,~C ~r e p r 6 c ~ n t e1u.? ~ ) r ~ i r n c )?. i'eria'roi L PC u f t !i 'er!fu~.t, mais L ' c ~ : d r o i t
06 Z1/'cote t ' u p r e l l e a vivre" (rtf. F ) . Ainsi, ce qu'cn 'iit 2 trsvers ces
dessins, c'est bien une perception du developpernent en termes d'extension de
la ville moderne, de multiplication des immeubles et d'accroissement du trafic
automobile.
b) A Dakar, 2 travers 374 dessins d'eleves du primaire, on note l'importance des arbres d'agrement plantes 2 espace regulier, des drapeaux, des
voitures individuelles (ref. I). "Les dessins sont en general pauvres dans
1es quartiers moins favorises de la ville. Mais la difference est davantage
de degre que de nature. Elle manifeste 'Z'c'carr qui exisze m r r e des sr;far.ts
a&2 'in~&grLs( m h e modestement) 2 ta societ6 de ccr:s~f7"a'd.~r:
et seux a,.:-'
dsirent y partieivey m s y uvoir accAs" (ref. I).
c) Pour une meme categorie de la population, l'expression ecrite, ou
l'interview, ou la discussion de groupe peuvent reveler des probli2mes ou des
orientations que le dessin 2 lui seul ne traduisait pas, ou pas suffisamment.
En s'exprimant sur leur propre condition de jeunes, ceux-ci se projettent
inevitablement, et, avec eux, projettent leur perception de la societe future
Ce qui se degage de l'opinion de jeunes de la region du Cap Vert, d'un age se
situant entre 12 et 20 ans, c'est d'abord - chez quelques uns - un o[,~.-:rr,isne
I
lie, peut-etre 2 l'absence de responsabilite. La note dominante, cependant, reside dans le ser.tir'.ent a'une crise r>'dle. "Vraiment, 1es jeunes
d'aujourd'hui, $a ne va pas, hein!"
A cette conviction d'etre actuellement "en question", s'ajoute, chez les
jeunes, le sentiment d'une distance par rcrrcri av.x a d u l ^ : ; - - L1z.r^ ?ran&
d7:fpicultL 6 se f a i r e conprendr'e d'une generation don% 11s pensent differer
fondamentalement. "Les jeunes actuellement veulent effacer les tabous, beaucoup de choses que nos vieux veulent garder" (G. 17).
Dans ce contexte, 1e developpement est percu la fois comme ,,'i r7qr w c par rapport 2 la societ.6 et aux comportements des adultes - et comme ;AH oecompZ'i.ssenvnt,celui de la societe industrielle "moderne" dont on idealise
les fornies d'implantations possibles en Afrique.
d) Si, au lieu de s'adresser aux jeunes en general, on concentre 1 'attention
sur ceux qui habitent des quartiers populaires, decouvre-t-on une perception
fondamentalement differente ? Pour les jeunes interview& du quartier populaire de Grand Medine (Dakar), le developpement s'identifie avec la multiplication des equipements et des infrastructures et une reduction du nombre de
chGmeurs. "Ce qu'on veut, c'est des lampes, un nombre eleve de robinets, des
routes avec un rond-point et un terminus pour les cars, une maternite, une
ecole, un dispensaire, une pharmacie"; "le jour OCI on aura des routes goudronnees, une clinique, de llelectricit@, une grand? ecole, une maternite, Grand
Medine sera vraiment developpe.. . " (ref, 0).
Les dessins des enfants entre 8-12 ans expriment la meme attitude : Grand
Medine, 2 l'avenir, aura des grandes maisons, l'electricite, la television,
des cinemas, autant que dans les "beaux quartiers" de la ville.
En dessinant leur quartier, vu maintenant et 2 vingt ans de distance, c'est
en realit6 son remplacernent par la "ville moderne" qu'ils prevoient.
Ainsi, 1e developpement attendu par les jeunes de Grand Medine n'est pas le
produit d'une reflexion basee sur leur propre culture, d'une evolution endogene, mais i 1 est influence par la publicite, le style de vie des categories
sociales superieures et des ruropeens.
2. La p e r c e p t i o n moderne e t mimetique du developpement ne se l i m i t e pas aux
p o p u l a t i o n s u r b a i n e s . Vehiculee de c e n t facons p a r l e s medias e t 1es m i g r a n t s ,
e l l e s'inipose de p l u s en p l u s en r;iZieu rural, j u s q u ' a f a i r e b a s c u l e r bon
nombre de paysans dans un r e e l pessimisme s u r ce que p o u r r a i t s i g n i f i e r ,
pour eux, l e developpement s u r p l a c e .
a ) D ' o b s e r v a t i o n s f a i t e s en m i l i e u s e r e r e , dans l a zone de Thies (Senegal),
r e s s o r t un p r o f o n d decouragement i propos de l ' a v e n i r des campagnes. "Le
v i l l a g e e s t ma1 e n t r e t e n u ; personne ne f a i t r i e n pour l ' a m e l i o r e r . 11 n ' e s t
pas v i v a n t ; on s ' y ennuie c o n t i n u e l l e m e n t .
Au c o n t r a i r e l a v i l l e e s t grande . . .
a p p a r a i t comme l e l i e u du p r e s t i g e e t de l ' e f f i c a c i t e techniques, done de
l ' a m b i a n c e l i b e r a t r i c e , de l a f a c i l i t e , du p o u v o i r , l e l i e u oI3 chacun "peut
j'~i17e ce qd'il o e d , 06 i.2 Ze v e u t e t quanil il Ze v e u t " , oI3 chacun p e u t const i t u e r son environnement e s t h e t i q u e , m u s i c a l , a f f e c t i f , s e l o n ses d e s i r s . La
v i l l e elle-meme c o n s t i t u e un symbols e v i d e n t de r e u s s i t e e t de s u p e r i o r i t e..."
( r e f . L).
On se t r o u v e en f a c e d ' u n e i n s e r t i o n a n t i c i p e e e t imaginuire dans l a m o d e r n i t 6
c i t a d i n e , d 4 " u n e c e r t a i n e u r b a n i s a t i o n de l a p o p u l a t i o n jeune t o u t e e n t i e r e ,
largenient d i f f u s e s j u s q u ' a u x t r e s jeunes e n f a n t s p a r d i v e r s mass-media, const i t u e s a u t a n t p a r 1es r e c e p t e u r s r a d i o - t r a n s i s t o r s ecoutes de m a n i s r e q u a s i permanente que p a r l e s r e c i t s i d y l l i q u e s des n e o - c i t a d i n s l o r s q u ' i l s r e v i e n n e n t
r e g u l i e r e m e n t au v i l l a g e , v o i r e p a r l ' i n s t i t u t i o n s c o l a i r e q u i propose aux
e l e v e s un a v e n i r f l a t t e u r r e a l i s a b l e uniquement en v i l l e , l o i n des a c t i v i t e s
a g r i c o l e s e t du c o n t e x t e r u r a l " ( r e f . L ) ... "Le passe a p p a r t i e n t aux anciens
q u i on " j ' a z t L e w z q d ' .
1/
b) Au Za'ire, dans t r o i s zones r u r a l e s a l i m e n t a n t l ' e m i g r a t i o n v e r s Kinshasa-,
l a r e s i g n a t i o n e t l e decouragement marquent l ' a u t o s t e r 6 o t y p e des v i l l a g e o i s .
Le c u l t i v a t e u r de l a brousse se d e f i n i t comme s ' i l a v a i t f a i t s i e n n e l ' i d e e
q u ' e n t r e t i e n t a son 6gard I e c i t a d i n . Les v i l l a g e o i s ... v o n t a l a r e n c o n t r e
de l a m o d e r n i t e c a p i t a l i s t e en se donnant b a t t u s d ' a v a n c e . , . " ( r e f . N ) .
. Le p r 6 j u g e f a v o r a b l e a l ' e g a r d des gens de l a v i l l e a sans doute une
d o u b l e o r i g i n e : premierement, l ' e x p e r i e n c e r e e l l e du p r o p r e classement,
l ' h a b i t u d e des p r i v a t i o n s e t f r u s t r a t i o n s q u i s o n t I e p a i n q u o t i d i e n des
h a b i t a n t s de l a brousse e t , deuxiemement, une propagande s o c i a l e soutenue q u i
r e p s t e , j o u r apres j o u r , l a n e c e s s i t e d ' u n developpement economique e t s o c i a l
Un developd o n t on ne v o i t g u s r e 1es r e s u l t a t s dans l e q u o t i d i e n v i l l a g e o i s
pement done que l ' o n soupconne, avec r a i s o n , d ' 6 t r e p r o f i t a b l e seulement a
l a c a p i t a l s l o i n t a i n e . . . "La propagande i n t e n s i v e a propos d ' u n "d@veloppement" q u ' o n a t a n t de ma1 a v o i r a r r i v e r en m i l i e u r u r a l . . . a t t r i b u e , de
s u r c r o i t , l a l e n t e u r d ' a p p a r i t i o n des changements pr6nes a l ' i n e r t i e e t a l a
mauvaise v o l o n t e des paysans eux-m6mes : e l l e f i n i r a , a l a longue, p a r p e r suader l e s v i l l a g e o i s de l e u r impuissance ..." ( r e f . N ) .
...
I/
-
A t r a v e r s une e n q u s t e menee s u r l e s s t e r e o t y p e s d e c i t a d i n e s e t d e r u r a u x
a u ~ a ' i r ee t l l a n a l y s e d e c o r r e l a t i o n s e n t r e l e s r g p o n s e s que f o n t l e s uns
e t l e s a u t r e s , on s a i s i t c l a i r e m e n t q u e l l e e s t l e u r p e r c e p t i o n du
dCveloppement
(ref. N).
Dans ces c o n d i t i o n s , l e s p o s s i b i l i t e s d ' u n developpement a l a campagne, a
p a r t i r de ressources l o c a l e s , n ' o n t guere de p l a c e dans l e s p e r s p e c t i v e s :
l ' i n t e r e s s a n t , c ' e s t ce q u i se passe a l a v i l l e , e t l ' e x o d e vers l a grande
a g g l o m e r a t i o n c o n s t i t u e l a s e u l e p e r s p e c t i v e s e r i e u s e de developpement. Ze
dbvelopper, c ' e s t devenir e i t a d i n .
3 . E n t r e l a p e r c e p t i o n des c i t a d i n s e t c e l l e des r u r a u x , ] ' @ c a r t n ' e s t pas
a u s s i l a r g e q u ' o n 1e c r o i t souvent. A l a q u e s t i o n : dans v i n q t ans, q u e l
s e r a v o t r e a v e n i r ? 00 v i v r e z - v o u s ? 11,500 e l e v e s de l a d e r n i e r e annee o n t
repondu, dans I'ensemble du pays, avec une r e e l l e homogeneit.6.
L'image q u i s'impose, p l u s f o r t e que t o u t e a u t r e , aux jeunes t o g o l a i s en f i n
d ' e t u d e s p r i m a i r e s e s t c e l l s du f o n c t i o n n a i r e .
11 i n c a r n e 1e r e f u s du passe
r u r a l , l e p r e s t i g e de c e l u i q u i a e t u d i e e t voyage, 1e p o u v o i r d ' a c h a t de
q u e l q u ' u n q u i , chaque f o i s , r e c o i l de l ' a r g e n t f r a i s , q u i aura une a u t o m o b i l e
e t h a b i t e r a dans une maison a etages.
a ) Repulsion exercee p a r l e m i l i e u r u r a l e t a t t r a c t i o n i r r e s i s t i b l e de l a
v i l l e . D'abord, l a p l u p l a r t des m e t i e r s i n t e r e s s a n t s ne peuvent s ' e x e r c e r
a l a campagne.
Mais joue, a u s s i , l a v o l o n t e de rompre avec t o u t ce q u ' i n c a r n e n t l e s campagnes
r e t a r d e e s : " p a r c e que l a r e g i o n comporte t i n t de fermes e l o i g n e e s des v i l l a g e s , ces gens v i v e n t comme auparavant. 11s c r a i g n e n t l e s medecins e t prefer e n t g a r d e r 1es c h a r l a t a n s . Ces hommes v i v e n t comme des betes q u i ne v e u l e n t
pas se f a i r e v i s i t e r p a r des i n f i r m i e r s " . P a r c o n t r a s t e , l a v i l l e a p p a r a i t
comme l e l i e u 00 l ' o n p e u t a g i r e t f a i r e quelque chose. " E t p u i s j ' a i m e r a i s
v i v r e dans une v i l l e , s u r t o u t dans l a v i l l e , i 1 y a t o u j o u r s f e t e , on p e u t
y a l l e r v o i r , mais on e s t derange p a r l e s camions, 1es v o i t u r e s , l e s a u t o m o b i l e s , 1es moteurs, l e s velos. On y va a u s s i an c i n h a , au footba.22 chaque
dimanche a u s s i , U y a t o u t dans l a v-ille e t si j 1 a c h 2 t e quelque chose, c ' e s t
pr5s1' ( F . 1 4 ) .
D ' a u t r e s r a i s o n s du d e p a r t s o n t moins e x p l i c i t e s . Par exemple, on d e c e l e un
r e f u s de l a s o c i e t e " c l o s e " .
" J ' a i m e r a i v i v r e dans une v i l l e . J ' h a b i t e r a i
dans une maison moderne 00 nous s e r i o n s b i e n a I.'a-Lse, l i b r e comme j e 1e
v o u l a i s depuis mon enfance".
En b r e f , pour l a p l u p a r t des e l e v e s , q u i t t e r l e s campagnes e s t un p r e a l a b l e
a t o u t e promotion, en meme temps q u ' u n s i g n e d ' e n t r e e dans l e monde moderne.
Comme l ' e c r i t une f i l l e de 15 ans : " j e s e r a i dans l a c a p i t a l e , c ' e s t - a - d i r e
a Lome, pour e t r e b i e n c i v i l i s e e " (F. 15).
b)
Aspirations
a
un s a l a i r e mensuel pay6 p a r 1 ' E t a t
E t r e pay6 au mois c o n s t i t u e p r a t i q u e m e n t un gage de bonheur e t de v i e t r a n q u i l l e . Mais c ' e s t l a f o n c t i o n p u b l i q u e q u i a p p a r a i t comme l a g a r a n t i e
supreme. "Dans 20 ans - e c r i t , comme beaucoup de ses c o n d i s c i p l e s , un garcon
de 14 ans - j e pense e t r e un b u r e a u c r a t e " (M. 14); 1e terme n ' e s t n u l l e m e n t
p e j o r a t i f , b i e n au c o n t r a i r e . On s e n t , a t r a v e r s l e p l u s grand nombre des
reponses, une a s p i r a t i o n fondamentale : " j e n ' a i q u ' u n e s e u l e i d e e ... o b t e n i r
q u i me p e r m e t t r a d ' e t r e engagee dans un s e r v i c e t e l que l ' e n s e i g n e mon B.E.P.C.
ment dans l e q u e l j e s e r a i payee p a r l e gouvernement" (F. 1 4 ) . Une f i l l e de
13 ans resume l a chose : " j e s e r a i f o n c t i o n n a i r e dans un grand bureau" (F. 1 3 ) .
c)
D 6 s i r d ' u n e (ou p l u s i e u r s ) a u t o m o b i l e ( s ) .
Les e n f a n t s s o n t f a s c i n e s p a r l e s moyens de t r a n s p o r t moderne. En a b o l i s s a n t
l a d i s t a n c e , i l s 1es r a p p r o c h e n t des v i l l e s . Ces i n s t r u m e n t s c o n s t i t u e n t
a u s s i l e symbole du p o u v o i r q u i , i 1 n ' y a pas s i longtemps, e t a i t encore
exclusivenient e n t r e 1es mains des b l a n c s .
Le theme r e v i e n t constamment : " j ' a u r a i une r o i w r e que j e c o n d u i r a i au bureau"
(F. 1 3 ) . Les deux termes ( l e v e h i c u l e e t 1e s e r v i c e a d m i n i s t r a t i f ) s o n t
frequemment a s s o c i e s . Beaucoup songent q u ' i l s ne c o n d u i r o n t pas eux-m6mes.
J ' a c h e t e r a i une v o i t u r e e t j ' a u r a i un c h a u f f e u r q u i me c o n d u i r a au s e r v i c e "
(M. 1 2 ) . " J ' a c h e t e r a i une v o i t u r e Mercedes Benz e t un c h a u f f e u r personnel
me c o n d u i r a au s e r v i c e " .
d)
Une i d e e f i x e : l a niaison
a
etages.
C o n s t r u i r e c o n s t i t u e pour t o u s l e s e n f a n t s un o b j e c t i f e s s e n t i e l , mais l a
p l u p a r t p r e c i s e n t : "quand j ' a u r a i l ' a r g e n t , j e b i t i r a i une maison 2 etages"
(M. 16). Lr?LL;,re w r d e de ] ' e d i f i c e e s t vue avec beaucoup de r e a l i s m e .
"Ma maison sera b i e n c o n s t r u i t e e t enorme". " J e me t r o u v e r a i dans un grand
chateau avec ma f a m i l l e " .
"Pour me r e n d r e a i s e comme l e s b o u r g e o i s a m e r i c a i n s
e t f r a n ~ a i s , j e b i t i r a i l e g r a t t e - c i e l . . . (M. 13) : " j e c o n s t r u i r a i une
c o q u e t t e maison q u i sera e l e c t r i f i e e e t c a r r e l e e , p l u s j o l i e que l a maison du
P r e s i d e n t , e t mon p l a n sera f a i t en Europe p a r un grand g60m@tre1'(M. 1 4 ) .
"Les chambres s e r o n t c l i m a t i s e e s , aerees. Dans un o r d r e p a r f a i t . Les chambres
a u r o n t un v e n t i l a t e u r que j e m e t t r a i en f o n c t i o n au moment l e s p l u s chauds
de l a j o u r n e e . Toutes l e s p i e c e s s e r o n t p l e i n e s de b e l l e s g r a v u r e s " (PI. 1 4 ) .
A i n s i , 1e d e s i r d ' a v o i r un logement moderne se t r o u v e - t - i l an c e n t r e des asp i r a t i o n s des jeunes e t l e s t e r e o t y p e de ce t y p e de c o n s t r u c t i o n e s t c l a i r e m e n t
d e f i n i : en m a t e r i a u x i m p o r t e s , a p l u s i e u r s etages, avec v e n t i l a t i o n e t
cliniatisation.
La " m o d e r n i t e " , en f a i t , s e p r e s e n t e sous l e s formes d ' u n
t r i p l e mythe : se d e p l a c e r rapidement, v i v r e en v i l l e e t 6 t r e f o n c t i o n n a i r e .
L ' a u t o e t l e b u i l d i n g c a t a l y s e n t l e s d e s i r s p l u s ou rnoins vagues des e n f a n t s
de s o r t i r de l e u r s d i f f i c u l t e s presentes e t d ' a c c e d e r 2 une e x i s t e n c e en r u p t u r e avec 1e m i l i e u d ' o r i g i n e .
Ces propos des e c o l i e r s du Togo s ' a v e r e n t coherents avec 1es tendances que
r e v e l e n t d e s s i n s e t e n t r e t i e n s evoques pr@c@demment. Le d6veloppement e s t
p e r c u p a r beaucoup comnie l ' a c c e s r a p i d e 2 l a s o c i e t e de consommation de
l'occiaent.
4. La A ; i : , ~ o ~ z c , f '<!nLr,~26, d(of!loppernen~;~r&ui.sibLec / , 26 d ~ d c 2 o p p c m c n ? ,~ P
t e l q u ' i l se m a n i f e s t e dans 1es propos ou l e s d e s s i n s de c i t a d i n s ou de
r u r a u x , d e v i e n t un des aspects preoccupants de l a s i t u a t i o n presente.
Y ~ U ,
La c r o i s s a n c e des pays a f r i c a i n s p e r m e t t r a nombre d ' e n t r e eux, en d e p i t d ' u n
f o r t accroissenient de l a p o p u l a t i o n , de d o u b l e r l e p r o d u i t n a t i o n a l b r u t
p a r h a b i t a n t au c o u r s des v i n g t prochaines annees - ce q u i n ' e s t d 6 j a pas
s i ma1 cornme performance. Une e v o l u t i o n de c e t o r d r e p e r m e t t r a i t a l o r s 2
des pays r e l a t i v e m e n t " r e t a r d e s " de 1 ' A f r i q u e de 1 ' O u e s t de depasser s e n s i b l e ment l e n i v e a u a c t u e l de l a Cote d ' l v o i r e .
Cependant, c e t t e p e r c e p t i o n " r a i s o n n a b l e " du developpement n ' e s t n u l l e m e n t
p a r t a g e e p a r une l a r g e p a r t de l a p o p u l a t i o n u r b a i n e e t r u r a l e .
ECART ENTRE DEVELOPPEMENT PREVISIBLE
ET DEVELOPPEMENT PERCU
P . I.B. par personne
e t p a r an ( e n $ U.S.)
Pour ceux q u i p e r q o i v e n t 1e developpernent comrne l ' u r b a n i s a t i o n r a p i d e de l a
m o d e r n i s a t i o n 2 1'europeenne ou 2 l ' a m e r i c a i n e , l ' a c c e s de chacun 2 l ' a u t o m o b i l e
e t 2 un logement de t y p e b u i l d i n g ou v i l l a d o i t s ' o p e r e r dans un b r e f d e l a i l e s c i n q ou d i x prochaines annees.
Dans c e t y p e de p e r c e p t i o n , Ze de%eZopperne-nt, c ' e s t c e q u i p e r m e t t r a i t de u i u r e
d ' i e ' l m vinqtaine dl&es
c o m e en France, en Allemaqne Federate ou aux
Etats-Unis.
L ' e c a r t q u i s 1 a c c r o 7 t e n t r e l e s e s p o i r s ou a t t e n t e s de l a m a j o r i t 6 de l a
p o p u l a t i o n e t 1e p o s s i b l e ou I e p r o b a b l e va e n t r a i n e r des consequences d ' u n e
extreme g r a v i t e .
Se p o u r r a i t - i l q u ' u n des rnoyens de r e s o u d r e l a grave c r i s e q u i s'annonce, s o i t
de p r e n d r e appui s u r une a u t r e p e r c e p t i o n du developpement, p a r t a g e e p a r d i v e r ses c a t e g o r i e s de l a p o p u l a t i o n , mais, 1e p l u s souvent, o f f i c i e l l e m e n t i g n o r e e
ou o c c u l t @ e ?
11,
A S P I R A T I O N SENSIBLE CHEZ DE NOMBREUX PAYSANS ET C I T A D I N S :
UN DEVELOPPEMENT A PARTIR DE LEURS BESOINS, DE LEURS POSSIBILITES,
DE LEUR CULTURE.
Pour de l a r g e s couches p o p u l a i r e s d l A f r i q u e , l e concept de developpement evoque
b i e n a u t r e chose que l ' i m i t a t i o n des pays i n d u s t r i e l s .
1. Ceci e s t p a t e n t , d e j 2 , 2 t r a v e r s l e c^.oix &S expressions q u ' u t i l i s e n t l e s
langues a f r i c a i n e s pour e x p r i m e r "developpement".
Quelques examples s u f f i s e n t sans doute. Chez 1es Mossi de Haute-Vol t a , "developpement" se t r a d u i t p a r : arrangement, d e l i v r a n c e , b e l l e v i e , b e n e d i c t i o n d i v i n e ,
bonne renommee. Se developper se d i t " T c h i gaba" : a l l e r de l ' a v a n t , p r o g r e s s e r , f a i r e quelque chose de p l u s ( r e f . J ) . En pays barnileke (Bafon, Cameroun),
on u t i l i s e l e s termes "Ngen M b l i " ( a l l e r de 1 ' a v a n t ) . Dans l a langue des Dida
( C . I . ) , "opoue" v e u t d i r e : p a i x , l i b e r t e , bonheur. En pays l o b i (HauteV o l t a ) , on e m p l o i e l ' e x p r e s s i o n " l i d i b a r a " : r e u s s i r , se l i b e r e r , s ' e n s o r t i r .
2. 11 e x i s t e , cependant, d ' a u t r e s e x p r e s s i o n s - d i r e c t e s ou i n d i r e c t e s - de
l a m a n i s r e d o n t beaucoup de jeunes ou d ' a d u l t e s , v o i e n t l e u r a v e n i r e t , p a r
l a meme, c e l u i de l e u r r e g i o n ou de l e u r pays.
Par exemple, en Casamance, l e s d e s s i n s f o u r n i s s e n t nombre d ' i n d i c a t i o n s s u r
l a p r i s e en charge comrnunautaire de l ' i n d i v i d u , en meme temps que s u r l a
connaissance de l ' e n v i r o n n e m e n t r u r a l ( r e f . G ) .
D ' e n t r e t i e n s avec d i v e r s groupes de Peulhs au N i g e r e t en H a u t e - V o l t a ( r e f . 0 ,
C, E , K ) , se degagent a l a f o i s l a v o l o n t e d ' a m e l i o r e r l e s c o n d i t i o n s de v i e
e t c e l l e de g a r d e r l ' i d e n t i t e du groupe.
Le p r e m i e r a s p e c t a p p a r a i t , p a r exemple, dans l e d i a l o g u e avec 1es Peulhs du
Sahel voltaTque, pour q u i "d6veloppement" v e u t d i r e 2 l a f o i s p r o d u i r e p l u s
e t comprendre mieux.
N - S i q u e l q u ' u n v i e n t pour vous a i d e r 2 apprendre ce que vous v o u l e z s a v o i r ,
dans q u e l l e langue c e t homme-12 d e v r a i t - i l e n s e i g n e r ?
P - Nous voulons 1e p u l a r ( l a n g u e des P e u l h s ) , a f i n de mieux comprendre.
pour e c r i r e , l e p u l a r aussi ...
Et
N - Supposons q u ' o n f a s s e un p u i t s e t q u ' i l y a i t une c e r t a i n e maniere de
l'amenager, e s t - c e q u ' i l s u f f i t q u ' o n d i s e l a m e i l l e u r e maniere de p r o c e d e r ?
Ou b i e n e s t - c e q u ' i l f a u t , meme s i c e l a p r e n d beaucoup de temps, e x p l i q u e r
a u s s i pourquoi on d o i t f a i r e comme c e l a ?
P
-
N -
11 nous f a u t d i r e p o u r q u o i , c ' e s t mieux.
Mais c ' e s t p l u s long.
E s t - c e que vous pensez que c ' e s t u t i l e quand meme?
P - C ' e s t u t i l e , c a r nous comprendrons.
des choses.
Nous voulons s a v o i r l e pourquoi
On ne se t r o u v e pas devant des a t t i t u d e s d ' a t t a c h e m e n t e x c l u s i f 2 l a t r a d i t i o n
e t de refus de toute innovation. Ces pasteurs ou semi-pasteurs percoivent u n
developpement possible, mais generalement pas celui qu'on leur propose. 11s
veulent vivre mieux, mais selon leur culture e t leur s t y l e de vie propre.
Ainsi, se developper, dans ce contexte, c ' e s t avoir u n troupeau plus grand,
bien reparti en fonction des parcours possibles, eventuellement f a i r e pousser
un peu plus de mil, e t , en tout cas, avoir la dignite e t l e respect de ses pairs.
4. Un autre type de perception du developpement se manifeste dans des populations pour lesquelles - a la difference de ce qui s e passe pour les Touaregs
e t l e s Peulhs - l e risque que 1e modernisme n1emp6che l a survie socio-culturelle
d u groupe n ' e s t pas aussi marque.
a ) Des paysans ivoiriens, maliens, senegalais, togolais, volta'iques - vivant
souvent, 11 e s t v r a i , dans des zones plus ou moins "retardees" de leur pays exprinient une conception complexe du developpement : " 6 t r e responsable e t
independant vis-a-vis de la grande famille; garder l e prestige des psres e t
Gtre respecte; 6 t r e connu e t se rendre indispensable dans la soci6t6, 6 t r e
e q u i l i b r e " . A Konandougou (Haute-Vol t a ) , des paysans disent : "celui qui e s t
developpe, c ' e s t celui qui e s t l i b r e , qui possede sa t e r r e , qui e s t i n s t a l l 6
sur la t e r r e , qui a du savoir, qui a d u pouvoir". Autre perception : " c ' e s t
tout u n ensemble, une vie dans l a l i b e r t e , l a j u s t i c e , la sante, l e travail
dans l a paix jusqu'a la v i e i l l e s s e " .
b ) Certains aspects de ce que pourrait 6 t r e 1e developpement sont presque
toujours soulignes avec insistance par les populations rurales. Un leit-motiv
constant e s t celui de l ' e n t e n t e : " s ' o u v r i r aux a u t r e s , ne pas se reformer sur
s o i , pouvoir encourager les a u t r e s , savoir gerer pour gagner l a confiance des
autres. Etre u n intermediaire, regler les c o n f l i t s , 6 t r e regulateur, cr6er
u n groupement, creer l ' e n t e n t e continuelle".
Cependant, c e t t e entente, qu'on souhaite s i f o r t , on ne la conceit pas sur
n'importe quelle base. "Se dGvelopper e s t ne pas accepter I'injustice; ne
plus exoder". "Avoir tout ce que j e veux dans mon v i l l a g e , sans a l l e r chercher
a i l l e u r s " . "Gagner autant q u ' a l a v i l l e " . "C'est que tous les villages a
cote prennent 1 'exemple ( s u r nous)".
E t , pourtant, se developpper, encore, " c ' e s t changer ma manisre de vivre".
Aussi : " c ' e s t > r r v ,;oi'-niZmr, naturel". "Ne pas exagerer 1 ' imitation des
autres". "Bien aimer mon t r a v a i l de paysan (Ref. J ) .
3. La perception d u developpement par les paysans ou l e s pasteurs apparait
a u s s i , implicitement, 6 travers 1es choix q u ' i l s operent I o r s q u ' i l s ont reellement la p o s s i b i l i t e d ' a g i r pour se developper eux-m6mes.
Dans la boucle d u Niger, pr@s de Mopti, des Peulhs semi-cultivateurs semieleveurs ont voulu, avant t o u t , S c f - i : ~ ~ .Ensuite, c ' e s t vers l a sant6 q u ' i l s
se tournerent, e t , apres discussion en groupe avec des medecins, i l s publierent,
toujours dans leur langue, u n fascicule s u r l e s 14 maladies jugees 1es plus
graves e t comment 1es soigner en u t i l i s a n t , d'abord, l e s ressources locales.
Des exemples de ce genre demontrent comment, J a m I ' a c t i o n , nombre de ruraux
percoivent leur developpement comme indissociable de leur culture e t , tout en
s ' i n t e r e s s a n t aux accroissements de production e t de revenus, ne donnent pas
a ces o b j e c t i f s de p r i o r i t 6 absolue e t @ c a r t e n t , en t o u t cas, l ' i m i t a t i o n
s e r v i l e de 1 'Europe ou des E t a t s - U n i s. (Ref. R).
4. Entente duns Ie g r o u p on e n t r e g r o u p s , r e f u s de l a d@endance, a c c r o i t sement des a p t i t u d e s e t c o n m i s s a n e e s , p r o g r k e u l t u r e l s , sunt6 mezlleure
e t revenue plus 6 l e v k s , t e l s s o n t l e s termes d o n t u s e n t nombre de r u r a u x en
A f r i q u e de 1 ' O u e s t pour donner un contenu au concept de developpement. Chez
c e r t a i n s nomades ou semi-nomades ou chez c e r t a i n s groupes humains v i v a n t dans
des r e g i o n s jugees " r e t a r d 6 e s f ' , 1 ' a c c e n t e s t m i s p l u s nettement s u r l a s u r v i e
c u l t u r e l l e t a n d i s que, dans de l a r g e s s e c t e u r s de l a paysannerie p r a t i q u a n t
des c u l t u r e s de r e n t e , l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n des revenus prend une importance p l u s
grande. Le f a i t n ' e n demeure pas moins q u ' i l e x i s t e une p r o p o r t i o n i m p o r t a n t e
d l A f r i c a i n s , dans c e t t e p a r t i e o c c i d e n t a l e du c o n t i n e n t , pour v o i r l ' a v e n i r
en termes de changements p o s i t i f s , mais pas uniquement q u a n t i t a t i f s necess a i r e m e n t conformes aux modeles importes.
5. L ' e x i s t e n c e de deux types p r i n c i p a u x de p e r c e p t i o n du developpement ne
d o i t p o u r t a n t pas E t r e i n t e r p r e t e e comme une d i c h o t o m i e n e t t e des o p i n i o n s e t
des comportements.
a ) D'abord, i 1 s e r a i t i n e x a c t de p r e s e n t e r l e s choses comme s ' i l y a v a i t
o p p o s i t i o n t r a n c h e e e n t r e l e m i l i e u u r b a i n e t l e m i l i e u r u r a l . Dans l e s v i n e s ,
s i T o n excepte l e s beaux q u a r t i e r s oCI l e s m e n t a l i t e s s o n t 1e p l u s souvent
profondement o c c i d e n t a l i s e e s , i 1 n ' e s t pas r a r e que l ' o n r e n c o n t r e des percept i o n s ambivalentes du developpement.
C ' e s t I e cas a Grand Medine 00, s ' i l e s t v r a i que l a r e f e r e n c e aux modeles
i m p o r t e s domine, l e developpement e s t p e r c u neanmoins comme comportant d ' a u t r e s
aspects. "Ce q u i f a i t que Grand Hedine nous p l a i t , c ' e s t que ses h a b i t a n t s
s e n t calmes, g e n t i l s , v e u l e n t du b i e n e t s o n t u n i s . Car, en f a i t , c ' e s t ca
un q u a r t i e r : une p o p u l a t i o n u n i e , des p a r e n t s u n i s e t b i e n s u i v i s p a r l e s
jeunes, u n i s comme eux, pour que l e q u a r t i e r s o i t s a i n " .
L ' i n t e r l o c u t e u r , q u i a e t 6 au c o n t a c t des h a b i t a n t s de ce q u a r t i e r p o p u l a i r e
de Dakar a r a i s o n de m e t t r e en evidence l ' h @ t i ? r o g e n 6 i t @des p e r c e p t i o n s :
"comment r e s o u d r e ce c o n f l i t , de chercher une m e i l l e u r e s a t i s f a c t i o n des
b e s o i n s fondamentaux p a r une e v o l u t i o n en d i r e c t i o n des pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s
e t , en meme temps, de j u g e r n e c e s s a i r e de c o n s e r v e r l e s q u a l i t e s e t v a l e u r s
i m m a t e r i e l l e s i n c o m p a t i b l e s avec une t e l l e e v o l u t i o n ? " ( r e f . 0 ) .
C o n s t i t u a n t , p o u r a i n s i d i r e , une r e p l i q u e r u r a l e a ce t y p e de s i t u a t i o n
u r b a i n e , c e r t a i n s c u l t i v a t e u r s m a n i f e s t e n t , dans c e r t a i n e s campagnes profondement penetrees p a r l e s f l u x c u l t u r e l s e x t e r i e u r s - comme au Za'i're - un
attachement a des v a l e u r s que l e s modeles i m p o r t e s e x c l u e n t en g e n e r a l . "Les
v i l l a g e o i s se s e n t e n t , beaucoup p l u s que l e s c i t a d i n s , comme p a r t i e d ' u n t o u t ,
comme s o l i d a i r e s e t v i v a n t en communaut6s : une s o l i d a r i t e e t un rassemblement ..." ( r e f . N) e t c e c i r e s t e , 3 l e u r s yeux, un p o i n d ' a p p u i v a l a b l e pour
un v r a i developpement.
b ) Au demeurant, 11 ne f a u d r a i t pas non p l u s s'imagi'ner q u ' i l e x i s t e un
p a r t a g e geographique n e t des t y p e s de p e r c e p t i o n s . Certes, on t r o u v e des zones
quartiers populaires
quartiers
dc; s t a n d i n g
moyen
beaux q u a r t i e r s
z o n e ofi l a p e r c e p t i o n m i m e t i q u e d u d e v e l o p pement e s t p l u s o u m o i à £ y M & r a l i s K
z o n e oh l a p e r c e p t i o n endog4ne d u d e v e l o p pement e s t p l u s ou
moins gdniralisee
l a p e r c e p t i o n du developpement s ' e s t g e n e r a l i s e e e t d ' a u t r e s ou ce q u ' o n
p e u t a p p e l e r l a p e r c e p t i o n endogene domine p l u s ou moins. Cependant, l a
s i t u a t i o n dans l e s d i v e r s ensembles spaciaux e s t beaucoup p l u s nuancee. En
v i l l e , i l ' i n t e r i e u r des q u a r t i e r s p o p u l a i r e s , l a p e r c e p t i o n dorninante des
jeunes n ' e s t pas necessairement c e l l e des a d u l t e s chez q u i on t r o u v e , p l u s
frequemment, des p o i n t s de vue composites. Dans l ' i n t e r i e u r du pays, l a r e p a r t i t i o n des d i f f e r e n t s p o i n t s de vue e s t v a r i a b l e : i 1 se peut, a i n s i , que
c e r t a i n e s r e g i o n s " r e t a r d e e i ' a i e n t v i r e a l a p e r c e p t i o n mimetique t a n d i s que
d ' a u t r e s , au c o n t r a i r e , c o n s t i t u e n t des t e r r a i n s p r o p i c e s pour une p e r c e p t i o n
endogene du d6'~eloppement.
OCI
c ) E n f i n , i 1 n ' e s t n u l l e m e n t e x c l u que des p e r c e p t i o n s c o n t r a d i c t o i r e s se
m a n i f e s t e n t chez l e s rnemes personnes, s u i v a n t 1e c o n t e x t e dans l e q u e l s e pose
l a q u e s t i o n ( c a d r e s c o l a i r e , a c t i o n p r o d u c t i v e . . . ) , s u i v a n t l e s p o i n t s de vue
p r e v a l a n t dans des groupes proches, ou s u i v a n t l ' a p t i t u d e que l ' o n c r o i t
d e c e l e r chez l ' i n t e r l o c u t e u r 2 mieux comprendre t e l l e p e r c e p t i o n , ou t e l l e
autre.
Ce q u i e s t c l a i r , en t o u t cas, c ' e s t que 1es f l u x c u l t u r e l s l e s p l u s dynamiques
e t 1es p l u s d i f f u s v e h i c u l e n t a c t u e l l e r n e n t l a p e r c e p t i o n mimetique du developpement. C e r t a i n s f l u x c u l t u r e l s , d ' o r i g i n e l o c a l e dans l a p l u p a r t des cas,
s ' e m p l o i e n t , avec p l u s ou moins d ' i n t e n s i t e , a d i f f u s e r l e s themes de l ' a u t o developpement - en g e n e r a l sans un appui s u f f i s a n t des a u t o r i t e s .
Q u i e s t p l u s grave. dans l i e a r - ~ i m~ T - l c c - v h r , l ' e s s e n t i e l p o r t s s u r des
r e a l i s a t i o n s mimetiques e t f o r t pen, f i n a l e m e n t , s u r l ' a p p u i 2 des groupes de
base c o n t r i b u a n t a repondre eux-memes 2 l e u r s b e s o m s , s e l o n l e u r s p r o p r e s
conceptions e t 2 p a r t i r de l e u r s r e s s o u r c e s . La p l u p a r t de ces a c t i o n s o u t
e t e decidees e t r e a l i s e e s sans meme que l ' o n s ' i n q u i e t e de l a p e r c e p t i o n du
developpement chez 1es groupes humains auxquels e l l e s s ' a d r e s s a i e n t .
111,
P R I S E EN COMPTE
POPULATION
DES
PERCEPTIONS DU DEVELOPPEMENT PAR LA
Peut-on mener une p o l i t i q u e q u i a i l l e 5 l a r e n c o n t r e de l a p e r c e p t i o n que l a
m a j o r i t 6 de l a p o p u l a t i o n ou que l a m a j o r i t e des jeunes a de son a v e n i r ? Ou,
f o r m u l e autrement, comment l e s responsables p o l i t i q u e s ou @conomiques peuventi l s , a l ' a v e n i r , p r e n d r e r e e l l e m e n t en compte l e s p e r c e p t i o n s e t l e s a s p i r a tions populaires?
S i l ' o n v e n t repondre 5 l a q u e s t i o n , ce q u i s ' i m p o s e d ' a b o r d , c ' e s t une a n a l y se de ces p e r c e p t i o n s p o p u l a i r e s . E n s u i t e , s ' o u v r e l a g a m e des p o l i t i q u e s
p o s s i b l e s , d ' u n e p a r t devant l e s p e r c e p t i o n s mimetiques e t , d ' a u t r e p a r t ,
devant l e s a s p i r a t i o n s a un p r o g r e s endogene.
-1
v r a i m e n t ce que s o n t l e s c o n c e p t i o n s b i a i s e e s du p r e s e n t e t du
1.
f u t u r e s t beaucoup p l u s i m p o r t a n t q u ' l l n l a p p a r a U d'ernblee.
L
P
~
a ) I 1 e s t e s s e n t i e l , pour e x p l i q u e r l e s o p i n i o n s e t comportements, de s a v o i r
ce q u ' u n e l a r g e p a r t de l a p o p u l a t i o n e t , s u r t o u t , l e s jeunes, " v o i e n t " , ce
q u ' i l s ne p e r c o i v e n t pas e t ce q u ' i l s o c c u l t e n t .
b ) 11 n ' e s t pas a i s @ de s a v o i r s i 1es gens c r o i e n t v r a i m e n t , ou pas, que l a
s o c i e t e de consommation i n d u s t r i e l l e , a l ' i m a g e de c e l l e que c o n n a i s s e n t l e s
pays dlEurope on d1Am6rique du Nord, se t r o u v e 2 l e u r p o r t e e . La m a j o r i t @ ,
s e m b l e - t - i l , c r o i t v r a i m e n t a v o i r une chance d ' y acceder un j o u r .
En a t t e n d a n t
que se c o n c r e t i s e c e t t e chance, beaucoup v i v e n t dans un environnement i m a g i n a i r e - ce q u ' u n f i l m comme c e l u i de Jean Rouch, "Moi, un N o i r " , ou c e l u i de
Ousmane Seinbene, " X a l a " , o n t f o r t b i e n rnis en evidence.
C e r t a i n e s i m p a t i e n c e s ou r e v e n d i c a t i o n s , a l o r s que t a r d e l ' a c c e s a l a s o c i e t e
de consommation, expriment, en f a i t , une p r o f o n d e a l i e n a t i o n , au sens
s o c i o l o g i q u e du terrne.
c ) Ceci e x p l i q u e un consensus beaucoup p l u s l a r g e q u ' o n ne l e c r o i t avec
l e s o r i e n t a t i o n s generales du developpernent c h o i s i e s p a r l a p l u p a r t des
gouvernements de ces pays d l A f r i q u e de 1 ' O u e s t . L ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n a l ' e u r o peenne, l ' i m p o r t a t i o n de b i e n s de consommation d e p u i s l a v o i t u r e de l u x e
j u s q u ' i c e r t a i n e s denrees a l i m e n t a i r e s , l e s i n v e s t i s s e m e n t s m a s s i f s dans l e s
c o n s t r u c t i o n s u r b a i n e s de s t a n d i n g , t o u t c e l a correspond 5 l a c o n c e p t i o n que
se f a i t du developpement l a m a j o r i t e de l a p o p u l a t i o n . Ce n ' e s t pas seulement
p a r c e que, precisement, l e j o u r n a l , l a r a d i o , l e s d i s c o u r s f o n t de ces photog r a p h i c s , de ces a r t i c l e s , de ces r e p o r t a g e s des temoignages de ce q u ' i l s
a p p e l l e n t " d ~ v e l o p p e m e n t " q u ' o n y adhere; c ' e s t , p l u s profondement, parce
q u ' i l s c o n c r e t i s e n t l a r e a l i s a t i o n du r e v e .
d ) En f a i t , l e s emplois crees dans l ' i n d u s t r i e v o n t 6 t r e l i m i t e s , 1es
p r o f i t s des o p e r a t i o n s d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n ou d'equipement i r o n t 5 un p e t i t
nombre, l e s h 6 p i t a u x l e s p l u s modernes n ' a c c u e i l l e r o n t que peu de
patients, etc. : la perception mimetique du developpement, largement partagee
par les diverses couches de la population, fait parfaitement l'affaire d'une
categorie sociale restreinte qui, elle, profite directement de ce type de
developpement" et entretient ainsi, au yeux du plus grand nombre, l'illusion
qu'il pourrait, un jour, y prendre part.
e) Cependant, 2 la perception du developpement mimetique et au concert
d'approbations allant au developpement 5 l'occidentale, se melent quelques
fausses notes. Certains commencent ii percevoir qu'on gagne peu 2 la "loterie",
ou que la chance passe toujours pour les memes, et ceci alimente des reactions
d'aigreur et parfois des comportements de revolte, notamment chez les jeunes
qui ne trouvent guere de possibilites d'emploi, mane s'ils ont poursuivi leurs
etudes.
Dans l'evocation, plus haut, de l'ecart existant entre l'evolution probable des
pays d1Afrique de 1'Ouest et celle qui serait necessaire pour repondre aux
aspirations de la majorite de la jeunesse et d'une part importante de la population urbaine et rurale, la courbe previsible du niveau des revenus entre to
et t 2 exprime
~
des moyennes. Si les tendances actuelles se poursuivaieni,
cette courbe devrait etre decomposee en deux elements : pour 10;. de la population, peut-etre, une premiere courbe (e) se caracteriserait par une croissance
rapide, amenant 2 un niveau de vie eleve une fraction limitee des citoyens,
tandis que l'autre courbe (p) marquerait une tendance i une croissance extremement lent?, voire - dans certains pays - 2 la stagnation. Or, tout se passe
actuellement comme si seule la courbe qui s'eleve 1e plus rapidement (e) etait
visible et comme si l'autre (p) ne l'etait pas. Ainsi, ban nombre des habitants
d'un pays per~oivent le developpement dont un nonibre limit6 de leurs compatriotes va tircr btntiice au cours des annees proches comrne s'il leur etait
promis ii tous.
2. Quelle pourrait Stre, face ii cette situation, l'attitude de responsables
politico-economiques ou d'institutions souhaitant oeuvrer pour "un autre
developpement"?
L'un des risque8 les plus graves, pour les conceptions endogenes du developpement, est qu'elles soient ressenties comme marquees du sceau de llarchaTsme,
du "retour" au passe pre-colonial et de la reaction, au sens technique et
social du terme. De fait, parmi ceux qui partagent l'optique de l'autodeveloppement, figurent quelques citadins "d'un certain age" et nombre de
paysans de zones parmi les,plus retardees du pays. A l'oppose, la contestation
du pouvoir des adultes et des vieux alimente la conception mimetique du
developpement : e11e fait plus novatrice, plus "dans le vent". On sait combien
les idees-forces valent non par leur seul contenu rationnel mais bien par leur
charge affective. Pour qu'elle s'impose en Afrique de l10uest, une conception
comme celle de l'@cod6veloppement ou de l'autodeveloppement a besoin d'une
connotation de progres, de modernit6 et de jeunesse qui la rende suffisamment
attractive.
I1 importe de composer avec 1e courant moderniste, et sur 1e fond et sur la
forme. S i l ' o n ne p e u t a s s u r e r aux jeunes l a possession d ' u n v e h i c u l e e t d ' u n
h a b i t a t modernes, p e u t - S t r e peut-on, au moins, l e u r g a r a n t i r une c e r t a i n e p a r t
aux d e c i s i o n s e t un minimum de t r a v a i l c a r i 1 e s t impensable q u ' o n r e f u s e 2 l a
f o i s aux jeunes l ' a c c e s aux b i e n s e t l ' a c c e s au p o u v o i r .
de o e r m i n s eharigemerts e t , a u s s i , 2 k u r s
On d e v r a i t s ' a t t a c h e r 6 l a r>Lo.Zi-/-&
r
s
. Le developpement, c ' e s t a u s s i line e v o l u t i o n du paysage de l a v i e
q u o t i d i e n n e , de ses p o i n t s de r e p e r e , de ses s i g n e s .
b ) Ce p r e m i e r aspect d ' u n e p o l i t i q u e p o s s i b l e d e v r a i t a l l e r de p a i r avec
une o p e r a t i o n de r e f l e x i o n colLect-ive SUP l e s p o s s i b i ' i i t 6 s e t l e e noyens r & e l s
L
d6ueloppefient. que l ' o n imagine menee aux echelons locaux, r e g i o n a u x e t
n a t i o n a u x , e t o r c h e s t r e e comme i 1 c o n v i e n t p a r l e s mass media.
c ) E n f i n , on ne v o i t pas comment on p o u r r a i t e v i t e r 1e f-iltrage des flux
c u Z t u r e l s provenant de Z r e x t 6 r i e u r .
C ' e s t 12 un des aspects l e s p l u s d e l i c a t s d ' u n e n o u v e l l e p o l i t i q u e , t a n t e s t
grand l e danger, d ' u n e p a r t , que s ' e t a b l i s s e une censure s e c t a i r e , ou xenophobe,
ou f a v o r i s a n t un p o u v o i r p e r s o n n e l , ou b i e n que l ' o n a b o u t i s s e a une coupure
de l ' e x t e r i e u r q u i devienne dangereuse p o u r l a v i t a l i t e de l a c u l t u r e e t pour
l e developpement lui-meme. Mais peut-on l a i s s e r l e s mains l i b r e s a n ' i m p o r t e
q u e l marchand de p e r c e p t i o n s ou d ' i l l u s i o n s .
d) F-erar2c appuz ai,r l e s a s p i r a t i o n s 2 un progrss endogpne c o n s t l t u e une
c o n d i t i o n s i n e qua non pour l a m i s e en oeuvre d ' u n " a u t r e d6veloppement". Pour
c o m t d t t r e l a d e f o r m a t i o n des p e r c e p t i o n s e t a s p i r a t i o n s , l e s i n s t a n c e s
s ' o r i e n t a n t v e r s l ' a u t o - d e v e l o p p e m e n t ou 1 ' 6 ~ 0 - d e v e l o p p e m e n t o n t 2 v a l o r i s e r
l ' a u t r e maniere de p e r c e v o i r l ' a v e n i r , c e l l e q u i c o n s i s t e 2 l ' i d e n t i f i e r comme
un p r o g r e s a p a r t i r des c u l t u r e s a f r i c a i n e s , r e a l i s 6 p o u r l ' e s s e n t i e l p a r
ceux q u ' i l concerne, 2 p a r t i r de l e u r s b e s o i n s e t de l e u r s p r o p r e s e f f o r t s .
Ceci p o u r r a i t se t r a d u i r e p a r d i v e r s t y p e s d ' a c t i o n , p a r exemple : l a m u l t i p l i c a t i o n de r e n c o n t r e s e t d'echanges e n t r e l e s groupes p e r c e v a n t I e developpement comme une e n t r e p r i s e endogene, l a m i s e en p l a c e de sgst6rnes d'informaL i o n a l a 'base a l ' i n t e r i e u r des groupes paysans ou c i t a d i n s (ou endore de
groupe 2 groupe), l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n de stages i n s e r e s dans l e s annees d ' e t u d e s ,
de s e j o u r s s a i s o n n i e r s v o l o n t a i r e s , de l i e n s de p a r r a i n a g e ou de jumelage
g e n e r a l i s a n t l e s c o n t a c t s e n t r e l e s d i v e r s e s c a t e g o r i e s de l a p o p u l a t i o n .
En meme temps, une r e v i s i o n du d i s c o u r s h a b i t u e 1 s u r 1e developpement s ' i m p o s e
- dans 1es e c o l e s , dans l a presse, a l a r a d i o , dans l e s ceremonies e t r e u n i o n s p o u r p r e n d r e des d i s t a n c e s p a r r a p p o r t 2 l ' h a b i t u e l b l a - b l a m o d e r n i s t e e t
mimetiquel/.
I/
-
Parmi l e s c o n t r i b u t i o n s dtENDA au d e b a t s u r l ' a l t e r n a t i v e e d u c a t i o n n e l l e ,
on p o u r r a s e r e p o r t e r 2 l a r e v u e Environnement A f r i c a i n , s u p p l e m e n t s
"Etudes e t r e c h e r c h e s " , no. 15, j a n v i e r 1 9 7 7 ( J . B u g n i c o u r t - "Education
c n v i r o n n e r n e n t a l e e t developpement en A f r i q u e " , e t n o , 31 (V. A l t a r e l l i Herzog e t P . J a c o l i n - " L 1 6 c o l e d 6 t o u r n 6 e 1 ' ) . a i n s i q u ' a u document ENDA
[lo. 8 (Ben Mady C i s s e e t J . B u g n i c o u r t - " ~ u e l l ef o r m a t i o n pour l'amgnagemerit d e s environnements a f r i c a i n s " )
.
Le d e f i , i c i , e s t de ne pas s u b s t i t u e r u n centralisme a u n a u t r e , e t de nouvell e s forrnes de manipulation e t de propagande 3 d ' a u t r e s . L'adoption d'une
perception du developpement comrne un processus endogene e t autonome n ' e s t poss i b l e que s ' i l e x i s t e l'amorce de multiples actions p a r t i c i p e e s dans l e s q u e l l e s
l a population reconnaisse l e s termes q u ' e l l e emploie dans s a propre langue
pour designer "developpement" , retrouve l e s defini t i ons qui sont l e s siennes
e t i d e n t i f i e des cheminements dont e l l e a @prouve l a pertinence. A l a d i f ference de l a perception mimetique - qui s ' a l i m e n t e de projections l o i n t a i n e s
ou d i f f e r &
l a perception endogene t i r e s a c r e d i b i l i t e de l'environnement
inmediat, ne s u b s i s t e - semble-t-i1 - e t ne s ' e t e n d qu'appuyee s u r une r e a l i t 6
lourde deja des siqnes du changement.
-
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F d n e (Senegal) : analyse d'une s i r i e de romans-photos a f r i e a i n s " ,
E.N.E.S.S., Lyon, octobre 1978, 208 p . roneotype. E t , "La v-ille e t s e s
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Dakar, juin 1979, 22 p., roneotype.
A. Schwarz, "Le dheloppernent in4qo.1. au Za7're : fragments d'une approehe
psycho-sooiolo37:quef', Uni versi t@Lava! (Quebec) e t Congres i n t e r n a t i o n a l
des etudes a f r i c a i n e s (Kinshasa), dec. 1978, 26 p . , roneotype.
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Gram-Medine", 1979, 11 p., roneotype.
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ALFOR, ENDA, Dakar, mai 1979, 9 p . roneotype.
Opinions des jeunes du Cap-Verb d ' a p r e s 1000 rcponses de jeunes gens a
l a q u e s t i o n : "Que pensez-vous de vous-m6me en t a n t que j e u n e ? " ( r e g i o n du
Cap-Vert, 1979), sous l a d i r e c t i o n de M. Chort, Centre dlEchanges C u l t u r e l s
de Langue F r a n c a i s e , non p u b l i c , Dakar, 1979.
~
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' t ~ ~ r w r tkse
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mn:,r,e.
!)ig, undre(m~ca-,*,~~
thincgs - ~ J L P ~ ' ~ [ I F Z Pc'r! t h e
see i l ~ e r ,y71r7ct.
0 ~ on
t
t l i g e:i<76, g
par Philippe d ' l r i b a r n e
Centre de recherche sur 1e bien-6tre ( C E R E B E )
140, rue d u Chevaleret
75013 Paris, France
Langue originale:
Francais
R6sum6: Duns une dconomie de march&, p l u s i e u r s types de mdcanismes poussent
6 la surconsomnation. Des e n t e n t e s e n t r e pr'oducteurs p e w e n t entraver 'La comr n e w i a l i s a t i o n de produits bon march6 ou durables; l e s consommateurs sont mat
i n f o r m i s : I ' a s p e c t e x t d r i e u r des prmh.iits ( s h r it 6 , h ~ y i c n e , durabi li.te,
buonomie c i ' e x p l o i t a t i o n ) Les renseigne ma2 sur Z'uptitu.de 2 L'emploi de ce
q u r i Z s a c h z t e n t . Mais pour I ' e s s e n t z e l , l a s u r c o n s o m a t i m e s t due 2 un
a'utre type de m6cunisme. EZZe provient du f a i t que l e choix des consommateurs
sont Loin de n ' a v o i r dlirifZuence que sup l e u r propre v i e ; a i n s i Z ' u t i l i s a t i o n
d'une venture e s t Loin de n ' a f f e c t e r que son u t i i z s a t e u r , mais a f f e e t e
8galement a u t r u i . Meme lovsque nous ne s o m e s pas a f f e c t & par Zes mnsommations d ' a u t r u i duns l e u r s e f f e t s ' u t i l i ta'ives ', nous Ze sovsnes presque
~ o u j o ' u r sduns leuz-s e f f e t s ' e x t r a - u t i l i t a i r e s ' .
C ' e s t en f a i t l a consummation
reLa.tioe qui e s t Ze grand r6guZateur de l a surconsommation. C e l l e - c i e s t
ooCteuse en termes de resseurcos e t de temps, e t eZZe se tradui-t en d e f i n i t i v e
par une d 6 t h i o r a t i o n de La quaZit4 ae la v i e .
L'auteur rr~ontreque la surconsormation ne correspond pas settlement 2 un
gaspillage, mais qu ' e n r e a l i z e ur^e vuIeur d 'usage 6quivalente p u r r a i t Ztre
obtenue par un rnod2le de consommation mains dispendieus:. I 2 presents un
c e r t a i n n m b r e de suggestions qui permettraient d'dr-onorniser ressources e t temps.
REDUCING OVER-CONSUMPTION
Abstract: Several types o f economic and s o c i a l mechanisms tend t o lead t o
over'-comwiption i n industr'iaZized market economies: producers may tend t o
succeed 'in marketing products u i t h & I t - i n
obsolesc'enc:e; consumers may be
badly informed regarding hygiene, s e c u r i t y , d u r a b i l i t y of products on t h e
market, and t h i s c r e a t e s important s i d e e f f e c t s ; c e r t a i n products ( l i k e motor
a x ) c r e a t e important diseconomies ( n o i s e , congestion, c i t y planning), ~ h i c h
ericumber t h e uhole s o c i e t y ; and t h e phenomenon of r e l a t i v e consumption becomes
prevalent diereby e o n s m e r s determine the+ needs on the consumption pattern
und l e v e l s 01' o t h e r consumers. Over-consumption i s very c o s t l y i n terms o f
both rcsourees and time: i t i s characterized by a 71eq i n t e n s i v e use o f nonreneuable resourc-es, and i t imposes s a c r i f i c e s on s o c i e t y uhioh m a n i f e s t
themselves in a decreasing q u a l i t y of l i f e .
(Continued on page lO(30).
Philippe dlIribarne
La surconsommation q u i regne dans l e s pays i n d u s t r i e l s e s t souvent denoncee, en
f o n c t i o n de deux t y p e s de p r e o c c u p a t i o n s :
-
des p r 6 o c c u p a t i o n s t e n a n t aux i n c o n v e n i e n t s d ' u n e u t i l i s a t i o n i n t e n s i v e des
ressources non r e n o u v e l a b l e s ( e n e r g i e s f o s s i l e s , m a t i e r e s premieres m i n e r a l e s ) ;
une t e l l e u t i l i s a t i o n obgre l ' a v e n i r de l ' h u m a n i t e ; de p l u s e l l e correspond a
un modele de developpement economique q u i n ' e s t pas g e n e r a l i s a b l e i l ' e n s e m b l e
de c e l l e - c i e t n ' e s t done pas c o m p a t i b l e avec un o r d r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p l u s
equitable ;
- des p r 6 o c c u p a t i o n s t e n a n t i l a q u a l i t e de l a v i e de c e u x - l a m6me q u i "ben e f i c i e n t " d ' u n h a u t n i v e a u de consommation. C e l u i - c i e s t obtenu au p r i x de
s a c r i f i c e s e l e v e s en m a t i e r e de c o n d i t i o n s de t r a v a i l , de s a t u r a t i o n du temps,
de p e r t e d ' i n s e r t i o n s o c i o - c u l t u r e l l e , e t ces s a c r i f i c e s p a r a i s s e n t d i s p r o p o r t i o n n e s p a r r a p p o r t aux avantages q u ' i l s p e r m e t t e n t d ' o b t e n i r .
Un examen d e t a i l 1 6 du modele de consommation q u i p r e v a u t dans ces pays, e t en
p a r t i c u l i e r en France, t e n d 2 f a i r e penser que ces c r i t i q u e s s o n t p e r t i n e n t e s :
une q u a l i t 6 de s e r v i c e e q u i v a l e n t s en m a t i e r e de consommation p o u r r a i t 6 t r e
obtenue en u t i l i s a n t moins de ressources en rnatieres premieres e t en ternpsi/.
Ceci s a u t e aux yeux s i l ' o n c o n s i d e r e l e s s e u l s e f f e t s " u t i l i t a i r e s " de l a consommation ( q u a l i t 6 n u t r i t i o n n e l l e de l ' a l i m e n t a t i o n , e f f e t s pharmacodynamiques
des medicaments, i n f l u e n c e des moyens de t r a n s p o r t s s u r l ' u t i l i s a t i o n du temps).
En l a m a t i e r e i 1 p a r a i t c l a i r q u ' o n p o u r r a i t m a i n t e n i r l a q u a l i t 6 de s e r v i c e
a c t u e l l e en r e d u i s a n t considerablement l e s depenses r e a l i s e e s ( e n t o u t cas de
m o i t i e semble-t-il).
De p l u s c e l a r e s t e v r a i quand on prend egalement en compte ce q u i r e l e v e de
1"'extra-utilitaire".
Une bonne p a r t i e des e f f e t s correspondants, b i e n connue
des hommes de m a r k e t i n g , e s t lice aux m o t i v a t i o n s des i n d i v i d u s a o b t e n i r des
b i e n s q u i l e u r donnent l ' i m p r e s s i o n d ' 6 t r e "8 l a h a u t e u r " , ou mieux " p l u s q u ' i
l a h a u t e u r " , a ses propres yeux, comme aux yeux des a u t r e s . En l a m a t i e r e chacun
p e u t E t r e " p l u s a l a h a u t e u r " en augmentant ses depenses p a r r a p p o r t i un n i v e a u
de consommation "normal" donne. Mais l e "normal" e s t quelque chose d'eminemment
r e l a t i f , c ' e s t h a b i t u e l . C ' e s t ce q u ' o n v o i t a u t o u r de s o i , c ' e s t l e "moyen" des
g e n s comme s o i " . Quand l a r i c h e s s e c r o i t , l e "normal" s ' 6 l G v e l u i a u s s i , e t en
moyenne personne n'avance p a r r a p p o r t a l u i . Donc en moyenne, personne n 1 a m 6 1 i o r e
sa s i t u a t i o n . E t un n i v e a u de consommation p l u s bas p o u r t o u s p r o c u r e r a i t une
s i t u a t i o n analogue aux uns e t aux a u t r e s . Pour d ' a u t r e s e f f e t s , ce q u ' o n o b t i e n t
n ' e s t pas l i e aux depenses que l ' o n r e a l i s e , meme au n i v e a u i n d i v i d u e l . 11 en e s t
a i n s i pour t o u t ce q u i r e l e v e de l a v a r i e t e , de l a f a n t a i s i e , que p a r exemple l e
h i p p i e t r o u v e mieux que l e PDG dans son h a b i l l e m e n t .
I/
-
C f . P h i l i p p e d l I r i b a r n e , La p o l i t i q u e du b o n h e w ( L e S e u i l : 1973), e t
Le g a s p i l l a g e e t l e d e s i r (Fayard : 1975).
Si on raisonne par rapport au veritable but de la production (l'obtention d'une
qualite de service @levee) notre economie presente des pertes de rendement considerable~. Sa productivite finale est nettement plus basse qu'elle ne pourrait
Stre. Ce qui est obtenu en ameliorant sans cesse la productivite de l'appareil
productif, est en grande part perdu par la faible productivite obtenue dans 1e
passage de la production a l'usage.
D'oQ vient la surconsommation ?
Dans une 6conomie de marche, plusieurs types de mecanismes poussent 2 la surconsommation et si dans nos societes une organisation collective est mise en
place pour pallier les effets de certains d'entre eux, e11e ne le fait pas pour tous.
Des ententes plus ou moins occultes entrc pr~ducteurspeuvent entraver la commercialisation de produits bon march6 ou durables (on cite couramment le cas des
bas nylon, des ampoules, des huiles de voiture vendues en vrac). Mais, comptetenu en particulier de l'action des pouvoirs publics, ce type de phenomene ne
parait concerner serieusement qu'une part infime de notre consommation.
Les consommateurs sont ma1 inform&.
Souvent l'aspect exterieur des produits
(securite, hygiene, durabilite, economie d'exploitation, etc.) 7es renseigne ma1
sur l'aptitude 2 l'emploi de ce qu'ils achetent. De plus l'information que l'experience permet d'acquerir est limitee quand i 1 s'agit de produits dont les achats
ne se renouvellent qu'a intervalles eloignes (logement, 6lectromenager, voitures,
produits durables en general) ou qui ne sont pas standardises (nombreux produits
alimentaires). Toutefois de nombreuses actions tendent ii limiter cette sous-information ou ses inconvenients. Toute une reglementation vise a eviter que ne
soient mis sur le marche des produits peu satisfaisants pour le consommateur ;
e11e le fait de maniere classique pour tenir compte des questions d'hygiene
et de securite, mais aussi plus recemment des questions d'economie d'exploitation
(Cf. 1es normes d'isolation des logements). Par ailleurs ?'information des consommateurs tend 5 s'ameliorer de multiples manieres (developpement des essais
comparatifs, prescriptions relatives aux informations donnees par les emballages,
etc.).
Pour l'essentiel la surconsommation est due ii un autre type de mecanisme. E11e
provient du fait que 1es choix des consommateurs sont 10%
de n'avoir d'influence
que sur leur propre vi&l/.
Ainsi l'utilisation d'une voiture est loin de n'affecter que son utilisateur, mais
affecte egalement autrui. Chacun de nous voit sa vie influencee par les voitures
des autres. Nous sommes genes par les encombrements qu'elles creent sur 1es routes
et dans 1es rues. Leur bruit trouble souvent notre sommeil. Nous supportons la
pollution qu'elles engendrent. Elles nous font courir des dangers. Or, quand
chacun decide d'utiliser ou non sa voiture, i 1 ne prend en compte que les effets
sur lui-meme et non les effets sur les autres. 11 peut lui arriver, pour obtenir
un transport un peu plus agreable pour lui-meme, d'apporter aux autres une gene
qui depasse de beaucoup les avantages qu'il obtient. Et si tous en font autant,
l/
-
Cf. le rapport annexe sur Les dsterminants de la surconsommation.
-. - -
t o u s se t r o u v e n t au t o t a l p e r d a n t s . En p a r e i l l e s i t u a t i o n un e t a t s a t i s f a i s a n t pour
chacun ne p e u t r e s u l t e r du s i m p l e concours des a c t i o n s i n d i v i d u e l l e s g . E l l e
demande une o r g a n i s a t i o n c o l l e c t i v e c r e a n t des zones p i e t o n n i e r e s , l i m i t a n t 1e
b r u i t e t les pollutions, etc.
Ce genre de s i t u a t i o n se r e n c o n t r e t r e s frequemment. Meme l o r s q u e nous ne sommes
pas a f f e c t e s p a r l e s consommations d ' a u t r u i dans l e u r s e f f e t s " u t i l i t a i r e s " , nous
1e sommes presque t o u j o u r s dans l e u r s e f f e t s " e x t r a - u t i 1 it a i r e s " , q u i c o n s t i t u e n t
en g e n e r a l l ' e s s e n t i e l . En e f f e t comme ce que chacun o b t i e n t en l a m a t i e r e depend
de l a maniere d o n t sa consommation se s i t u e p a r r a p p o r t aux consommations "normales"
e t comme ce "normal" correspond a ce que f o n t l e s a u t r e s , c ' e s t en f a i t l a consommation r e l a t i v e q u i compte. On e s t dans une s i t u a t i o n analogue a c e l l e de l a
course aux armaments 013 c ' e s t l'armement r e l a t i f q u i compte. Faute d ' a c c o r d s de
desarmement chacun r e a l i s e des depenses q u i se n e u t r a l i s e n t l e s unes 1es a u t r e s ,
pendant que demeurent l e s s a c r i f i c e s que chacun a c o n s e n t i s en v a i n de son c o t e .
Ce d e r n i e r mecanisme e s t l e grand r e g u l a t e u r de l a surconsommation du temps des
i n d i v i d u s . Aussi h a u t que s ' e l e v e 1e n i v e a u de consommation, on p e u t t o u j o u r s a l l e r
p l u s l o i n dans l a c o m p e t i t i o n des signes, sans qu'aucune s a t u r a t i o n p u i s s e i n t e r v e n i r . A un i n s t a n t donne l a course a l a consommation s ' a r r e t e quand l e temps des
i n d i v i d u s e s t suffisamment s a t u r e e t q u ' i l s s o n t suffisamment f a t i g u e s pour que
l e j e u cesse d ' e n v a l o i r l a c h a n d e l l e . Le n i v e a u d ' e q u i l i b r e a t t e i n t e s t f o n c t i o n
de l ' i n t e n s i t e de l a c o m p e t i t i o n q u i se l i v r e a t r a v e r s l a consommation ( e t l e
travail).
11 s ' a b a i s s e quand l a c o m p e t i t i o n e s t moins v i v e , s t e l e v e quand e l l e
e s t p l u s v i v e . A i n t e n s i t e donnee de l a c o m p e t i t i o n t o u t e augmentation de p r o d u c t i v i t e , comme t o u t e d i m i n u t i o n des g a s p i l l a g e s " t e c h n i q u e s " , c r e e une s i t u a t i o n
de d e s e q u i l i b r e en augmentant l e temps d i s p o n i b l e e t en r e d u i s a n t l a f a t i g u e .
E l l e r e l a n c e en a v a n t 1e " c y c l e du m e i l l e u r " j u s q u ' a ce que l ' a p p a r i t i o n de nouveaux b i e n s q u ' i l f a u t p r o d u i r e e t consommer r e c r e e un e t a t de s a t u r a t i o n . E t
c e t t e s i t u a t i o n a de grandes consequences en m a t i e r e de l u t t e c o n t r e l a s u r consommation.
Que f a i r e
On p e u t se p r o p o s e r d ' a m e l i o r e r l a s i t u a t i o n a c t u e l l e avec des o b j e c t i f s p l u s
ou moins a n i b i t i e u x :
-
un p r e m i e r o b j e c t i f de l u t t e c o n t r e l e g a s p i l l a g e des ressources n a t u r e l l e s
( e n e r g i e s non r e n o u v e l a b l e s , metaux d o n t l a consommation e s t f o r t e p a r
r a p p o r t aux r e s e r v e s m o n d i a l e s ) ;
- un deuxieme o b j e c t i f de l u t t e c o n t r e l e g a s p i l l a g e du temps que 1es i n d i v i d u s
p e r d e n t dans l a p r o d u c t i o n e t l a consommation d ' o b j e t s q u i n ' a j o u t e n t r i e n
ou presque r i e n a ce que l e u r p r o c u r e l e u r environnement m a t e r i e l ;
- un t r o i s i e m e o b j e c t i f d ' o b t e n t i o n d ' u n e v i e m e i l l e u r e .
La d i f f i c u l t 6 des problGmes a resoudre, e t l a n a t u r e des mesures q u i p a r a i s s e n t
opportunes, v a r i e n t s u i v a n t l ' o b j e c t i f que l ' o n c o n s i d e r s ; e t a m e l i o r e r l a
s i t u a t i o n s u i v a n t l e p r e m i e r p o i n t de vue n ' e n t r a i n e pas necessairement d ' a m e l i o r a t i o n s u i v a n t l e second ou l e t r o i s i e m e .
I/ C f . l a t h e o r i e economique des e f f e t s e x t e r n e s .
Economiser 1es ressources n a t u r e l l e s
On p e u t dans un premier s t a d e chercher a d i m i n u e r l a c o n s o m a t i o n de ressources
n a t u r e l l e s , sans v o u l o i r r e d u i r e 1e temps que l e s i n d i v i d u s consacrent 5 p r o d u i r e
e t a consommer. P a r e i l r e s u l t a t p e u t 6 t r e obtenu en d i m i n u a n t l e s c o n s o m a t i o n s
q u i , a temps donne (temps de p r o d u c t i o n p l u s temps de consommation) s o n t l e s p l u s
voraces en ressources n a t u r e l l e s , sans m o d i f i e r pour a u t a n t l a p l a c e que l a
consomnation t i e n t globalement dans l a v i e des i n d i v i d u s . MSme s i l ' e c o n o m i e de
temps a i n s i r e a l i s e e r e l a n c e l e " c y c l e du m e i l l e u r " , ce s e r a en developpant des
consommations u t i l i s a n t en moyenne moins de r e s s o u r c e s n a t u r e l l e s que l e s consommations supprimees. A i n s i p a r exemple s i on r e a l i s e une m o d i f i c a t i o n du
modele de consommation d i m i n u a n t l e s depenses de c h a u f f a g e e t de t r a n s p o r t , e t
q u ' i l se p r o d u i t c o r r e l a t i v e m e n t une r e l a n c e de c y c l e du m e i l l e u r p a r l a consomm a t i o n de p r o d u i t s a base d ' e l e c t r o n i q u e (magnetoscopes, t 6 l e v i s i o n s 5 &ran geant
i n f o r m a t i q u e domestique, e t c . ) on aura r e a l i s 6 des economies d ' e n e r g i e .
P r o g r e s s e r dans c e t t e v o i e demande des mesures d ' u n t y p e r e l a t i v e m e n t c l a s s i q u e .
La p r i s e de conscience du f a i t q u ' e l l e s ne d i m i n u e n t pas l a q u a l i t e de s e r v i c e
q u ' a p p o r t e 1e modele de consommation d o i t f a c i l i t e r l e u r m i s e en oeuvre.
P a r e i l l e s m e s u r e s s e n t specialement f a c i l e s 2 a p p l i q u e r l o r s q u e , d i m i n u a n t ses
depenses sans a l t e r e r n i ce q u ' i l o b t i e n t en m a t i e r e de q u a l i t e de s e r v i c e u t i l i t a i r e
n i en m a t i e r e de signes, e l l e s a m e l i o r e n t l a s i t u a t i o n du consommateur i n d i v i d u e l ,
independamment de ce que f o n t l e s a u t r e s l / . A i n s i en 1974 en France un d e c r e t a
r e l e v e l e s normes d ' i s o l a t i o n des c o n s t r u c t i o n s neuves pour o b t e n i r une i s o l a t i o n
o p t i m a l e " , compte-tenu du cofit t o t a l r e p r e s e n t s p a r l e s depenses d ' i s o l a t i o n e t
1es depenses de chauffage.
P a r e i l l e mesure a e n t r a i n @ des d i m i n u t i o n s de depenses
a q u a l i t 6 de s e r v i c e u t i l i t a i r e donnee, sans a f f e c t e r 1es e f f e t s de s i g n e de l a
consommation. B i e n des mesures du m6me t y p e s o n t envisageables.
11 s e r a i t u t i l e
p a r exemple de developper l e s o b l i g a t i o n s des p r o d u c t e u r s en m a t i e r e de s e r v i c e
apres-vente, e t n o t a m e n t de duree pendant l a q u e l l e i l s d o i v e n t S t r e en @ t a t de
f o u r n i r l e s p i e c e s de rechange n e c e s s a i r e s 2 l a r e p a r a t i o n des b i e n s . En mSme
temps q u ' o n reglemente on p o u r r a p a r f o i s u t i l e m e n t mieux i n f o r m e r l e s consommateurs
s u r l e c a r a c t e r e i n u t i l e m e n t cofiteux de c e r t a i n s p r o d u i t s voraces en m a t i e r e s
premieres e t mieux u t i l i s e r l ' e c o l e pour e v e i l l e r l ' e s p r i t c r i t i q u e des jeunes
consommateurs. Mais i 1 f a u t 6 t r e c o n s c i e n t des l i m i t e s des p o s s i b i l i t @ s d ' i n f o r m a t i o n e f f i c a c e des i n d i v i d u s dans des domaines t r @ s t e c h n i q u e s . L o r s q u ' o n a
a f f a i r e a des g a s p i l l a g e s e v i d e n t s , sans aucun avantage d'aucune s o r t e pour 1es
consommateurs, l a v o i e de r e g l e m e n t a t i o n p a r a i t se j u s t i f i e r t o u t a u t a n t que
l o r s q u ' i l s ' a g i t d ' h y g i e n e e t de s e c u r i t e .
La q u e s t i o n se complique l o r s q u ' o n a a f f a i r e a des surconsommations q u i l o r s q u ' o n
ne c o n s i d e r e que l e s s e u l s e f f e t s u t i l i t a i r e s p a r a i s s e n t v i s i b l e s dGs l e n i v e a u
i n d i v i d u e l , mais ne l e d e v i e n n e n t q u ' a un n i v e a u c o l l e c t i f l o r s q u ' o n prend egalement
en compte l e s e f f e t s de s i g n e ( o u meme l o r s q u ' o n a a f f a i r e 2 des surconsommations
q u i ne peuvent S t r e mises en evidence p o u r l ' u n e t l ' a u t r e t y p e d ' e f f e t s q u ' e n se
1/
-
S i e l l e s s o n t neanmoins u t i l e s , c ' e s t a l o r s parce que l ' i n f o r m a t i o n des cons o m a t e u r s e s t i n s u f f i s a n t e . On e s t dans une p e r s p e c t i v e c l a s s i q u e de
" ~ r o t e c t i o ndu consommateur" .
situant un niveau collectif). Une meilleure information des consommateurs est
dans ce cas radicalement insuffisantell. En principe i l parait souhaitable de
diminuer les pertes de rendement economique n6es de la compi5tition du "meilleur"
entre consomateurs, en fixant certains plafonds aux caracteristiques des biens
qui sont mis sur le marche. Lorsque le d6veloppement de certaines caract6ristiques
au-deli d'un certain seuil n'a plus aucun avantage utilitaire appreciable, mais ne
joue qu'ii titre de signe intervenant par son niveau relatif (par exemple la
puissance et la vitesse des automobiles) une telle limitation parait opportune
(sous reserve bien scr qu'elle soit annoncee suffisamment a l'avance pour que les
producteurs aient le temps de sly adapter). En la matiere, ce A quoi les individus
sont le plus attaches est "d'6tre a la hauteur" (par exemple ne pas avoir une
voiture qui "fait moche" par rapport 5 celle d'autrui). I1 est beaucoup moins
important de "faire mieux". Fixer un plafond assez bas permettrait 2 un grand
nombre d'individus, se trouvant tous au plafond, d'etre egalement " 2 la hauteur",
avec des gaspillages r6duits. En augmentant ainsi l'efficacite de notre economie
on reduirait du meme coup les inegalites entre consommateurs. Cette fixation
de plafonds pourrait etre completee par un certain contr6le de l'innovation dans
les domaines 00 i l n'est pas facile d'afficher des performances plafonds, de
maniere eviter des innovations qui, sans interst utilitaire, ne font que relancer
une competition des signes 00 les actions des uns et des autres se neutralisent.
Mais pareille voie ne va pas sans probl6mes.
La plupart des individus paraissent en effet peu conscients du fait que, comptetenu des effets de signe, ce qu'ils tirent de leur consommation depend largement
du niveau relatif de celle-ci. 11s risquent d'gtre plus sensibles 5 ce que des
mesures fixant des plafonds de consommation leur enlevent directement, qu'2 ce
qu'elles leur apportent indirectement. Ces mesures risquent donc de n'stre guere
populaires. Encore pourront-elles 116tre relativement facilement quand la gene
produite par les consommations des autres a un caractere physique, et que limiter
les consommations de chacun ameliore de maniere tres visible la situation de tous
en matiere "utilitaire" ( i l en est ainsi dans une certaine mesure pour l'usage de
l'automobile en zone urbaine). Mais quand la gene creee par autrui passe uniquement par la degradation de la valeur de signe des consommations de chacun,
on peut s'attendre 5 des reactions peu favorables 2 la fixation de plafonds.
Pareille gene n'est en effet pas socialement reconnue comme telle. On aurait
tendance en la matiere a moins critiquer le geneur que celui qui se plaint (en
accusant ce dernier dostre jaloux, envieux, etc.). Pour pouvoir neanmoins avancer
i l parait necessaire de developper dans l'opinion une plus juste percepti~n des
voies par lesquelles la consommation influence la qualit6 de la vie, et des effets
positifs de r@ductions concertees de consommation.
I1 importe de voir que, des lors qu'on tient compte aussi bien de ses effets indirects que de ses effets directs, toute reduction de consommation n'a pas
necessairement des effets favorables en maticre d'economie des ressources naturelles.
En effet si elle touche des produits peu voraces en matieres premieres une telle
reduction est susceptible d'entrainer, 2 travers une relance du "cycle du meilleur",
l/
Car llint@r@t d'un individu, 5 comportement des z t r e s donne:, n'est pas
identique a celui de chacun, p
quand
les comportements de tous varient si-.ppp
mu1 tancment.
une transformation du modele de consommation conduisant, au total, a une plus
grande consommation de ressources naturelles. Ainsi d6velopper la vente de
produits en vrac incorporant peu de services (correspondant aux tzches de pr6sentation, de publicite, de fabrication d'emballages sophistiqu6s) et donc moins
coGteux, est susceptible d'entrainer au total, les 6conomies ainsi faites par les
consonunateurs leur permettant 1 'achat d'autres produits, une augmentation de la
consommation de ressources naturelles.
Economiser le temps
Les mesures que l'on vient d'evoquer sont susceptibles d'aider, grace 2 une r6duction
du gaspillage de ressources naturelles, a mieux m6nager l'avenir de 14humanit6 et
obtenir un ordre international plus @quitable. Mais elles ne conduisent pas 2
diminuer le temps gaspillt? dans la comp6tition de la consommation (et a fortiori
d1am61iorer la "qualit6 de la vie"). Les modifications du modele de consomnation
auxquelles elles peuvent conduire sont sans influence sur la r6alisation de tels
objectifs.
On peut se proposer d'aller plus loin dans la lutte contre la surconsommation, et de
chercher reduire le temps que les individus gaspillent, en produisant et en
consommant.
Pour obtenir pareil resultat on pourrait penser a des mesures techniques ou 6conomiques (rCglementation, taxation, etc.). Mais une telle voie ne risque gu6re de
conduire bien loin. Comme la publicit6 n'a guere d'effet sur le volume global
de consommation, on ne peut attendre grand chose de sa limitation. Par ailleurs
il parait impensable de fixer de maniere autoritaire un modele global de consommation. De toute manisre on n'imagine guere dans nos soci6t6s, 2 la fois
d6mocratiques et elitistes, ni qu'on puisse fixer des niveaux de consommation
diff6rents pour des segments diff6rents de la populationl/, ni qu'un meme niveau
soit fix6 pour tous. De plus fixer de maniere autoritaire une dur6e de travail
nettement plus basse que celle qui se pratique en l'absence de reglementation
aurait sans doute comme effet principal d'entrainer un d6veloppement massif d'un
travail noir alimentant une 6conomie "parall@le" (telle qu'on le trouve en Italie
et dans certains pays de llEst). Non seulement on n'aurait pas, ou gu@re, diminut?
le gaspillage du temps, mais on aurait entrains un d6veloppement de la fraude
et sans doute de la corruption.
I1 paraitrait plus efficace de chercher a acc616rer 1'6volution en cours qui tend
dans certains groupes a diminuer la valeur sociale de la consommation, et donc 2
mod6rer 1es forces qui poussent en avant le "cycle du meilleur". Si, par exemple,
tout le monde savait mieux que ceux qui sont habituellement "en avance" (cadres,
jeunes) choisissent souvent de r6duire en grande proportion leur consomation
de viande, l'attachement pour celle-ci en serait diminu6. 11 serait alors plus
facile aux diet6ticiens de nous convaincre que son ingestion n'est en rien
sp6cialement utile. Plus largement la diffusion des comportements traduisant moins
de sacrifices globaux faits la consommation (et ne correspondant pas 2 une simple
l/ Pratique qui a exist6 dans bien des soci@t6s, pour certains 6lements de consommation, en particul ier les vctements, sous la forme de "lois somptuaires".
-
d g f o r m a t i o n du modele de c o n s o m a t i o n ) p o u r r a i t e t r e f a v o r i s e e p a r l a d i f f u s i o n
d ' i n f o r m a t i o n s p o r t a n t s u r l e s comportements de ceux q u i s o n t "en avance" en l a
matigre.
Mais il f a u t b i e n v o i r que f a i r e a i n s i gagner du temps aux i n d i v i d u s ne l e u r
p e r m e t t r a pas forcement d ' o b t e n i r une v i e m e i l l e u r e , ( t o u t en pouvant p a r c o n t r e
6 t r e p o s i t i f en m a t i e r e de recherche d ' u n e moindre surconsommation de ressources
n a t u r e l l e s ) . En e f f e t s i l e s r a p p o r t s e n t r e i n d i v i d u s r e s t e n t marques p a r l a
c o m p 6 t i t i o n , changer l e t e r r a i n s u r l e q u e l se d 6 r o u l e c e l l e - c i , r i s q u e de n ' e n t r a i n e r
q u ' u n e m o d i f i c a t i o n de l a maniere dont l e temps e s t g a s p i l l e . A i n s i il p o u r r a
1 ' E t r e dans des c o m p 6 t i t i o n s p o r t a n t s u r des s a v o i r s p l u s ou moins " c u l t u r e l s " ,
s u r des l o i s i r s s o p h i s t i q u 6 s meme s ' i l s ne s o n t pas cofiteux en a r g e n t , e t c . l / ,
t o u t a u t a n t q u ' i l l ' e s t a c t u e l l e m e n t dans l a consommation ( i 1 s e r a g a s p i l l 6
dans l a mesure oG dans ces c o m p 6 t i t i o n s 3 c o m e dans l a c o n s o m m a t i o ~ , c ' e s t l e
n i v e a u r e l a t i f de performance q u i compte, e t O
t oI
uI
t l e monde p o u r r a i t donc se
r e t r o u v e r au m6me p o i n t s i i n t e r v e n a i t une r e d u c t i o n coordonn6e du temps que l e s
La q u a l i t 6 de v i e p o u r r a t o u t e f o i s
uns e t l e s a u t r e s depensent pour " r 6 u s s i r " ) .
E t r e amiilior6e s i l a matisre sur l a q u e l l e p o r t e l a comp6tition e s t d ' u n i n t e r e t
i n t r i n s e q u e p l u s grand que 12 consommation ; mais e l l e p o u r r a au c o n t r a i r e se
dggrader s i l a m a t i e r e e s t moins i n t e r e s s a n t e , ou e s t s u s c e p t i b l e d l @ t r e 2 l ' o r i g i n e
de domages p l u s severe5 ( p a r exemple s i 1 ' o n r e v i e n t ii des a f f r o n t e m e n t s physiques
v i o l e n t s , ou ii une recherche de p o s i t i o n s de f o r c e dans un a p p a r e i l de p o u v o i r
t r e s o p p r e s s a n t ) . De t o u t e m a n i s r e il p a r a i t e x c l u que, s i l ' o n r e s t e dans une
l o g i q u e de c o m p @ t i t i o n , on o b t i e n n e l a " v i e m e i l l e u r e " d o n t r e v e n t nos contemporains.
O b t e n i r une v i e " v r a i m e n t m e i l l e u r e "
S o r t i r de l a surconsommation p o u r r e t r o u v e r l e temps de v i v r e , e t non p o u r gasp i l l e r son temps autrement, v o i l 5 ce q u i p a r a i t d e s i r a b l e en f i n de compte ; l e
temps de v i v r e , c ' e s t - a - d i r e d ' e x i s t e r g r a t u i t e m e n t , de r e n c o n t r e r a u t r u i en
v 6 r i t 6 , sans s a c r i f i e r son temps e t ses Gnergies ii r i v a l i s e r avec l u i .
l l a i s v o u l o i r c e l a c ' e s t poser des probl@mes q u i depassent de l o i n l a sphere de
l a c o n s o m a t i o n , ou meme ce q u i p e u t S t r e obtenu p a r une a c t i o n p o l i t i q u e .
I 1 e x i s t e un grand nombre de s o c i e t e s 013 l e temps n ' e s t pas devore p a r l'engagement
dans une forme ou une a u t r e de c o m p e t i t i o n . Mais l e r 6 s u l t a t a i n s i obtenu ne l ' e s t
pas sans c o b t s . Dans beaucoup d ' e n t r e e l l e s ( e t c ' e t a i t l e cas dans l e s s o c i e t e s
t r a d i t i o n n e l l e s ) l a c o m p @ t i t i o n e s t e n t r a v e e p a r une f o r t e p r e s s i o n s o c i a l e q u i
s ' e x e r c e a l ' e n c o n t r e de c e l u i q u i v o u d r a i t @chapper ii l a p l a c e que l a s o c i e t 6
l u i a s s i g n e e t l e s t e n s i o n s l a t e n t e s s o n t c o n s i d 6 r a b l e s . Oans d ' a u t r e s , e l l e
l ' e s t g r 2 c e au di2veloppement d ' u n e n e u t r a l i t 6 a f f e c t i v e p a r r a p p o r t ii ce q u i e s t
s u s c e p t i b l e d 1 6 t r e e n j e u de c o n f l i t s , mais l e s emotions p o s i t i v e s t e n d e n t a g t r e
n e u t r a l i s e e s t o u t comme l e s , @ m o t i o n s n e g a t i v e s ( c e t t e v o i e , q u i a e t 6 s y s t e m a t i s 6 e
p a r l e Boudhisme, se t r o u v e specialement dans l a zone d ' i n f l u e n c e de c e l u i - c i e t
en Amerique Andine). Une s o c i e t e ii l a f o i s l i b r e non c o m p 6 t i t i v e e t chaleureuse,
r e l e v e largement de l ' u t o p i e . Certes, au fil des s i 6 c l e s nos s o c i e t 6 s o n t sans
doute f a i t quelques pas vers e l l e , mais t r @ s lentement, e t on ne v o i t pas t r @ s
b i e n ce q u i p o u r r a i t a c c 6 l G r e r l e mouvement.
I/
-
Cf. l e s d e s c r i p t i o n s de Th. Veblen dans T h e o r i e de l a c l a s s e de l o i s i r s ,
t r a d u c t i o n f r a n ~ a i s eNRF 1970.
Un ensemble de mesures u t i l e s
M a l g r 6 l e s d i f f i c u l t 6 s que l ' o n r e n c o n t r e on p e u t c o n c e v o i r un ensemble de mesures
p e r m e t t a n t de p r o g r e s s e r simultan6ment s u i v a n t ces d i v e r s o b j e c t i f s . En France,
OLI l ' o n s a c r i f i e p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t
l a surconsommation, au p r i x d ' u n e dur6e du
t r a v a i l q u i e s t l a p l u s 6 l e v 6 e dlEurope, p a r e i l l e s mesures s e r a i e n t sp6cialement
utiles.
On p o u r r a i t se f i x e r comme o b j e c t i f de f a i r e 6 v o l u e r l e t e r r a i n s u r l e q u e l l e s
i n d i v i d u s d6pensent l e u r temps e t l e u r s e n e r g i e s dans l a recherche de performances.
I 1 s ' a g i r a i t de l e s d 6 t o u r n e r d 1 a c t i v i t 6 s grosses consommatrices de m a t i c r e
premieres, ayant un f a i b l e i n t 6 r 6 t i n t r i n s e q u e , e t non s u s c e p t i b l e de l e u r f a i r e
p r e n d r e de l a d i s t a n c e p a r r a p p o r t aux a t t i t u d e s c o m p 6 t i t i v e s ; simultan@ment de
l e s a t t i r e r vers des a c t i v i t e s moins consommatrices de m a t i e r e s premieres, ayant
p l u s d 1 i n t 6 r 6 t i n t r i n s e q u e , e t l e s a i d a n t a prendre une t e l l e d i s t a n c e . Pour
c e l a des mesures techniques e t 6conomiques d e v r a i e n t 6 t r e p r i s e s , en m6me temps
que des mesures t e n d a n t a f a i r e e v o l u e r l e s m e n t a l i t 6 s .
A i n s i un ensemble de mesures d e v r a i e n t i n c i t e r a d i m i n u e r l e s consommations dien e r g i e s non r e n o u v e l a b l e s s e r v a n t au chauffage. A c 6 t 6 des mesures techniques
( m e i l l e u r e i s o l a t i o n , u t i l i s a t i o n d 0 6 n e r g i e s o l a i r e ) e t 6conomiques (compteurs
i n d i v i d u e l s de c a l o r i e s ) , il s e r a i t f o r t u t i l e d ' a g i r s u r l e s images s o c i a l e s
associees 2 d i v e r s niveaux de temperature des h a b i t a t i o n s , e t aux moyens de s ' a dapter
ces niveaux. I 1 semble que des temperatures t r e s i n f e r i e u r e s
celles
q u i s o n t obtenues a c t u e l l e m e n t en France s e r a i e n t p r 6 f 6 r a b l e s d ' u n p o i n t de vue
p h y s i o l o g i q u e . Mais un t e l argument ne p o r t e r a que s i on a r r i v e
valoriser
l ' i m a g e de c e l u i q u i d o r t b i e n c o u v e r t dans une chambre non ou peu c h a u f f e e , q u i
s ' h a b i l l e chaudement chez l u i , e t c . e t c o r r e l a t i v e m e n t ii m o d i f i e r l ' i m a g e de
1 1 i n t 6 r i e u r " c o n f o r t a b l e " . Dans 1 ' 6 t a t a c t u e l des m e n t a l i t 6 s oh une c e r t a i n e
rudesse r e v i e n t 2 l a mode, au moins chez ceux q u i o n t largement gofit6 l e s charmes
d ' u n c o n f o r t d o u i l l e t , il ne p a r a 7 t pas i m p o s s i b l e de p e s e r en ce sens.
De m6me des 6conomies ?.I l a f o i s d ' e n e r g i e e t s u r t o u t de temps (compte t e n u du
temps de t r a v a i l n 6 c e s s a i r e pour se p r o c u r e r de q u o i payer ce que 1 ' o n . a c h s t e )
p o u r r a i e n t e t r e obtenues en mati@r-e de t r a n s p o r t en f a v o r i s a n t un t r a n s f e r t de
l ' u s a g e de l ' a u t o m o b i l e v e r s c e l u i de l a b i c y c l e t t e . Lii encore une combinaison
de mesures techniques e t 6conomiques ( m o d i f i c a t i o n de l ' a f f e c t a t i o n de l a v o i r i e )
e t de mesures v i s a n t a i n f l u e n c e r l e s m e n t a l i t & ( a m 6 l i o r a t i o n de l ' i m a g e de
l'homrne q u i c i r c u l e a b i c y c l e t t e ) s e r a i t souhatable. Par a i l l e u r s l a f i x a t i o n
de p l a f o n d s
l a puissance e t au coGt des automobiles e n g e n d r e r a i t des 6conomies
de temps appr6ciables.
Mais d e t o u r n e r d ' u n chauffage e x c e s s i f ou de l ' a u t o m o b i l e n ' e s t pas l ' e s s e n t i e l
en m a t i e r e de q u a l i t 6 de v i e , m6me s i c e l a l ' e s t en m a t i c r e d16conomies d 1 6 n e r g i e .
11 e s t p l u s i m p o r t a n t encore d ' a i d e r chacun
s ' o r i e n t e r de manisre p o s i t i v e ( c e
q u i du r e s t e l ' a i d e r a a se d 6 t o u r n e r de ce q u i , en f i n de compte, l u i a p p o r t e peu).
I 1 semble que, en France en t o u t cas, beaucoup e s t a f a i r e du c a t 6 du d6veloppement
de " l o i s i r s a c t i f s " . Sans doute pour 6 t r e e f f i c a c e f a u d r a i t - i l s ' a p p u y e r s u r l e s
m o t i v a t i o n s "impures" que c o n s t i t u e n t 1 ' e s p r i t de comp6ti t i o n e t l a recherche
de performances. Mais c e t e s p r i t e t c e t t e recherche e x i s t e n t de t o u t e f a c o n ;
l e s d 6 t o u r n e r v e r s des a c t i v i t e s s u s c e p t i b l e s de f o u r n i r des experiences a y a n t
un contenu p r o p r e t r e s r i c h e d o i t i n c i t e r chacun 21 s 1 i n t 6 r e s s e r 2 ce contenu pour
lui-miime en s N 6 1 0 i g n a n t de l ' e s p r i t de c o m p e t i t i o n . Sans doute p o u r r a i t - o n f a v o r i s e r puissament l e d6veloppement de t e l l e s a c t i v i t e s en c o n s a c r a n t un budget
s u f f i s a n t ( p r i s p a r exemple s u r 1e budget des r o u t e s ) & f i n a n c e r des recompenses,
m a t e r i e l l e s e t symboliques, donnees a un n i v e a u r e g i o n a l e t l o c a l ( c a r il s ' a g i t
d ' a t t e i n d r e un g r a n d nombre) 5 ceux q u i a u r o n t r e a l i s 6 des "performances" s u r l e
p l a n du t h 6 2 t r e amateur, de l a musique de chambre, ou du s p o r t . La demande pour
ces a c t i v i t 6 s a y a n t augment@, l e financement d ' a n i m a t e u r s a p p o r t a n t une c e r t a i n e
comp6tence a des groupes se c o n s t i t u a n t e t se p r e n a n t en charge eux-mSmes a u r a i t ,
l u i a u s s i , un e f f e t t r e s p o s i t i f . Developper l e s iiquipements p e u t S t r e iigalement
s o u h a i t a b l e , b i e n sGr, mais c e l a ne c o n s t i t u e pas l ' e s s e n t i e l . Dans c e t t e d i r e c t i o n beaucoup e s t 3 f a i r e , y compris en m a t i e r e s d ' a c t i v i t e s " u t i l e s " (de
p r o t e c t i o n de l a n a t u r e , d ' a s s i s t a n c e aux malades, e t c . ) .
Dans un pays c e n t r a l i s 6 comme l a France, oG 1es p o s s i b i l i t e s du p o u v o i r c e n t r a l
d ' i n c i t e r l e s c o l l e c t i v i t 6 s l o c a l e s s o n t grandes, l a mise en oeuvre d ' u n t e l
ensemble de mesure p a r a i t p o s s i b l e dans un d 6 l a i assez c o u r t .
Abstract:
-
continued
The author maintains chat ouerconsumption i s not only u a s t e f u l , ~ I L Lt h a t
e q u i v a l e n t consumption " u t i l i t i e s " could be obtained u i t h a fur more r e s t r u i n e d ,
more e f f i c i e n t mode2 of consumption. He suggests a n m b e r o f uay.? i n uhich
natu~?aZresources ( i n c l u d i n g energy) and time ( u s an indieaLor oJ Lhe q u a l i t y
of l i f e ) could be economized and developes sore u s e f u l measures Tor a c t i o n .
REDUCIR EL HIPERCONSUMO
Resumen: Vurias e l a s e s de mecunismos eeon6mieos y soeiuZes ciendez a eonducir
a2 hipereonsumo en eeonomias industriuZizaclas: productores pueden tender a
t e n e r & i t o en l a eomercia2izaci6n y uenta de produetos ecri i ~ s u s oincorporado;
c o n s m i d o r e s pueden e s t a r ma2 i n f o m a d o s ueerea de Za h i g i e r ~ e , seguridad, y
durabilidad de produetos en venta, y e s t o c r e e importantes e f e e t o c seeundurios;
e i e r t o s produetos (corno autom6viZes) creen importantes desecovom~as ( r u i d o ,
congestion, p2unifieucii5n urbana), que sobrecarga Za socpiedad m t e r u ; y eZ
f e n h e n o de2 consumo r e l a t i v o preualeee en que consum~idorerdcterminan cus
neeesidades bas6ndolas en e l modelo y niueZ dc c c n s m o de o t r v s ~ ~ o m m i d o r ~ s .
El hipereonsumo e s mug eosLozo en cuanto u recursos y tiempo: ,se e a r c c t e r i z a
por g l uso muy i n t e n s i u o de recursos no renovubles, e impone s ~ ~ c ~ r i j Y ~ -eni o sZu
sociedad que s e m a n i f i e s t a r ~en 2a disminuei6n d@ la calidud dc~uida.
B U I L D I N G BLOCKS
LOCAL ACTION
FOR
SELF-RELIANT DEVELOPMENT I N BANGLADESH
by Dr. B . K . J a h a n g i r
F l a t 48 J , North F u l l e r Rd.
N i 1k h e t
Dacca-2, Bangladesh
Original language:
English
Abstract:
This study i s an attempt t o understand the s i g n i f i c a n c e 0,'" local
a c t i o n f o r s e l f - r e l i a n t development and t h e process o f s o c i a l change. SelWrr e l i a n c e -is a value, a goal and a l s o a movement. As a movement i t aims a t
phase-wise e l i m i n a t i o n of dependency, as a goat i t . generates colle,ative s p i r i t
and as a value i t looks for c r e a t i v i t y and innovativeness. A l l these are timebound and an i n t e g r a l part o f a p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y ' s r e a l i t y . With these conc e p t s i n mind comparative case s t u d i e s 01four i n i t i a t i v e s uhid-i are each d i f ferent i n character aye examined i n the c o n t e x t or Bangladesh. T k e a n a l y s i s
o f t h r e e eases a r e reproduced i n f'li72; I) The People's health centre a t Savar
uhick has chosen Health a 3 an e n t r y point t o mobilise the m a t poor". 2) Youth
in'itzati-ves i n Comilla t o o r g a n h e you$h clubs ^hzc'h in t u r n arc organizing
J) S e l f - r e l i a n t
landless labourers for va.vi.ous t y p e s of economic co-operation.
Jevelopment programme i n Vlas'hi i n the d i s t r i c t of Jessore, uhere people have
been mobilised :or economic co-ope ratio^^ p a r t i c u l a r ~ l y i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of
economic i n f ~ z a - s t r u c t u r e b y voluntary labow, a propamme t h a t in being o f f i c i a 1 l y h i g h l i g h t e d as t h e "Tachai" o f BanqladesJz.
BANGLADESH : A C T I O N S L O C A L E S POUR UN DEVELOPPEMENT AUTONOME
R 6 s d : Cetie etude c o ~ i s t i t k eunc i.eni.at'iue c!e c-omprendve l a s i g n i f i c a t i o n
de fact-ion locale pour un divelc'ppencnt autonorr~e e t Ie processus de ckcmgement
w c i a Z . L 'uutonorr.ie f ' s e l f r e Liarice ') e s t une valeur, un proset, e t a u s s i
un mouJer,5ent. En t a r t que mo!~vcment, e l l e tend d I ' d - i m i n a t h proyvessioe
de La d6peridance; en t a m que pro,jet, e l l e s u s c i t e une a t t i t u d e coZLective;
en t a n z quc vuIeur7, eLLe aspir'e 2 la c r i a t i v i t 6 e t 2 I'innooation.
Tous c e s
".I&mevits ant une dimension temporelle e t s o n t p a r t i e i n t e a r a n t e de La r 6 u W
sp6ciJ'iquc d'un pugs. A Za L w i S r e de ces concepts, quatre i n i t i a t i v e s
Locales au Pla~;Ladcsh, de car~uct$red i f f f i r e n t , ont S t @ examinees. T r o i s de
s : eLLes ('oncernent (i') Ie c e n t r e populaire
cc.s analyses sont ~ ' e p ~ o d u i t cici
& sunLC 2 S a v m , cG La sunth a i t 6 c h o i s i e comme moyen de rnobiLisation des
Y>I<Y~CJ.LUpauores;
f i i ) des a c t i o n s de ,'jeunes 2 Com-illa q u i o n t abouti 2 1.a
fovmt'ion d c dubs dc jeunes, qui mt 2 l e w t o w organisf5 des paysans r,ans
t e r m pour' d i f r L r e n t e s ac'tions; e~ fiii) la pr>ogramme de di'veIoppmcn/, a u / u r m r w
& Ulashi. dans Ze d i s t Y ' z c t de fJcssor>e,012 Les pa,ysmin se sun! mobil,ii:i'r, pi)'Â¥~r
la r.'ali.sution dc tr>~zvau.rd 'infrustruc-tzire e'c-onnn.ique p i p IP ir^io,n' L c w w ' i - C I, L' '
i ~ o k , n t a i r e ,un p^~ogr~(^rnrrtc
offzc'ieLIerri.~ni qiiu.Itj'i1' dc' 'Tizcha'i' d r i',zn!;in~L/i"<;/:.
(Resunien e s p a n o l en l a pagina 1 5 ) .
B. K. J a h a n g i r
LOCAL ACTION FOR SELF-RELIANT
DEVELOPMENT I N BANGLADESH
Introduction
T h i s s t u d y i s an a t t e m p t t o understand t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Local A c t i o n f o r
S e l f - r e l i a n t Development and t h e process o f S o c i a l Change. S e l f - r e l i a n c e i s
a v a l u e , a goal and a l s o a movement. As a movement i t aims a t phase-wise e l i m i n a t i o n o f dependency, as a goal i t generates c o l l e c t i v e s p i r i t and as a v a l u e
i t l o o k s f o r c r e a t i v i t y and i n n o v a t i v e n e s s . B u t a l l these a r e time-bound and
an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y ' s r e a l i t y .
On the o t h e r hand, h i s t o r i c a l experiences a v a i l a b l e t o d a t e a r e s u g g e s t i v e o f
broad p r i n c i p l e s and a d i r e c t i o n f o r e f f o r t towards S e l f - R e l i a n t Development
and t h e c o n s t r a i n t s i n v o l v e d . The Bangladesh s t a t e , i n h e r i t o r o f two c o l o n i a l
l e g a c i e s leans h e a v i l y on t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e apparatus. T h i s l e a n i n g i s b o t h
h i s t o r i c a l and c u m u l a t i v e . Experiments i n s e l f - r e l i a n c e i n one f o r m o r another
have a l o n g t r a d i t i o n h e r e . The B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n experimented
w i t h t h e concepts o f c o - o p e r a t i v e s and l o c a l government. They hoped t h a t coo p e r a t i v e s would be a b l e t o p r o t e c t t h e peasants f r o m t h e excesses o f merchantmoney l e n d e r s . They a l s o hoped t h a t t h e l o c a l government would generate f e e l i n g s
o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n and promote i n i t i a t i v e . B u t these concepts c o n f l i c t e d w i t h t h e
c e n t r a l t e n e t s o f c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n : c e n t r a l ism, e l i t i s m and p a t e r n a l i s m .
T h i s c r e a t e d an i d e o l o g i c a l p e r c e p t i o n a b o u t r u r a l development, envisaged a r o l e
f o r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and produced t h r e e conceptual l e g a c i e s : ( 1 ) t h e peasants
as i g n o r a n t and d o c i l e , ( 2 ) t h e o f f i c e r s as guides and f r i e n d s o f t h e peasants
and ( 3 ) t h e r u r a l e l i t e as t h e p e a s a n t s ' n a t u r a l l e a d e r s . The succeeding governments i n h e r i t e d t h e conceptual l e g a c i e s and used t h e o l d approach as an a l t e r n a t e
t o r e v o l u t i o n , as a n o n - r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e o l o g y and t e c h n i q u e o f r u r a l development.
B u i l t i n t o o u r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a r e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and c u l t u r a l processes of
domination.
P o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s d u r i n g t h e c o l o n i a1 days s t r u g g l e d t o w r e s t s t a t e
power and made no attempts t o remould t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r a l f r o n t . The same t r a d i t i o n s t i l l c o n t i n u e s . T h i s n e g a t i v e a t t i t u t e towards t h e development o f 10c a l i n i t i a t i v e s , has subdued t h e c r e a t i v e u r g e s o f t h e people and had l e g i t i mised t h e unequal r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h i s i s t h e background t o t h e development o f
b u r e a u c r a t i s m i n t h e c o u n t r y . As t h e r e i s no a t t a c k on t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r a l
f r o n t , change o f power has r e p l a c e d one e n f o r c i n g i n s t i t u t i o n by a n o t h e r . T h i s
a l s o i s a p o i n t e r t h a t t h e masses a r e n o t w i t h i n t h e power s t r u c t u r e . They a r e
the permanent o u t s i d e r s .
T h i s n o n - a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e e x t r a - p o l i t i c a l dimensions have produced two s e t s
o f problems: ( a ) a l i e n a t i o n and ( b ) d i s t r u s t and o p p o s i t i o n .
R i m Reza, Meghna Guha Thakurata and Shamin A k h t a r h e l p e d me i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f the study.
Against t h i s backdrop we made comparative case s t u d i e s of the following t h r e e
i n i t i a t i v e s which are each d i f f e r e n t in c h a r a c t e r from the o t h e r s :
S e l f - r e l i a n t development programmes in Ulashi in the d i s t r i c t of J e s s o r e ,
where people have been mobi l i s e d f o r economic co-operation p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
the construction of economic i n f r a - s t r u c t u r e by voluntary labour, a programme t h a t i s being o f f i c i a l l y highlighted as t h e "Tachai" of Bangladesh,
People's Health Centre in Savar which has chosen Health as an entry point
t o mobilise the r u r a l poor.
Youth i n i t i a t i v e s in Comilla t o organise youth clubs which i n turn a r e organising landless labourers f o r various types of economic co-operation.
The purpose of the study i s :
t o increase understanding of the process of development of sustained
people's i n s t i t u t i o n s a t t h e grass-roots level f o r r e s i s t i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n
and mobilising local resources f o r s e l f - r e l i a n t development.
The broad hypothesis t o be examined i s t h a t f o r sustained r e s i s t a n c e t o exploit a t i o n and dependency t h e r u r a l masses need t o be mobilised f o r action t h a t
combines economic cooperation with p o l i t i c a l cooperation.
BUREAUCRATIC INTERVENTION
I t was against a backdrop of a strong Martial Law Administration, temporarily
e x t i n c t p o l i t i c a l processes, and the consequent high-lighting of the r o l e of
the bureaucracy, t h a t the Ulashi-Jadunathpur s e l f - h e l p p r o j e c t s were i n i t i a t e d .
The e s s e n t i a l l y intermediate nature of the regime made i t apparent t o i t s r u l e r s ,
of the necessity of f o r t i f y i n g themselves with a s u f f i c i e n t l y r e a l i s t i c p l a t form from which t o reach the people. In t h e e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l vaccum, the only
f e a s i b l e and e f f e c t i v e medium which presented i t s e l f a t t h a t moment was economic development, and Bangladesh being primarily an a g r i c u l t u r a l country, i t had
t o be r u r a l development. S i g n i g i c a n t l y enough, the Ulashi-Jadunathpur s e l f - h e l p
p r o j e c t s won the d i r e c t patronage of the national leadership and consequently
a11 the government agencies were f u l l y mobilised t o support t h i s p r o j e c t . Any
legal opposition t o t h i s plan was ruled o u t , due t o the imposition of strong
martial law measures which suspended a l l c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t i v i t y . Hence, t h e
absence of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l opposition did n o t n e c e s s a r i l y imply support f o r the
p r o j e c t . In considering the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of e x t r a - c o n s t i t u t i o n a l opposition
however, the a t t i t u d e s of c e r t a i n l e f t i s t elements become s i g n i f i c a n t . They
look upon p r o j e c t s such as Ulashi with d i s t r u s t and s u s p i c i o n , i n i t i a t e d and
operated as they a r e by the r u l i n g bourgeoisie, and claim t h a t such plans could
only r e f l e c t t h e regimes d e s i r e t o strengthen the foundation of t h e i r r u l e .
The new approach, of which Ulashi was purported t o be a m o d e l , aims a t the
1 ) Ahmad,Qazi Kholiquzzaman: The Theme and Purpose of the Seminar: From Ulashi
Kholiquzzaman
t o New National Economic Order - Some Comments and %d,Qazi
& Hossain Mahabub: Lessons from Ulashi - Development through People's P a r t i cipation on a Self-Help Basis. In Devel opmeni Through Self-Help: Lessons
from Ulashi - Proceedings of Two National Seminars. BIDS, Dacca, 1978.
e n r i c h m e n t o f t h e q u a l i t y of l i f e o f a l l s o c i a l c l a s s e s t h r o u g h emphasising
b o t h t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e i r f i n e r values as w e l l as economic a s p i r a t i o n s .
The method t o be f o l l o w e d i n such a case has t o be a d e c e n t r a l i s e d "bottom-up"
p l a n n i n g process, where t h e p e o p l e have t o be m o b i l i s e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e
f o r m u l a t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f development p l a n s . Such m o b i l i s a t i o n s h o u l d
be based on t h e concept o f " s e l f - r e l i a n c e " s o t h a t t h e p e o p l e can use t h e i r
own c r e a t i v e e n e r g i e s f o r t h e b e t t e r m e n t o f t h e i r own l o t . The q u e s t i o n n a t u r a l l y a r i s e s whether U l a s h i does indeed meet such r e q u i r e m e n t s , and an answer
t o such a q u e s t i o n would e n t a i l a deeper probe i n t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l and f u n c t i o n a l aspects o f t h e p r o j e c t , and i n t h e process, s e p a r a t e t h e r e a l i t y from
the rhetoric.
The Ulashi-Jadunathpur s e l f - h e l p p r o j e c t s c o n s i s t s o f two phases. The f i r s t
phase, f o r m a l l y s t a r t e d on 1 s t November 1976, and completed on 30th A p r i l 1977,
was c a l l e d t h e U l a s h i - J a d u n a t h p u r Sel f - H e l p Canal D i g g i n g P r o j e c t l o c a t e d i n
t h e Sharsha thana o f Sadar s u b - d i v i s i o n o f Jessore d i s t r i c t . The p r i m a r y aim
o f t h e p r o j e c t was t o connect t h e Betna R i v e r a t i t s bend by a man-made canal
o f a b o u t 2.65 m i l e s i n l e n g t h . W i t h t h i s p r i m a r y aim i n mind t h e outcome o f
t h e p r o j e c t was expected t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e d r a i n i n g o f excess w a t e r f r o m a
w a t e r - l o g g e d a r e a and thus h e l p i n r e c l a i m i n g a g r i - l a n d where i t would be poss i b l e t o grow t h r e e crops a y e a r . Other p o s s i b l e outcomes o f t h e p r o j e c t was
t o be seen i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f p i s c i c u l t u r e and duckery i n t h e r e m a i n i n g oxbow l a k e and i n t h e newly dug c a n a l , a f f o r e s t a t i o n o f t h e embankment and r e d i s t r i b u t i n g r e c l a i m e d l a n d among t h e l a n d l e s s and t h e l a n d p o o r . Furthermore t h i s
p r o j e c t was t o be seen as a b i d t o generate s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e among t h e people on
t h e i r capabi 1 i t y t o develop t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l base.
I t i s e v i d e n t f r o m t h e above o b j e c t i v e s t h a t d e s p i t e t h e r h e t o r i c a l c l a i m s ( r h e t o r i c a l because no l e g a l o r p o l i t i c a l b a s i s e x i s t e d t o s u p p o r t such c l a i m s ) t o
r e d i s t r i b u t e l a n d among t h e l a n d l e s s and l a n d p o o r , and p r o v i d i n g them w i t h ext r a a g r i c u l t u r a l work, U l a s h i remained p r i m a r i l y a p r o d u c t i o n - o r i e n t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l programme. The same t r u t h i s b r o u g h t o u t when t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e s e a m b i t i o u s p l a n s a r e considered.
An apex p r o j e c t committee c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e Chairman o f t h e l o c a l u n i o n p a r i shads, t h e concerned thana and d i s t r i c t l e v e l o f f i c e r s under t h e c o - o r d i n a t i o n s h i p o f t h e B.C. was formed.
Below t h e p r o j e c t committee, u n i o n p r o j e c t committees were formed c o n s i s t i n g o f
c o o p e r a t i v e s , members o f u n i o n p a r i s h a d s and t h e n a t u r a l l e a d e r s o f t h e v i l l a g e
under t h e chairmanship o f t h e Union P a r i s h a d .
A r e p l i c a o f t h e union p a r i s h a d committee was formed a t t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l where
s p e c i a l e f f o r t was made t o b r i n g a l o n g t h e l a n d l e s s and t h e landpoor a l o n g w i t h
t h e u s u a l l a n d r i c h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e l o c a l b o d i e s . Members o f v i l l a g e bod i e s was used as r e s o u r c e persons t o m o t i v a t e and m o b i l i s e t h e people i n t o p a r ticipation.
I n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e bottom-up approach t o developmental p l a n n i n g ,
s a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s were made t o e x t e n d b o t h up and downwards b u t
unique f e a t u r e s was t h a t t h e y had t o be s e t up i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h
l l e l t o e x i s t i n g l o c a l governmental bodies, t h e u n d e r l y i n g m o t i v e
the
one
and
for
organiof their
n o t parat h i s being
two f o l d : ( 1 ) t o approach t h e v i l l a g e r i n a n e u t r a l way, w i t h o u t d i s t u r b i n g
t h e e x i s t i n g power s t r u c t u r e s , ( 2 ) t o e x t e n d t h e l o c a l governmental bodies t o
t h e v i l l a g e and u t i l i s e t h i s l i n k f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e p r o j e c t . Hence a
c l e a r dissonance r e s u l t s between t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l a m b i t i o n s o f U l a s h i and
t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i v e base upon which i t o p e r a t e s , f o r i t i s d o u b t f u l whether such
r e d i s t r i b u t i o n can t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f e x i s t i n g power s t r u c t u r e s ,
b o t h l o c a l and n a t i o n a l , when i t i s these v e r y power s t r u c t u r e s which a r e p e r petuating the conditions o f disparity.
The second phase o f t h e p r o j e c t was extended under t h e name o f t h e U l a s h i Jadunathpur S e l f - R e l i a n t ( S w a n i r v a r ) P i l o t P r o j e c t i n t o
i n t e n s i v e area development p l a n s . The p r o j e c t f o r m a l l y announced on l a y 1 s t 1977 extends f o r
two y e a r s , and t h e p l a n area covers 8 unions, spreads over 2 thanas and 132
v i l l a g e s . I n t h i s programme f o r development, a broad p l a n f o r s w a n i r v a r i s a t i o n
( i . e . d e v e l o p i n g t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e through s e l f - h e l p ) was undertaken. I t i n cluded t h e maintenance o f law and o r d e r , i n c r e a s e i n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n ,
e r a d i c a t i o n o f i l l i t e r a c y and e d u c a t i o n a l e x t e n s i o n , improvement o f h e a l t h and
s a n i t a t i o n , a d o p t i o n o f f a m i l y p l a n n i n g , p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l and a l s o d i s t r i b u t i v e j u s t i c e . C l e a r l y such aims a r e p r o d u c t i o n o r i e n t e d and i n t e n d e d t o
b u i l d t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e w i t h t h e simultaneous e x t e n s i o n o f t h e s o c i a l s e r v i ces .
I n t h e bottom-up formula o f decision-making, t h e v i l l a g e s w i t h t h e p e r i p h e r a l
h e l p o f t h e D.C. and s w a n i r v a r workers surveyed t h e i r v i l l a g e requirement pot e n t i a l s , prepared a 2 y e a r p l a n f o r each v i l l a g e c o n s o l i d a t e d these i n t o
u n i o n p l a n s and then f i n a l l y i n t o an area p l a n .
The i m p l e m e n t a t i v e base o f a l l these programmes i s t h e v i l l a g e body, composed
o f a l l a d u l t v i l l a g e r s (male and female) r e p r e s e n t e d by an e l e c t e d head (gram
s a r a t h i ) and a s s i s t e d by a s e c r e t a r y (gram sampadak). The v i l l a g e body e l e c t s
4 f u n c t i o n a l committees one each f o r law and o r d e r , a g r i c u l t u r e , h e a l t h and
education.
I n a d d i t i o n , e l e c t a b l e f r o m amongst e l i g i b l e s o c i a l groups, t h e r e a r e 3 assoc i a t i o n s , one each f o r t h e l a n d l e s s , women and y o u t h . T h i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e a t t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l , l i k e t h e i n i t i a l one, d e p i c t s t h e l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n
o f t h e l o c a l government below t h e union l e v e l .
F u n c t i o n a l aspects o f U l a s h i
The whole m o b i l i s a t i o n process embraces t h r e e groups o f p e o p l e - ( 1 ) t h e
change agents ( 2 ) t h e resource agents and ( 3 ) t h e t a r g e t groups.
The change agents a r e those who t a k e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f m o t i v a t i n g , p r e p a r i n g and a c t i v a t i n g t h e i11 i t e r a t e , i n a t t e n t i v e masses t o organi se thems e l v e s and p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e development process.
I n U l a s h i , i t was q u i t e
e v i d e n t t h a t t h e bureaucracy was made t o a c t as such an agent. D e s p i t e t h e
f a c t t h a t p e o p l e s ' p a r t i c i p a t i o n was deemed e s s e n t i a l , f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e
p l a n t o o k p l a c e i n t h e hands o f t h e D.C.
The r e s o u r c e agents a r e those people who a r e used by t h e change agents t o
develop a l i n k a g e w i t h those people a t t h e g r a s s - r o o t l e v e l . Among t h e
i m p l e m e n t a t i v e measures taken by U l a s h i , p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e Union P a r i shads and v i l l a g e committees was engaged t o e s t a b l i s h the l i n k a g e between
t h e p r o j e c t work and t h e people. T h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a r e s o u r c e agent
i n e v i t a b l y f e l l on an a r t i c u l a t e r u r a l e l i t e whose vested i n t e r e s t s shone
f o r t h i n t h e u n i o n p a r i s h a d s and v i l l a g e committees. Hence as was t o be
seen i n p r a c t i c e , t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n engendered was n o t so much v o l u n t a r y
as f o r c e d o r m a n i p u l a t e d - a r e s u l t o f d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t s o c i a l p r e s s u r e .
3)
The t a r g e t group i m p l i e s t h a t group o f people whose p a r t i c i p a t i o n had been
e s p e c i a l l y envisaged i n t h e U l a s h i p l a n . These u s u a l l y c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e
group f o r e s e e n t o be t h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f t h e p r o j e c t . S p e c i a l l y i n c l u d e d
i n i t a r e thelow-income and s o c i a l l y handicapned group e.g. t h e l a n d l e s s ,
l a n d p o o r , women and y o u t h .
Concluding remarks:
Whatever t h e paradoxes t h a t m i g h t be e v i d e n t i n t h e U l a s h i - J a d u n a t h p u r p r o j e c t s ,
i t cannot be denied t h a t i t d i d succed i n b r i n g i n g about a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount
o f dynamism i n an o t h e r w i s e s t a a n a n t economy. This dynamism was t o be d e t e c t e d
i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s d e p i c t e d by t h e comparison o f a v i l l a g e w i t h i n t h e p r o j e c t
area w i t h one o u t s i d e i t . Although i t i s t r u e t h a t even v i l l a g e s w i t h i n t h e
p r o j e c t a r e s d i s p l a y e d a d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e i n development due t o s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
f a c t o r s e.g. i n t h e case o f G a t i p a r a and B a r i p o t a , i t was e q u a l l y t r u e , t h a t
v i 1 lages o u t s i d e the p r o j e c t a r e a d i s p l a y e d an even s h a r p e r d i f f e r e n c e .
Dynamism was a l s o t o be n o t e d i n t h e massive m o b i l i s a t i o n process which r e s u l t e d
i n w i d e - s c a l e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f t h e people, even though such
p a r t i c i p a t i o n was n o t always a l t o g e t h e r v o l u n t a r y .
The q u e s t i o n t o be asked however i s why such dynamism was a t a l l p o s s i b l e . The
answer n o r m a l l y l e a d s us t o c o n s i d e r t h e t i m e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e p r o j e c t .
U l a s h i was e s s e n t i a l l y a time-bound p r o j e c t which t o o k p l a c e under s p e c i a l cond i t i o n s . I t ' s s u p p o r t f r o m a s t r o n g m a r t i a l - l a w a d m i n i s t r a t i o n enabled i t t o
bypass t h e normal l e g a l r u l e s and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l processes o f t h e c o u n t r y . I t
i s doubted whether such an e f f o r t would be p o s s i b l e i n t h e p r e s e n t ( p o s t - 7 9 e l e c t i o n p e r i o d ) c o n t e x t o f Bangladesh where p o l i t i c i a n s a r e n o t o n l y s t a g i n g a
comeback b u t where p o l i t i c s t e n d t o be grouped around m u l t i - f o c a l i n t e r e s t s .
Such a c o n d i t i o n would e s s e n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e c l a s h o f i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r e s t s
and consequently fragment t h e mobi 1 i s a t i o n process.
Here however, we reach a deadlock. I n t h e f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s i t was b r o u g h t t o
l i g h t , t h a t t h e concept o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e would prove t o be a myth i f i t was
n o t backed up w i t h adequate s o c i a l m o b i l i s a t i o n a t t h e g r a s s - r o o t l e v e l . I t
was a l s o e v i d e n t t h a t " s e l f - r e l i a n c e " i n i t s t r u e sense, c o u l d n o t stem f r o m
a m o b i l i s a t i o n process which u t i l i s e d the e x i s t i n g power s t r u c t u r e , l o c a l and
n a t i o n a l . T h i s leaves us i n a dilemma o f h a v i n g t o choose a change agent backed
by an adequate power base which would s e r v e as an a1 t e r n a t e t o t h e e x i s t i n g one.
The mu1 t i - f r a g m e n t e d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n p a r t y o f f e r s us 1 it t l e hope.
The e x t r a - c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l e f t i s t p a r t y cadres does n o t s e r v e any b e t t e r . Acc o r d i n g t o them, i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e f o r m h e l p s o n l y t o s u s t a i n c a p i t a l i s t i c growth
and hence s p e l l imminent danger f o r any hope o f a s t r u c t u r a l r e v o l u t i o n . U l a s h i s may b r i n g a b o u t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n and then p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t
would be deemed e s s e n t i a l . On t h e o t h e r hand, p o l i t i c a l m o t i v a t i o n and c l a s s
consciousness would s u f f e r i f t h e r e were no economic b e n e f i t s t o go by i t .
H i s t o r y o f Gonoshasthaya Kendra
Gonoshasthaya Kendra (G.K.) (The P e o p l e ' s H e a l t h C e n t e r ) acknowledged t h e s t r u c t u r a l gaps c r e a t i n g t h e problems o f disease, o v e r p o p u l a t i o n , s t a r v a t i o n and poThe i n i t i a t o r s o f t h i s m i c r o e x p e r i v e r t y f r o m a socio-economic p e r s p e c t i v e .
mental p r o j e c t were a group o f young d o c t o r s . As s t u d e n t s t h e y were p a r t o f a
broad l e f t spectrum. D u r i n g t h e war o f l i b e r a t i o n (1971), these d o c t o r s came
i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g r u r a l socio-economic c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s engendered a consciousness f o r r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e frame-work a t t h e r u r a l l e v e l .
The r h e t o r i c - b a s e d l e f t spectrum was a f a c t o r o f d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t i n t h i s p r o cess. There had t o be some o t h e r e n t r y p o i n t . Since p r o f e s s i o n a l l y t h e y were
d o c t o r s , m e d i c i n e was chosen as t h e r e f e r r a l p o i n t and G.K.'s h e a l t h p r o j e c t
was i n i t i a t e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f d e v e l o p i n g an e f f e c t i v e h e a l t h s e r v i c e s d e l i v e r y
system. T h i s system would aim a t d e m y s t i f y i n g m e d i c i n e and t h e m e d i c a l profess i o n and a t t h e same t i m e s t r i k e o u t a g a i n s t t h e a s s y m e t r i c a l l y dependent r e l a t i onship e x i s t i n g between t h e r u r a l p a t i e n t s and t h e medical p r o f e s s i o n .
As t h e p r o j e c t gained i n experience, i t became more and more apparent t h a t
h e a l t h was n o t a problem t o be d e a l t w i t h i n i s o l a t i o n . For, " h e a l t h i s t h e
i n d i v i d u a l ' s s y m b i o t i c e x i s t e n c e and devel-opment on h i s o r h e r environment".^
T h i s environment was viewed f r o m t h e socio-economi c p e r s p e c t i v e by G. K. and
t i n k e r i n g w i t h t h e problems f r o m t h i s v i e w - p o i n t , G.K. began t o expand. B u t
t h i s growth d i d n o t f o l l o w any pre-planned p a t t e r n . G.K. branched o u t a t t h e
p o i n t s i t f a c e d s i t u a t i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n s t o b r i n g about t h e necessary changes
t o a1 l e v i a t e t h e o p p o s i t i o n . T h i s on-going expansion has one s i g n i f i c a n t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , t h e s h i f t o f emphasis. As new p r o j e c t s were undertaken i n t h e
f a c e o f newer r e a l i z a t i o n , t h e p r e v i o u s ones f u n c t i o n e d w i t h a s h i f t e d emphasis.
I n t h i s rank o r d e r i n g o f emphasis, a g r i c u l t u r e came t o t h e f o r e g r o u n d , w i t h
greater p r a c t i c a l experience a t the grass-root l e v e l .
T h i s g r a s s - r o o t l e v e l e x p e r i e n c e a l s o made t h e i n i t i a t o r s decide i n accordance
w i t h a survey conducted i n 1972 b y t h e G.K. workers, t h a t G.K. would dispense
t o t h e needs o f t h e f o l l o w i n g :
a)
the landless farmers;
b)
t h e m a r g i n a l farmers ( h a v i n g maximum 3 b i g h a s o f l a n d b u t which does
n o t p r o v i d e f o r 3 meals a day);
c)
t h e poor people o f t h e v i l l a g e and t h e r u r a l women, t h e most oppressed and d e p r i v e d s e c t i o n o f t h e r u r a l s o c i e t y .
W i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r a l s e t - u p , t h e work c o n t i n u e s i n an encap s u l a t e d manner. G r a d u a l l y , t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e , f o r G.K.
t o proceed f u r t h e r i n t h i s s e t - u p has g a i n e d ground among t h e workers. Accord i n g t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e workers, t h e answer l i e s i n a r e v o l u t i o n . Now,
In
t h e q u e s t i o n a r i s e s as t o G.K.'s r o l e i n t h e process t o t h i s r e v o l u t i o n .
t h i s c o n t e x t a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f G.K.'s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l
p a r t i e s , s p e c i a l l y t h e l e f t - o r i e n t e d ones, i s necessary. There does n o t seem
I/
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"Toward A New World H e a l t h O r d e r "
Dossier 6 ) .
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a d r a f t by S t i g Anderson - (IFDA
t o e x i s t any empathy between the two. The p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s are v e r y s u s p i c i o u s o f t h e work done by these m o s t l y f o r e i g n funded p r o j e c t s , whereas these
micro-experiments have a contemptuous r e g a r d f o r t h e r h e t o r i c - b a s e d p o l i t i c a l
p a r t i e s . Under these c o n d i t i o n s two t r e n d s o f t h o u g h t seem t o be emerging a t
G.K. one advocated w a i t i n g o u t t h e p e r i o d , whereas the o t h e r suggests going
i n f o r greater concentrated e f f o r t along w i t h the other e x i s t i n g microexperiments i n t h e c o u n t r y . B u t t h e dilemma p e r s i s t s .
The p o l i t i c a l background o f t h e i n i t i a t o r s , a l o n g w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e d u r i n g
t h e war (1971), had made them aware o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l problems e x i s t i n g w i t h i n
t h e c o u n t r y . The i d e a has a l s o developed t h a t any c o n c r e t e e f f o r t t o r i g h t
these problems had t o be i n i t i a t e d a t t h e r u r a l l e v e l . Since, t h e i n i t i a t o r s
were a group o f d o c t o r s , m e d i c i n e seemed t o be v i a b l e e n t r y p o i n t . From Janua r y , 1972, t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e a c h i n g medical f a c i l i t i e s t o t h e r u r a l masses had
been t h e focus o f d i s c u s s i o n among t h e w o r k i n g members o f t h e Bangladesh Hosp i t a l . These members, a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g medical system i n the count r y r e a l i z e d i t s inadequacy i n s e r v i n g t h e m a j o r i t y l i v i n g i n t h e r u r a l areas
d u r i n g t h e 1 ib e r a t i o n war. A f t e r 1 i b e r a t i o n t h e government programme p r o v i d e d
thana h e a l t h c e n t r e s . These c e n t e r s o p e r a t e d h e a l t h e d u c a t i o n and immunization
programmes w i t h o u t any community i n v o l v e m e n t . The q u e s t i o n t h a t arose was how
t h i s "medical f a c i l i t y " c o u l d be reached t o t h e v i l l a g e r s e f f e c t i v e l y . The
achievements o f t h e chinese " b a r e f o o t " d o c t o r s were a source o f i n s p i r a t i o n a t
t h i s j u n c t u r e and a l s o p r o v i d e d a b a s i c frame-work f o r t h e p r o j e c t programme.
G.K. ' s i n i t i a l o b j e c t i v e s were:
a ) i n t r o d u c t i o n o f p r e v e n t i v e m e d i c i n e i n r u r a l areas; b ) para-medi c a l
t r a i n i n g ; c ) f a m i l y p l a n n i n g ; and d ) c u r a t i v e medicine.
These o b j e c t i v e s were determined on t h e b a s i s o f t h e aim o f i n t r o d u c i n g e f f e c t i v e medical f a c i l i t i e s a t t h e r u r a l l e v e l .
T h i s programme had i n c l u d e d mass p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the y o u t h , on a v o l u n t a r y
b a s i s . There was an i d e a a t t h a t t i m e , t h a t , by p a y i n g t h e v o l u n t e e r s , t h e i r
s i n c e r i t y i n l a b o u r would be d i m i n i s h e d . However, t h i s i d e a was l a t e r found
t o be i m p r a c t i c a b l e as t h e f u l l t i m e w o r k e r s needed a source o f l i v e l i h o o d .
For i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e medical o b j e c t i v e s , D r . Z a f f a r u l l a h , t h e f i r s t p r o j e c t
d i r e c t o r o f G.K. (1972-78), i n i t i a t e d t h e programme o f t r a i n i n g para-medics.
Then
The f i r s t r e c r u i t s were f r o m amongst t h e v o l u n t e e r s w o r k i n g a t G.K.
r e c r u i t s came f r o m t h e s u r r o u n d i n g v i l l a g e s .
B u t t h e r e i s no d i s t r i c t b a r r i e r ,
workers coming f r o m any p l a c e i n Bangladesh would be accepted. The usual p r a c t i c e i s , however, t o r e c r u i t a worker, whom a n o t h e r G.K. w o r k e r knows.
T h i s t r a i n i n g course o f t h r e e t o s i x months i n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s :
1 ) H e a l t h survey; 2 ) B a s i c Human Body and G r a y ' s anatomy; 3 ) B a s i c P h y s i o l o g y ;
4 ) H e a l t h Education; 5 ) Environmental Hygiene and S a n i t a t i o n ; 6 ) Problems of
o v e r - p o p u l a t i o n and t h e need f o r f a m i l y p l a n n i n g ; 7 ) Rural Community Development; 8) P r a c t i c a l s .
With these t r a i n e d para-medi cs G.K. s t a r t e d i t s medical c a r e programme f o r
the r u r a l poor.
Savar d i d n o t and as y e t does n o t have any o t h e r h e a l t h complex b e s i d e s G.K.
The i n i t i a l d i i f i c u l t y faced by t h e G.K. workers was i n t r y i n g t o communcicate
w i t h t h e v i 1 l a g e r s a t a l e v e l t o make them respond t o t h e i r i d e a s . I t was a1 1
t h e more an arduous t a s k as t h e G.K. workers were n o t l o c a l r e c r u i t s , i n t h e
b e g i n n i n g , whom the v i l l a g e r c o u l d t r u s t . So, t h e process o f g a i n i n g t h e v i l l a g e p e o p l e ' s c o n f i d e n c e consumed t i m e . B u t a c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t i l l e x i s t s .
The G.K. workers are m a i n l y f r o m urban and semi-urban m i d d l e - c l a s s background.
Consequently t h e v i s i o n o f development i s s i m i l a r l y b i a s e d even a f t e r a cons c i o u s e f f o r t t o de-bias i t . T h i s i s apparent when e f f e c i e n c y i s r e l a t e d t o
western mode o f c l o t h i n g ( t h e female workers o f t h e workshop and N a r i k e n d r a
wear t r o u s e r s ) .
A team, i n c l u d i n g one male and one female para-medic was s e n t t o each v i l l a g e .
The male para-medic t a l k e d t o t h e male members o f t h e v i l l a g e w h i l e t h e female
para-medic d i s c u s s e d w i t h the women f o l k t h e d i f f e r e n t problems o f h e a l t h faced by them.
As t h e para-medics went t o t h e v i l l a g e s w i t h t h e i r work-programmes, each day
i t became apparent, t h a t , m e d i c i n e was n o t t h e p r i m a r y need o f these p e o p l e .
So, a l o n g w i t h h e a l t h , t h e para-medics a d v i s e d the v i l l a g e r s i n m a t t e r s o f a g r i A t t h e same t i m e an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l problem arose
c u l t u r e and p o u l t r y - f a r m i n g .
a t a l a t e r s t a g e when i t was found o u t t h a t c e r t a i n para-medics a c t e d t r u a n t
a f t e r g o i n g t o t h e v i l l a g e . So, a s u p e r v i s o r had t o be a p p o i n t e d . Along w i t h
t h i s s u p e r f i c i a l remedy, s p e c i a l s t r e s s was g i v e n i n making t h e para-medic
workers conscious of t h e i r d u t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y through i n t e n s i v e group d i s cussions.
G.K. had conducted a s u r v e y o f t h e v i l l a g e s around t h e c e n t e r and d e c i d e d t h a t
t h e poor v i 1 l a g e r s i n c l u d i n g t h e 1 andless f a r m e r s , t h e m a r g i n a l farmers and
o t h e r s n i t h a v i n g more than 3 bighas o f l a n d would be t h e r e c e i v e r s o f s e r v i c e s .
T h i s survey was f e l t necessary by t h e w o r k i n g members o f G.K. i n o r d e r t o ascert a i n t h e r e a l p o s i t i o n of t h e v i l l a g e r s w i t h i n t h e v i l l a g e socio-economic s t r u c ture.
By t h i s t i m e G.K. had c o n c e p t u a l i z e d dependency as b e i n g dependent on r e s o u r ces e x t e r n a l t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e community. On t h i s b a s i s G.K.'s medical
programme aimed a t s t r i k i n g a t t h e r o o t o f dependency by n o t p r o v i d i n g any med i c a l s e r v i c e f r e e o f charge. A nominal i n i t i a l f e e o f .50 p a i s a has t o be
p a i d a t t h e c l i n i c . Another programme o f m e d i c a l i n s u r a n c e was s t a r t e d , which
p r o v i d e s m e d i c a l care f o r a household a t t h e r a t e o f Tk. 21- p e r month.
B u t , t h e r o o t o f the problem l a y elsewhere. The p r e v a l e n t p o v e r t y i n t h e v i l l a g e s , made t h e v i l l agers a p a t h e t i c towards any h e a l t h and 1 i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
By A p r i l , 1974, a ward o f e i g h t ( 8 ) beds was e s t a b l i s h e d and i m p o r t a n c e was
given t o the establishment o f a personal l i n k w i t h the v i l l a g e r s .
Gradually
t h e h o s p i t a l b u i l d i n g came i n t o e x i s t e n c e and w i t h i t came a n o t h e r r e a l i z a t i o n
The G.K. workers found o u t t h a t t h i s monumental s t r u c t u r e had b u i l t a b a r r i e r
between them and t h e v i l l a g e p e o p l e . The v i l l a g e p e o p l e found i t d i f f i c u l t
t o i d e n t i f y t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e G.K. workers w i t h t h e i r own.
Food h e a l t h and work make a c y c l e and G.K. decided by 1973, t h a t , a complete
h e a l t h system must a l s o encompass a g r i c u l t u r e .
I n Savar, t h e l a n d f o r most
So, G.K. dep a r t i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r r i c e c u l t i v a t i o n as i t i s h i g h - l a n d .
c i ded t o i n t r o d u c e crops l i k e Sorghum, Soyabean, Sunflower, Cowpea and Maize
on an e x p e r i m e n t a l b a s i s .
I t was found t h a t m u l t i p l e f a c t o r s i n t e r a c t on a f a r m e r ' s d e c i s i o n on how t o
farm:
a ) t h e l a n d he has;
b ) t h e l a b o u r and cash c a p i t a l he can command a t a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e o f
the year;
c ) Seasonal demands o f f a m i l y and r e l i g i o n .
I t was necessary a t t h i s p o i n t t o develop a new c a t e g o r y o f worker t o be t e r med para-agros.
So, t h e E x t e n s i o n Programme i n i t i a t e d by G.K. was a l s o i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t i o n . T h i s a g r i c u l t u r a l s e c t i o n , deploys a l l
t h e workers, o v e r 200 i n number, w i t h i n t h e 132 bighas o f G.k. i n a g r i c u l t u r a l
work e v e r y morning, t h i s i s a p a r t o f t h e communal l i v i n g programme a t G.K.
T h i s s e c t i o n a l s o a d v i s e and a s s i s t t h e v i l l a g e r s and h e l p t h e farmers t o form
c o - o p e r a t i v e s and a v a i l t h e s e r v i c e s o f f e r e d by t h e government, g i v e i n j e c t i o n s
t o l i v e - s t o c k s , keep t u b e - w e l l s i n r u n n i n g o r d e r , e t c . , e t c .
To improve t h e employment c o n d i t i o n s e x i s i n g i n t h e v i l l a g e s , G.K., decided t o
s e t - u p a v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g c e n t e r . T h i s would e s p e c i a l l y be f o r t h e v i l l a g e
women s o t h a t t h e y c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f a m i l y ' s e a r n i n g and a t t h e same t i m e
develop a h a r g a i n i n g s t a n d w i t h i n t h e f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e on an economic b a s i s .
T h i s v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n q c e n t e r , c a l l e d t h e " N a r i k e n d r a " (women's c e n t e r ) s t a r t e d o f f as a sewing c e n t e r i n mid-1973 and have now expanded t o i n c l u d e h a n d i c r a f t s and j u t e s e c t i o n s and a m a r k e t i n g organ.
G.K. i n i t i a t e d i t s e d u c a t i o n programme t o o r i e n t t h e v i l l a g e people towards a
s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t r o l e . Ms. Nurunnahar Shobha j o i n e d G.K. i n 1975 and Dr. Z a f f a r u l l a h p l a c e d h e r i n charge o f e v o l v i n g a p r i m a r y non-formal e d u c a t i o n p r o gramme. I n t h e meantime an a d u l t e d u c a t i o n programme was i n i t i a t e d w i t h i n
G.K. among i t s i n c r e a s i n g number o f r e s i d e n t workers and i n l a t e 1975 t h e p r i mary school was e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s s c h o o l admits t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h e poor and
t h e manner o f d i s p e n s i o n o f e d u c a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e t h e v i l l a g e r s t o send t h e i r
c h i l d r e n t o s c h o o l . No f e e i s r e q u i r e d and t h e c h i l d r e n r e c e i v e one meal a
day.
Another r e s i s t a n c e came f r o m t h e vested i n t e r e s t when G.K. s t a r t e d o r g a n i z i n g
t h e p o o r peasants and l a n d l e s s o f t h e v i l l a g e s . T h i s v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n c l u d e s
t h e r i c h peasants, the p r o f e s s i o n a l quack d o c t o r s , t h e r i c h businessmen, t h e
chairman o f t h e v i 1 l a g e s , i n t o t a l t h e e x i s t i n g p o w e r - s t r u c t u r e o f t h e v i 1 l a g e .
As a consequence o f t h i s r e s i s t a n c e Nizam, a para-medic, i n charge o f S h i m u l i a
s u b - c e n t e r , was b r u t a l l y murdered i n 1976. No a c t i o n has been p o s s i b l e a g a i n s t
t h e murderer t i l l now. Mobarak, a para-agro, i n charge o f t h e Mirerchangao subc e n t e r , had t o b e removed f r o m t h e p o s t as h e had r e s i s t e d t h e a t t e m p t s o f t h e
l a n d - d o n o r ' s (Mirerchangao s u b - c e n t e r ' s ) t o i n t e r f e r e i n t h e s u b - c e n t e r ' s work.
In G . K . there e x i s t s c e r t a i n gaps in the l e v e l s of consciousness. These gaps
can be viewed from two pouts, i . e . , within G.K. among t h e d i f f e r i n g s t r a t a s of
workers and, between G . K . and the v i l l a g e r s . Within G . K . , there has been a
dearth of mid-level workers which has f u r t h e r widened the gaps in consciousness
generated by G.K.'s expansion and consequent lessening of communication between
the leadership and t h e workers. This breach i s being bridged by organising
group discussions t o generate a standard level of consciousness and through
study programmes. B u t a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n level of G . K . ' s and the v i l l a g e ' s
consciousness, i t appears t h e r e e x i s t s an assymetrical r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n i t i a l l y ,
G . K . had imposed i t s value-system on t h e vi 1 l a g e , b u t l a t e r the concept, was
readjusted t o l e t imputs pour in from the r u r a l level i n t o G . K . and a feedback process was i n i t i a t e d . But biases s t i l l e x i s t within G.K.'s value-systemAnother problem G . K . i s facing i s the consequence of i t s expansion, i . e . ,
bureaucratization of the work process within G . K . Paperwork i s increasing d a i l y
and pressure i s being created on the workers, who are f e e l i n g s t r a i n e d in maint a i n i n g balance between field-work and office-work. Also immediate actions a t
the f i e l d l e v e l i s being delayed.
G.K. had s t a r t e d an o r i e n t a t i o n t r a i n i n g course in community medicine f o r a
limited number of students from the d i f f e r e n t medical colleges e x i s t i n g in the
country s i n c e 1978 in collaboration with t h e health ministry. This had a l s o
been a cause of pressure on the c e n t e r , because of which the t r a i n i n g of the
para-medics had been hampered f o r a s h o r t time. B u t now emphasis i s given on
the c e n t e r ' s t r a i n i n g programmes f o r i t s own workers.
As a p r o j e c t , G.K. r e l i e s 50% on foreign a s s i s t a n c e . Foreign agencies l i k e
Oxfam and NOVIB have provided the bulk of t h e a s s i s t a n c e . This aid covers the
c a p i t a l expenses as well as p a r t of t h e c u r r e n t expenses. For the r e s t of the
budget, G . K., u t i l i z e s the p r o f i t earned through i t s d i f f e r e n t t r a d i n g s e c t i o n s .
Concluding remarks :
The long hours of hard labour by t h e committed and dedicated workers of G . K .
had s t e e r e d t h e c e n t r e t o i t s present p o s i t i o n . A t t h i s juncture G.K. i s
facing d i f f i c u l t i e s a t two l e v e l s , the organizational and t h e s t r u c t u r a l .
A t t h e organizational l e v e l , the urban-biases s t i l l e x i s t i n g i n G.K.'s valuesystem has, a t p o i n t s , contradicted the r u r a l val ue-system. Secondly, the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n process has put a b a r r i e r i n the two-way communication between G . K . and the surrounding v i l l a g e s . So, instead of being a model of a1t e r n a t i v e l i v i n g , G . K . has become a provider of s e r v i c e s f o r them. Thirdly,
as a consequence the question of consciousness has become problematic both,
within G.K., among i t s workers, and, o u t s i d e G . K . , among the v i l l a g e r s .
Within G . K . in an encapsulated atmosphere without any s p e c i f i c p o l i t i c a l b i a s ,
the emphasis has s h i f t e d t o building committed workers. As a s p i l l - o v e r e f f e c t of t h i s , the v i l l a g e r s a r e more aware of the s e r v i c e s offered by G . K .
A t t h e s t r u c t u r a l l e v e l , the G . K . leaders a r e grappling with the question, t h a t ,
even i f consciousness i s aroused among t h e G.K. workers and the vi l l a q e r s ,
what r o l e can G . K . play in channelling t h a t consciousness, which would event u a l l y lead t o t o t a l s t r u c t u r a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n , i . e . , the necessity of a revol u t i o n . In the e x i s t i n g organizational and s t r u c t u r a l condition in which G . K .
i s s i t u a t e d , i t would be an improbable demand t o make o f G.K.
finitive role.
t o p l a y any de-
YOUTH INITIATIVE
History
The word " P r o s h i k a " i s a Bangladeshi acronym s i g n i f y i n g development e d u c a t i o n ,
t r a i n i n g and a c t i o n . These t h r e e e s s e n t i a l elements a r e i n t e g r a l t o P r o s h i k a ' s
approach t o r u r a l development. The t r a d i t i o n a l tendency t o p l a c e paramount
importance on m a t e r i a l resources and t e c h n o l o g y i s o f secondary concern t o
' P r o s h i k a " . Man must be g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o t h i n k f o r h i m s e l f , work f o r
h i m s e l f , and even make mistakes f o r h i m s e l f . P r o s h i k a t h i n k s t h i s h e l p s h i m
t o b u i l d self-awareness t o see h i s own problems and t o f i n d h i s own ways and
means t o s o l v e them; a t t h e same t i m e i t h e l p s i n an a n a l y s i s o f t h e s o c i e t y
and s i t u a t i o n i n which he l i v e s and t o d e f i n e h i s own r o l e i n r e l a t i o n t o them
P r o s h i k a p r i m a r i l y aims a t h e l p i n g i n d i v i d u a l s and groups t o achieve these
objectives.
F o r t h i s purpose P r o s h i k s focuses i t s work on a c t i o n programmes
which enable disadvantaged groups t o b e t t e r o r g a n i z e themselves, a l s o , on 10e a t i n g s e l f - s t a r t e r i n d i v i d u a l s and groups w i t h p o t e n t i a l o r g a n i z t i o n a l o r
leadership a b i l i t i e s .
Most o f t h e P r o s h i k a workers i n v o l v e d i n c a r r y i n g o u t these work programmes a t
t h e extreme g r a s s - r o o t l e v e l d e r i v e t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n f o r work f r o m a l e f t
o r i e n t e d t h o u g h t process. Though, f o r most o f t h e workers, t h e j o b a t " P r o s h i k a " i s a n e c e s s i t y f o r s u r v i v a l , t h e j o b does p a r t l y s a t i s f y t h e i d e o l o g i c a l
i n c l i n a t i o n o f b e i n g w i t h t h e p o v e r t y s t r i k e n masses and endeavouring t o b r i n g
about changes a t t h e socio-economic l e v e l f o r b e t t e r i n g l i v i n g s t a n d a r d .
Work Process
I t was i n i t i a l l y agreed t h a t t h e L o g i s t i c Centre s h o u l d o f f e r t r a i n i n g s i n such
s u b j e c t as Development, Communication, Group Dynamics, p r o j e c t workshop, acc o u n t i n g and o t h e r s i m i l a r s u b j e c t s . These s u b j e c t s were beyond t h e scope o f
t h e l a b o r a t o r y t r a i n i n g , where f a c i l i t i e s were p r o v i d e d f o r t r a i n i n g i n subj e c t s l i k e v e g e t a b l e growing, duck, p o u l t r y , f i s h , wheat, compost, animal husbandry, n u r s e r i e s , i n t e r m e d i a t e t e c h n o l o g y , h e a l t h , f a m i l y p l a n n i n g , s i l o s construction etc.
P r o s h i k a ' s concept o f development grew o u t o f t h e e x t e n s i v e f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e
and c u m u l a t i v e knowledge gained by t h e P r o s h i k a team workers.
P r o s h i k a , a t t h i s p o i n t , o r g a n i z e d t h e process o f r u r a l development a t t h e
v i l l a g e l e v e l , as f o l l o w s :
1)
I t b e g i n s w i t h t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s and, o r , groups represent i n g a c o m u n i t y , i n whole o r i n p a r t , who have expressed an i n t e r e s t o r
shown i n i t i a t i v e i n s u s t a i n e d development a c t i v i t i e s .
I n c r e a s i n g l y , Pros h i k a i s approached b y such i n d i v i d u a l s o r groups themselves because t h e y
have now h e a r d o f t h e work t h a t P r o s h i k a i s doing.
2)
I n many cases, t h e i n t e r e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l s o r group i s s i m p l y i n v i t e d t o
v i s i t an e x i s t i n g P r o s h i k a group engaged i n w o r k i n g on a P r o s h i k a P r o j e c t ,
such as a f i s h pond. T h i s serves as p r a c t i c a l p r o o f o f what P r o s h i k a i s
able t o o f f e r .
The i n d i v i d u a l o r group i s then encouraged t o a t t e n d an i n t r o d u c t o r y
course a t t h e n e a r e s t Proshika Development c e n t r e . A t t h i s i n i t i a l s t a g e
of t r a i n i n g , t h e courses o f f e r e d a r e u s u a l l y i n l e a d e r s h i p and o r g a n i zat i o n a l s k i l l s , i . e . , w i t h o u t g o i n g i n t o s p e c i f i c s k i l l s t r a i n i n g such as
pisciculture, agriculture, etc.
The i n d i v i d u a l o r group i s then encouraged t o o r g a n i z e an i n f o r m a l group
o f disadvantaged people i n h i s own v i l l a g e o r area. I t has been found
t h a t such groups should c o n s i s t o f men o r women who have s i m i l a r s o c i o economic s t a t u s , i .e., l a n d l e s s l a b o u r e r s , marginal farmers and women.
Mixed groups have n o t worked. A p r o s h i k a animateur may j o i n i n these
group f o r m a t i o n d i s c u s s i o n s .
Even b e f o r e t h e newly formed group has decided which common problem i t
wishes t o t a c k l e , i t i s urged t o commence a c o - o p e r a t i v e savings fund. I t
does n o t m a t t e r how small t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e . The p o i n t i s
soon made t h a t w i t h t h e c o l l e c t i v e sum, t h e y can t a k e j o i n t a c t i o n towards
s o l v i n g t h e i r own problems.
A f t e r many d i s c u s s i o n s e x t e n d i n g over a p e r i o d o f s e v e r a l months, t h e group
f i n a l l y a r r i v e s a t a consensus on which common problem i t w i l l t a c k l e t o g e t h e r . The a c t i v i t y chosen i s i n v a r i a b l y an income-generating one.
P r o s h i k a t h e n p r o v i d e s t h e s p e c i f i c s k i l l s t r a i n i n g courses r e q u i r e d by
t h e group. P r o s h i ka a l s o f o l l o w s t h i s up w i t h r e g u l a r v i s i t s t o t h e group
by b o t h t h e animateur and t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n e r .
A t t h e s t a g e when t h e group i s ready and a b l e t o t a k e on an income generat i n g p r o j e c t w i t h i t s own funds, P r o s h i k a w i l l make a v a i l a b l e a s m a l l loan,
i f r e q u i r e d , on a matching g r a n t b a s i s . Such s m a l l - s c a l e and repayable
f i n a n c i n g i s very c a r e f u l l y considered by Proshika, who w i l l ensure t h a t
t h e group has i t s e l f made a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n , t h a t t h e p r o j e c t has
been c a r e f u l l y planned, and t h a t i t i s i n d e e d a m u t u a l l y agreed upon v e n t u r e
l e a d i n g towards t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e i r common need as t h e y see i t .
P r o s h i k a a l s o encourages people who have r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g , t o r e t u r n t o t h e
t r a i n i n g c e n t r e , a f t e r a time, f o r r e f r e s h e r sessions. T h i s i s supposed t o
f a c i l i t a t e t h e s h a r i n g o f experiences gained a t t h e f i e l d .
The f i r s t f i v e p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p s have proved t o be t h e most d i f f i c u l t and t i m e consuming p a r t o f t h e P r o s h i k a "Process", t h i s i s n o t s o much because t h e groups
have d i f f i c u l t y i n d e f i n i n g t h e i r common problems ( w h i c h t h e y know o n l y t o o
w e l l ) , b u t because c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e has t o be s p e n t i n b u i l d i n g an awareness
among the..,group members t h a t t h e y can t a c k l e t h e i r problems i f t h e y a r e p r e p a r e d t o do so on a c o l l e c t i v e b a s i s , i .e., as a group. F o r many, t h e t h o u g h t
t h a t i t i s w i t h i n t h e i r power t o change t h e circumstances t h a t had shaped t h e i r
l i v e s s i n c e b i r t h i s , i n i t s e l f , t h e m a j o r break through r e q u i r e d t o b e g i n c o l l e c t i v e group a c t i o n . Poverty i s accepted as a f a c t o f l i f e , o r r a t e , o r " t h e
w i l l o f God", e t c . The i d e a t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o improve t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s by
t h e i r own e f f o r t s , t a k e t i m e t o develop.
I t has been P r o s h i k a ' s general e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w h i l e t h e e s t a b l i s h e m e n t o f t h e
t a r g e t groups i n a new area i s a l e n g t h y process, once t h e y become o p e r a t i o n a l
t h e r a t e a t which new groups a r e formed i n c r e a s e s v e r y r a p i d l y . F o r example,
i n t h e Laksham area, i n t h e C o m i l l a d i s t r i c t , i t t o o k P r o s h i k a f o u r months t o
e s t a b l i s h t h e f i r s t 15 groups. However, once these became a c t i v e , t h e y served
as an example. T h e i r proven success i n p r o j e c t s r e s u l t e d i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f
85 new groups i n t h a t area d u r i n g t h e succeeding f o u r months p e r i o d . I n f a c t
t h i s m u l t i p l i e r e f f e c t i s s o g r e a t , t h a t many groups and p r o j e c t s s t a r t w i t h
no i n v o l v e m e n t by P r o s h i k a a t a l l . F o r example, a P r o s h i k a - i n i t i a t e d group
o f 20 l a n d l e s s l a b o u r e r s , h a v i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y s t a r t e d t h e i r own i n i t i a l two
s m a l l f i s h pond p r o j e c t s , persuaded l a n d l e s s people i n two nearby v i l l a g e s t o
j o i n w i t h them i n t a c k l i n g a much l a r g e r f i s h pond r e - e x c a v a t i o n p r o j e c t , r e q u i r i n g more resources t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l group c o u l d muster. They d i d a l 1 t h e
work themselves, u s i n g t h e i r own c o l l e c t i v e s a v i n g s .
Concluding remarks
I n a s s e s s i n g t h e problems f a c i n g P r o s h i k a as an o r g a n i z a t i o n , c e r t a i n p o i n t e r s
become i d e n t i f i a b l e . F i r s t l y , P r o s h i k a workers a r e p a i d j o b - h o l d e r s , conseq u e n t l y t h e amount o f d e d i c a t i o n and committment which t h e n a t u r e o f t h e j o b
demands (which i s d e f i n i t e l y more t h a n s o c i a l s e r v i c e s ) i s l a c k i n g . Secon d l y , t h e groups, which a r e b e i n g o r g a n i z e d , wi 11 e v e n t u a l l y l e a d t o c o n f r o n t a t i o n , an a r e a beyond t h e scope o f P r o s h i k a Development Centre. T h i r d l y ,
w i t h i n t h e p r e s e n t t i m e p e r s p e c t i v e o f Bangladesh i n t h e c o n t e x t o f open pol i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , i t has t o be taken i n t o account t h a t Proshika, a f o r e i g n
-aided experiment, i s regarded s u s p i c i o u s l y by t h e e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s
i n the country.
As an o r g a n i z a t i o n i t would seem t h a t P r o s h i k a i s t e m p o r a r i l y f i l l i n g i n t h e
vacuum c r e a t e d b y t h e absence o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s i n t h i s s t r a t e g i c and
v i t a l arena o f mass m o b i l i z a t i o n process.
I n the event o f the p o l i t i c a l part i e s s t e p p i n g i n t o t h i s area, t h e n e c e s s i t y o f e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o j e c t s l i k e Pros h i k a would cease.
Conclusion
We have examined h e r e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t v a r i a t i o n s of m i c r o - i n t e r v e n t i o n s . These
i n t e r v e n t i o n s sharpened t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n between t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e between
t h e r o l e o f an i n i t i a t o r and c o n t i n o u s l e a d e r s h i p . These i n t e r v e n t i o n s a l s o
p o i n t o u t t h e l i m i t s o f e x p e r i m e n t w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g system and t h e a t t e m p t e d
a1 t e r n a t i v e s .
S i n c e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f e x p l o i t a t i o n i s v a r i e d i n o u r c o u n t r y , these r n i c r o - i n t e r v e n t i o n s g e n e r a t e f o c i o f r e s i s t a n c e embracing p e o p l e ' s a c t i o n i n a p a r t i c u l a r
l o c a l i t y . T h i s a g a i n o f f e r s i n s i g h t i n t o t h e s p e c i f i c and t h e g e n e r a l r e a l i t i e s . T h i s i s needed f o r t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a w o r k i n g i d e o l o g y and f o r negat i n g t h e h e r i t a g e o f r h e t o r i c s . These experiments a c t as a crash-course f o r
t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s wedded t o change. On t h e o t h e r hand these experiments
focus on t h e e x i s t i n g s u p e r s t r u c t u r e and t h e need f o r combating i t a l o n g w i t h
p o l i t i c s and economics. C o n s c i e n t i z a t i o n f o r c e s t h e i n i t i a t o r s t o ponder about
t h e worthwhi 1eness o f experiment, makes them r e a l i z e t h e 1 i m i t a t i ons o f t h e
l e g a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s e x i s t i n g w i t h i n t h e system.
I n t h e case o f t h e P e o p l e ' s H e a l t h Movement t h e G.K. l e a d e r s a r e c o n f r o n t i n g
a s i t u a t i o n which c a l l s f o r a s t r u c t u r a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e s o c i e t y , b u t
t h e e x i s t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t - u p c r i p p l e s G.K. t o p l a y any d e f i n i t i v e r o l e .
The y o u t h i n i t i a t i v e makes us r e a l i s e t h a t P r o s h i k a i s p l a y i n g a temprary r o l e
i n t h e v i t a l arena o f mass m o b i l i s a t i o n process i n t h e absence o f t h e p o l i t i c a l
parties.
The r o l e o f micro-experiments i n r a i s i n g mass consciousness i s p r o b l e m a t i c .
No doubt i t f r e e s t h e masses form f a t a l i s t i c p r e j u i d i c e s t o a r e a l i s a t i o n o f
t h e i r power t o change r e a l i t y i n t h e i r f a v o u r ; l e a r n i n g through p r a c t i c e h e l p s
t o s y n t h e s i s e experience and c o n s i d e r a l t e r n a t i v e s p r a g m a t i c a l l y . On t h e o t h e r
hand i t b r i n g s t o t h e masses s y s t e m a t i c knowledge o f t h e w i d e r s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e
and i t s w o r k i n g - a knowledge which i s e s s e n t i a l f o r c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n f o r soc i a l change. B u t i t ' s encapsulated p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n economic and p o l i t i c a l
s t r u g g l e l i m i t s areas o f o p e r a t i o n and r e s t r a i n s i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s t o become
a mass movement. I t deals b a s i c a l l y w i t h t h e d a i l y problems o f t h e common
man and g e n e r a l l y speaking keeps s i l e n t about t h e n a t i o n a l problems. T h i s
generates c o n t r a d i c t i o n , keeps a p a r t economics f r o m p o l i t i c s , l e a d s t h e process
t o a dead end. But, again, t h e process h e l p s t o i d e n t i f y t h e f r i e n d s and t h e
enemies b o t h i n d i v i d u a l l y and c o l l e c t i v e l y , a s s i s t s people t o f i n d t h e i r own
s o l u t i o n s w i t h i n t h e framework o f t h e i r understanding. The a c t i v i s t s o f t h e
mi c r o - i n t e r v e n t i o n s spread a v i s i o n , an a1 t e r n a t i ve v i s i o n opposing t h e e x i st i n g ones and a c t as a r a l l y i n g p o i n t a g a i n s t t h e e x i s t i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n . They
r e l e a s e r a d i c a l i s m b u t perhaps t h e y a r e n o t r a d i c a l ; t h e y h e l p o r g a n i z e pol i t i c a l a c t i o n b u t t h e y seldom i n v o l v e i n p o l i t i c s ; t h e y generate a d i a l c g i c
process b u t o f t e n does n o t l e a d t o t h e u l t i m a t e . They a r e a c t i v i s t s , c o n s t a n t l y opening m u l t i p l e f r o n t s i n an atmosphere o f i n e r t i a .
These experiments, i n t h e u l t i m a t e a n a l y s i s , so f a r f a i l e d t o combine
economic c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h p o l i t i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e exp l o i t a t i o n and dependency o f t h e r u r a l masses.
I N I C I A T I V A S L O C A L E S P A R A U N D E S A R R O L L O A U T O D E P E N D I E N T E EN
BANGLADESH
Resumen: Este znforme i n t e n t a eomprender e l s i g n i f i c a d o de i n i c i a t ' i v a s l o c a l e s
para e l desarrolZo autodependiente y e l proeeso de cambio s o c i a l . La autodependencia e s un valor, un o b j e t i v o y tambign un movimiento popular. Como
movimiento popular i n t e n t a eliminar l a dependencia, como o b j e t i v o engendra e l
e s p i r i t u c o l e e t i ~ ~y o como valor busca l a creat-ivLdad y l a innovacibn; todo
e s t o como parte i n t e g r a de l a cronologia y en r e l a c i b n a l a realidad p a r t i c u l a r
de cada pais. Teniendo p e s e n t e e s t o s eonceptos s e l l e v d aeabo un e s t u d i o
comparattvo de cuatro i n i c i a t i v a s , cada una de c a r k t e r d i f e r e n t e , y s e
exuminaron & s t a s en e l contexto de Banqladesh. Se reprodujo e l a n a l i s i s de t r e s
casos en su t o t a l i d a d ; 1 ) El c e n t r o de salud d e l pueblo en,Savar que escogid
l a salud como pun& dc enti-ada par's ,movilizap a lo.? pnhrp.s en lugares ~ u p a t e s .
2) I n i c i a t i v a s de ,i6venes en Camilla para l a organizacidn de c l u b s de jbvenes
que a su vez organizan labriegos s i n t i e r r a s para su p a r t i e i p a c i b n en v a r i e s
t i p o s de cooperaei6n eeon6mica. 3 ) El programa para e l d e s a r r o l l o autodependiente en Ulashi en e l d i s t r i t o de Jessore, donde s e m o v i l i s b a2 pueblo
para l a cooperacibn econSmica, especialmente en l a e o n s t r u d n de una
i n f r a e s t r u c t u r a econbmicu por trabujadores v o l u n t a r i o s , un progruma que
o f i c i a l m e n t e se hace destacar como e l ' T a c h a i r de Bangladesh.
SOYA BEAN MILK
(Tau C h u i )
About IKg. o f beans a r e soaked
i n w a t e r f o r 5-6 h o u r s . The
soaked beans t o g e t h e r w i t h 6
p i n t s o f w a t e r a r e t h e n ground
i n a s t o n e g r i n d e r . The g r i n d e r
c o n s i s t s o f 2 round stones
p l a c e d one on t o p o f t h e o t h e r .
Each s t o n e has a d i a m e t e r o f
60 cm. and a t h i c k n e s s o f 1 8 cm.
The s t o n e a t t h e b o t t o m has a
round c a n a l . The s t o n e on t h e
t o p has a c e n t r a l channel i n t o
which t h e soaked beans and w a t e r
can be f e d c o n t i n u o u s l y . The
upper round s t o n e i s r o t a t e d
and t h e grounded m i x t u r e f l o w s
i n t o a round canal and t h e n
c o l l e c t s i n a container.
(See
i l l u s t r a t i o n ) . Meanwhile, a
p i n t o f water i s b o i l e d i n a
vessel.
Grinding Soya Beans
Stirring the Soya Bean Mixture
When t h e w a t e r i s b o i l i n g , t h e
grounded m i x t u r e i s t h e n poured
i n . I t i s b o i l e d f o r 4-6 minutes.
The m i x t u r e has t o be s t i r r e d
once i n a w h i l e t o p r e v e n t o v e r b u r n i n g . (See i l l u s t r a t i o n ) .
Essence o r pandanus leaves can
be added t o g i v e an aroma. When
the mixture b o i l s , i t i s then
sieved w i t h a clean piece o f
c l o t h preferably muslin l a i d
o v e r a bamboo s i e v e . T h i s i s
placed over a container o r
wooden t u b i n t o which t h e f i l t e r e d soya bean m i l k f l o w s .
The r e s i d u e on t h e c l o t h i s
c a r e f u l l y wrapped and t h e
r e m a i n i n g l i q u i d i s squeezed by
p l a c i n g a w e i g h t on i t , p r e f e r a b l y a heavy wooden s l a b , f o r
h a l f an h o u r o r more. Sometimes
t h e r e s i d u e i s s i m p l y squeezed
w i t h b o t h hands. The d r y r e s i d u e
l e f t b e h i n d can be used as animal
and p o u l t r y feed. Sugar can be
added t o sweeten t h e m i l k . Soya
bean m i l k t e s t e d on a d r y b a s i s
was found t o c o n t a i n 30,: p r o t e i n .
Ng Sock Nye: Soya Bean - N u t r i t i o u s Food f o r t h e People ( I n s t i t u t Masyarakat
Berhad, 1, T i n g k a t Mayang P a s i r , Bandar Bayan Baru, Penang M a l a y s i a ) .
B U IL D I NG BLOCKS
ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT FOR JAPAN
by Nishikawa Jun
Waseda U n i v e r s i t y
5-4 Asagaya-kita, 4-chome
Suginani-ku, Tokyo 166, Japan
O r i g i n a l language:
English
A b s t r a c t : The era o f Japanese q r c v t h - u i t h t h e ensuing dcstruct-ion o f
a g r i c u l t u r e , o f t h e environment and t h e s t m c t u r a l v i o l e n c e uhic'h accompun'ied
Japanese expansion both domest-icaZLg and abroad - i s coming t o an end. The
paper c a l l s for another development in Japan and o u t l i n e s a p o l i c y p r 2 c y r w r m
based on balance betueen i n d u s t r y mxi a g r i c u l t u r e , dei.'entralizat?l^n (2nd
p a r t i c i p a t i o n , r i g h t s o f minoriLies, another educatilw! st'rwturc', t w i r l 9 c.'
t h e consumer s o c i e t y , and an end t o k m c ~ i s h i cexpansion abroad'.
UN AUTRE DEVELOPPEMENT POUR L E J A P O N
OTRO DESARROLLO PARA E L JAPON
Nishikawa Jun
ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT FOR JAPAN
1.
c e - e n d o f t h e era o f h i g h economic growth
A f t e r t h e Second World War, Japan has e x p e r i e n c e d h i g h economic growth, t a k i n g advantage o f p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r a l a t e c o m e r i n i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . B e g i n n i n g i n t h e m i d d l e 1950s Japan a t t a i n e d an annual
growth r a t e o f 10% f o r n e a r l y t w e n t y y e a r s . T h i s i s due t o low m i l i t a r y
e x p e n d i t u r e s which have been k e p t t o under 1% o f t h e GNP, enlargement o f
t h e domestic m a r k e t due t o democratic r e f o r m s a f t e r t h e d e f e a t o f Japan,
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f modern t e c h n o l o g y t h a t was a p p l i e d i n f a c t o r i e s whose cap i t a l goods were d e s t r o y e d d u r i n g t h e War and which caused r e a l t e c h n o l o g i c a l
i n n o v a t i o n s i n Japanese i n d u s t r y , development o f e d u c a t i o n and t h e s u p p l y of
an abundant l a b o r f o r c e o f good q u a l i t y f r o m t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . T h i s i s a l s o
due e x t e r n a l l y t o an economic expansion o f market economies under t h e IMFGATT system, an abundant s u p p l y o f raw m a t e r i a l s by T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s
which had achieved p o l i t i c a l independence a f t e r t h e War and t h e s u p p l y o f
advanced technology, e s p e c i a l l y b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
The h i g h economic growth was l e d by i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . The w o r k i n g populat i o n engaged i n t h e p r i m a r y s e c t o r accounted f o r 52% o f t h e t o t a l w o r k i n g
w o r k i n g p o p u l a t i o n i n 1951, b u t t h i s p r o p o r t i o n was reduced t o o n l y 14% as
o f 1975. I n 1975, secondary i n d u s t r y occupies 36% o f t h e t o t a l GNP and
p r i m a r y i n d u s t r y 6.7%. Economic development has been m a i n l y achieved i n secondary i n d u s t r y and t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t . T h i s i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n was accomplished e s p e c i a l l y t h r o u g h heavy and chemical i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and s t r o n g government f i n a n i c a l s u p p o r t f o r i t . I n 1955, t h e s h a r e
o f heavy and chemical i n d u s t r i e s i n t o t a l i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n amounted t o
45%, b u t by t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1970s t h i s share i n c r e a s e d t o 63%. A l s o ,
t h e governmental f o r m a t i o n o f f i x e d c a p i t a l accounted, t h r o u g h t h e 1960s, f o r
around 40% of t o t a l c a p i t a l f o r m a t i o n ( i n U.K. and t h e U.S.A.:
20-22%, West
Germany: 16%, and France: 13%) and induced t h i s r a p i d heavy and chemical
industrialization. .
As a consequence o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , t h e n a t i o n a l income i n c r e a s e d s h a r p l y
I n 1956, t h e p e r c a p i t a GNP o f Japan was 123 U.S. d o l l a r s , which corresponds
t o one t h i r t e e n t h o f t h a t o f t h e U.S.A., b u t today t h e Japanese p e r c a p i t a
GNP i s more o r l e s s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t o f t h e U.S.: 10,000 d o l l a r s i n 1979.
A h i g h v a l u e i s added i n i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n , as seen, f o r example, by t h e
f a c t t h a t i n 1971 t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f p e r c a p i t a a g r i c u l t u r a l workers i s one
f o u r t h t h a t o f n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l workers.
However, t h i s economic development based on i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n was n o t necess a r i l y based on peace and on t h e w e l f a r e o f c i t i z e n s . The a c c e l e r a t e d c a p i t a l
f o r m a t i o n was accomplished a t t h e expense o f many f a c t o r s . D o m e s t i c a l l y , ag r i c u l t u r e was destroyed; s o c i a l c a p i t a l r e l a t e d t o c i t i z e n ' s w e l f a r e has
been enormously delayed; p o l l u t i o n and d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e environment occurred;
human r i g h t s o f s o c i a l l y weak c i t i z e n s (women, aged people, c h i l d r e n , h a n d i capped people, Buraku people, m i n o r i t y p e o p l e such as Ainu, permanent f o r e i g n r e s i d e n t s such as Korean and Chinese, e t c . ) were s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i g n o r e d .
I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , Japan was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h hegemonism o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and
b e n e f i t e d h e a v i l y f r o m s u c c e s s i v e wars i n A s i a ; Japan a l s o a t t a i n e d a soc a l l e d v e r t i c a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r : h e r i m p o r t s c o n s i s t m a i n l y o f raw m a t e r i a l s , f u e l s and f o o d ( i n 1975, 80%) and h e r e x p o r t s o f manufactured and semimanufactured goods ( i n 1975, 98%), and b e n e f i t e d enormously f r o m unequal
exchange between i n d u s t r i a l f z e d and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .
P r e c i s e l y because o f t h i s d i s t o r t e d development, Japan f a c e d t h e end o f t h e
p e r i o d of h e r h i g h economic growth i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1970s, e s p e c i a l l y
around 1973. T h i s i s due t o t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e main growth f a c t o r s b o t h
d o m e s t i c a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . L e t us f i r s t l o o k a t domestic problems.
F i r s t , economic c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n Japanese i n d u s t r y has been s t r e n g t h e n e d and
o l i g o p o l i s t i c b e h a v i o r by b i g f i r m s has been a l l e g e d . From 1955 t o 1970, t h e
share o f b i g f i r m s , whose c a p i t a l i s o v e r 5 b i l l i o n yen i n f i x e d c a p i t a l , of
i n c o r p o r a t e d businesses i n c r e a s e d f r o m 42.5% t o 50.5% and t h e share of c o r p o r a t i o n s as s t o c k h o l d e r s i n j o i n t s t o c k companies whose s t o c k s a r e l i s t e d on
t h e s t o c k exchange i n c r e a s e d f r o m 55% i n 1965 t o 67% i n 1973. Today, 10 b i g
shosha ( t r a d i n g companies) c o n t r o l 55% o f Japanese i m p o r t s . The progress of
o l i g o p o l i z a t i o n suppressed t h e dynamism o f c o m p e t i t i v e market and l e d t o adm i n i s t r a t i v e p r i c e s as w e l l as t o s p e c u l a t i v e b e h a v i o r t h a t a c c e l e r a t e d
inflation.
Second, t h e a d d i t i o n a l s u p p l y o f domestic l a b o r was exhausted b y t h e end o f
t h e 1960s and wage l e v e l s i n c r e a s e d . A t t h e same t i m e , overseas i n v e s t m e n t
by p r i v a t e f i r m s progressed r a p i d l y because o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f a s s u r i n g
cheap manpower, p l a n t s i t e s , n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and e x p o r t markets f o r t h e i r
p r o d u c t s . The government sponsored t h i s overseas investment. However, a t
t h e same t i m e i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n progressed i n n e i g h b o r i n g T h i r d World count r i e s i n A s i a , and more and more i m p o r t s f r o m these c o u n t r i e s began t o h i t
Japanese i n d u s t r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l a b o r i n t e n s i v e and s e m i - f i n i s h e d
goods s e c t o r s . T h i s phenomenon i s c a l l e d t h e "boomerang e f f e c t " and became t h e o r i g i n o f " s t r u c t u r a l d e p r e s s i o n " i n Japanese i n d u s t r i e s . The v e r y
c a t c h up" process which b e n e f i t e d Japan i n h e r i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n began f o r
o t h e r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s t o o .
T h i r d , Japanese f i r m s t o o k advantage o f e x t e r n a l economies which t h e y used
a t v e r y l o w c o s t and t h i s was c o n s i d e r e d t o be one o f t h e reasons f o r t h e
c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s o f Japanese businesses, b u t these p r a c t i c e s have h e a v i l y damaged t h e environment and caused v i c t i m s o f p o l l u t i o n . From 1955 t o 1971,
i n t h e Tokyo m e t r o p o l i t a n area, SOX and NOx i n p e r u n i t s u p e r f i c i e ( h a b i t a b l e
a r e a ) i n c r a s e d b y 6.3 times. T o t a l s o l i d wastes i n c r e a s e d 50% f r o m 1970 t o
1975 and reached a l e v e l o f 1.25 b i l l i o n t o n s . Japanese a g r i c u l t u r a l f i r m s
use more and more a g r i c u l t u r a l chemicals and t h e amount o f weed k i l l e r s used
p e r u n i t o f c u l t i v a t e d l a n d i s f o u r t i m e s h i g h e r t h a n t h e West German l e v e l .
A l l t h e s e r e s u l t i n complex environmental p o l l u t i o n and many p e o p l e a r e becoming concerned w i t h i t s e f f e c t on human l i f e .
F o u r t h , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l environment s u r r o u n d i n g Japan has changed enorniou51y. The i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r of free movement o f goods and c a p i t a l supposed
b y t h e IMF-GATT system was p a r a l y z e d due t o t h e r i s e o f economic n a t i o n a l i s m
i n t h e T h i r d World and t o i n c r e a s i n g l y s e r i o u s c o m p e t i t i o n among I n d u s t r i a l ized c o u n t r i e s . A "New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic O r d e r " i s proposed by T h i r d
World c o u n t r i e s and a "new m e r c a n t i l i s m " i s becoming p r e v a l e n t among I n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . The main i n d u s t r i e s i n Japan which l e d t h e h i g h economic growth c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d t h e share o f e x p o r t s i n t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n ,
b u t t h i s i n c r e a s e o f e x p o r t s has caused s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t s w i t h the U.S.A. and
EC, and a l s o w i t h T h i r d World n a t i o n s . One o f t h e consequences of these
c o n f l i c t s i s overseas i n v e s t m e n t by Japanese e n t e r p r i s e s ; b u t , t h i s w i l l l e a d
t o a f u r t h e r l o w growth o f t h e Japanese economy i n t h e l o n g run.
The p e r i o d o f h i g h economic c r o w t h i s o v e r f o r t h e Japanese economy.
2.
P o s s i b i l i t y o f development based on t h e Peace C o n s t i t u t i o n
--- --. -.
-I n 1970s people i n Japan began t o t a l k o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f changing f r o m
a "Growth Japan" t o a "Welfare Japan". B u t what k i n d o f " w e l f a r e " s t a t e i s
e n v i s i o n e d ? The p o l i t i c a l m a j o r i t y seems t o view "Welfare Japan" as a cont i n u a t i o n on t h e r o a d o f Growth. T h i s k i n d o f "Welfare Japan" w i l l f u r t h e r
s t r e n g t h e n b i g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , b o t h p u b l i c and p r i v a t e , i n c r e a s e d o m i n a t i o n
b y t h e e l i t e c l a s s , d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e e c o l o g i c a l system, a l i e n a t i o n o f
s o c i a l l y weak people and h e g e m o n i s t i c expansion o f Japanese businesses o v e r seas, though i t w i l l r a i s e t h e income l e v e l o f t h e n a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t
o f o r g a n i z e d people, and cause a f u r t h e r i n u n d a t i o n o f consumers d u r a b l e goods.
On t h e o t h e r hand, more and more people a r e becoming aware o f t h e consequences
o f f o l l o w i n g t h e r o a d o f Growth and a r e l o o k i n g f o r a n o t h e r p a t h o f development. We see t h e r i s e o f c i t i z e n s movements t o c o n t r o l t h e i r own a f f a i r s ,
i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r o n g r e g u l a t i o n b y l o c a l communities a g a i n s t p o l l u t i o n and a
s t r o n g t i d e o f d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n . The w e l f a r e s o c i e t y
whcih t h e y e n v i s i o n i s one t h a t r e s p e c t s t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f a11 people,
assures t h e development o f human r i g h t s i n every f i e l d , m a i n t a i n s e c o l o g i c a l
balance, achieves a t r u l y d e c e n t r a l i z e d system and a t t a c h e s importance t o a
harmonious r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .
I n o t h e r words, t h i s i s
a s o c i e t y i n which a l l t h e c i t i z e n s f i n d t h e i r l i v e s w o r t h l i v i n g and i n which
human and s o c i a l development i s s t r e s s e d r a t h e r than m a t e r i a l growth.
What a r e t h e elements i n a t t a i n i n g t h i s r o a d o f another development? L e t us
f i r s t l o o k a t t h e main values t h a t w i l l l e a d t o a n o t h e r t y p e o f development
f o r Japan and t h e n a t t h e p r i n c i p a l measures o f socio-economic r e f o r m which
s h o u l d accompany t h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e v a l u e s o f a Growth s o c i e t y .
We may t a k e , as e s s e n t i a l values l e a d i n g t o a n o t h e r way o f development, t h e
concept o f a R i g h t f o r Peaceful E x i s t e n c e d e f i n e d i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f
Japan o f 19CS; t h i s s o - c a l l e d "eace C o n s t i t u t i o n was e l a b o r a t e d as consequence
o f t h e Second World War and o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h atomic bombs i n H i r o s h i m a
and Nagasaki. T h i s C o n s t i t u t i o n , w r i t t e n a t t h e same p e r i o d as t h e U n i v e r s a l
D e c l a r a t i o n o f Human R i g h t s , has i m p o r t a n t , o r i g i n a l p r o v i s i o n s which a r e n o t
found i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f modern C o n s t i t u t i o n s developed i n Western c o u n t r i e s .
F i r s t , t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n d e c l a r e s t h a t t h e Japanese people "have determined
t o p r e s e r v e o u r s e c u r i t y and e x i s t e n c e , t r u s t i n g i n t h e j u s t i c e and f a i t h
o f t h e p e a c e - l o v i n g peoples o f t h e w o r l d " and g i v e up armament. T h i s i d e a
i s c o n t r a r y t o t h e n o t i o n o f s e c u r i t y based on a "balance o f power" and i s
based on t h e b e l i e f t h a t peace s h o u l d be assured by " t r u s t i n g " o t h e r n a t i o n s .
This i d e a corresponds t o t h e Ten P r i n c i p l e s o f Peace adopted a t t h e Bandung
Conference o f A f r o - A s i an c o u n t r i e s i n 1955.
Second, i t s t a t e s as f o l l o w s : "We r e c o g n i z e t h a t a1 1 peoples o f t h e w o r l d
have t h e r i g h t t o l i v e i n peace, f r e e from f e a r and want. " T h i s i s recogn i t i o n o f t h e s o - c a l l e d " r i g h t t o p e a c e f u l e x i s t e n c e " . According t o t h i s
n o t i o n , a11 peoples have t h e r i g h t t o have i n d i v i d u a l d i g n i t y secured from
war and oppression, t o have b a s i c needs guaranteed and t o pursue f r e e l y
t h e i r own d e s t i n y , 1i b e r t y and happiness. This u n i v e r s a l i s m surpasses t h e
narrow framework o f t r a d i t i o n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s t i e d t o n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s
and i s a f u r t h e r development o f t h e n o t i o n o f human r i g h t s c o n t a i n e d i n
modern o c c i d e n t a l c o n s t i t u t i o n s .
The r e c o g n i t i o n o f peace i n t h e Peace C o n s t i t u t i o n i s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
t h e problem o f human r i g h t s . As a consequence, Japan can c o n t r i b u t e p o s i t i v e l y t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a peaceful o r d e r i n t h e globe and has t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o do so. Nevertheless, t h e r o a d o f Growth which Japan chose b r o u g h t
about v i o l a t i o n s o f b a s i c human r i g h t s on b o t h t h e domestic and i n t e r n a t i o n a l
l e v e l s . Japan p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e wars i n A s i a as a de f a c t 0 m i l i t a r y base:
t h i s i s c o n t r a r y t o t h e way o f development o f "Peace Japan" as designed i n
t h e Peace C o n s t i t u t i o n .
I n o r d e r f o r J a p a n t o f o l l o w t h e p a t h of an another development, based on t h e
Peace C o n s t i t u t i o n , r e s p e c t i n g peace and human r i g h t s and a s s o c i a t i n g h e r s e l f
w i t h t h e g l o b a l community o f peoples, we must r e f o r m some e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s
o f s o c i o-economi c i n s ti t u t i ons.
F i r s t , i t i s necessary t o modify t h e e x i s t i n g r o a d o f h i g h growth based on
i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r i n o r d e r t o 'const r u c t a balanced n a t i o n a l economy i n which a g r i c u l t u r e , i n d u s t r y and t h e
s e r v i c e s e c t o r develop harmoniously.
Second, t h e e x i s t i n g c e n t r a l i z e d system i n s t a l l e d s i n c e t h e M e i j i e r a s h o u l d
be reformed; i n s t e a d a d e c e n t r a l i z e d system w i t h p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e people
i n d e c i s i o n s and management o f p u b l i c a f f a i r s as w e l l as self-management
by workers and producers s h o u l d be promoted.
T h i r d , i t i s neaessary t o r e s p e c t t h e r i g h t s o f s o c i a l l y weak and m i n o r i t y
peoples and t o i n t e g r a t e women, aged people, handicapped, d i s c r i m i n a t e d
a g a i n s t people and f o r e i g n r e s i d e n t s i n t o s o c i e t y .
F o u r t h , t h e e x i s t i n g e l i t i s t e d u c a t i o n system s h o u l d be m o d i f i e d ; a new educ a t i o n system t h a t i s based on t h e t o t a l development o f human n a t u r e , l i f e l o n g e d u c a t i o n and t h e f r e e movement o f p u p i l s s h o u l d be i n s t a l l e d .
F i f t h , we must r e f l e c t s i n c e r e l y on t h e consequences o f t h e e x i s t i n g con-
sumption c i v i l i z a t i o n which i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e waste o f resources, det e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e environment and a l i e n a t i o n . The Japanese have t r a d i t i o n a l l y l e d a s i m p l e and sober l i f e - s t y l e ; we may c r e a t e , based on t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l l i f e - s t y l e and a s s o c i a t i n g i t w i t h modern conveniences, a contemporary l i f e - s t y l e i n which t h e main elements a r e s a v i n g energy and r e sources, c o n s e r v i n g t h e e c o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e and endogeneous c r e a t i v i t y .
S i x t h , h e g e m o n i s t i c expansion o f t h e economy s h o u l d be stopped. Japan must
c r e a t e e q u i t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s based on freedom, e q u a l i t y , j u s t i c e and mutual
b e n e f i t w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , and c o n t r i b u t e p o s i t i v e l y t o g e n e r a l disarmament as w e l l as t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a w o r l d community -- t h i s s h o u l d be
c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e b e s t measure t o assure Japan's s e c u r i t y .
I f Japan c o u l d c a r r y o u t these measures, t h i s would s u r e l y d i m i n i s h t h e
s t r u c t u r a l v i o l e n c e i n h e r e n t i n contemporary s o c i e t y and promote s e l f - r e l i a n t
development b y Japan t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f peoples i n t o one
w o r l d community. We s h a l l now examine each o f these p o i n t s .
3.
Balanced development, d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and p a r t i c i p a t i o n
D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f h i g h economic growth, i n d u s t r i e s progressed, b u t ag r i c u l t u r e and t h e p r i m a r y s e c t o r regressed.
The t o t a l s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y percentage o f f o o d decreased f r o m 93% i n 1960 t o
74% i n 1974 and t h e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y percentage o f c e r e a l s f r o m 83% t o 37%
i n t h e same p e r i o d .
Japanese a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y adopted p r o t e c t i o n i s m f o r r i c e , t h e p r i n c i p a l
food, by means o f t h e Food A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Law, b u t f o r o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t s i t d e c i d e d t o r e l y upon i m p o r t s f r o m overseas. A l s o , t h e o f f i c i a l
p o l i c y c o n c e r n i n g raw m a t e r i a l s f o r i n d u s t r y i s n o t t o develop domestic mat e r i a l s b u t t o i m p o r t them - - t h e overseas dependence percentage f o r t h e t e n
p r i n c i p a l r e s o u r c e s used i n Japanese i n d u s t r y such as petroleum, i r o n ore,
e t c . i n c r e a s e d f r o m 70.8% i n 1960 t o 90.4% i n 1970.
D u r i n g t h e 1960s t h e number o f Japanese farms decreased f r o m 3 b i l l i o n t o
o n l y 660,000, among which t w o - t h i r d s a c q u i r e more income f r o m sources o t h e r
t h a n f r o m a g r i c u l t u r a l sources. Today, t h e average income p e r a g r i c u l t u r a l
household surpasses t h a t o f n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l households, b u t 67% o f t h e i r
income o r i g i n a t e s f r o m n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l o c c u p a t i o n s . A m a j o r i t y o f Japanese
r u r a l f a m i l i e s cannot l i v e o n l y on a g r i c u l t u r e .
I n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e d e f i c i t i n t h e Food A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Law has i n c r e a s e d cons i d e r a b l y and reached 690 b i l l i o n yen; p e o p l e began t o t a l k about r e f o r m o f
t h e law. Farms a r e o b l i g e d t o a c c e p t "autonomous" r e d u c t i o n s i n p l a n t e d
areas. They a r e encouraged by t h e government t o change f r o m r i c e t o t a n g e r i n e o r l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n b u t these p r o d u c t s are menaced by t h e r i s i n g
demand f o r l i b e r a l i z a t i o n o f i m p o r t s by t h e U.S.A.
A g r i c u l t u r a l growth under
the Food A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Law has a p p a r e n t l y reached a deadlock.
A new a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y i s needed b o t h f o r producers and consumers. The
main elements o f t h e new p o l i c y s h o u l d be as f o l l o w s : t o i n c r e a s e t h e s e l f -
s u f f i c i e n c y percentage of food and raw m a t e r i a l s , t o encourage r e g i o n a l development, r e g i o n a l s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y and t h e use o f i d l e l a n d (Japanese c u l t i v a t e d l a n d i s used o n l y h a l f o f t h e y e a r , though two crops a r e f e a s i b l e
i n most p a r t s o f Japan) and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n system, ab o l i s h i n g t h e c e n t r a l i z e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y o f t h e Food A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Law.
F i r s t , as f o r b a s i c a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s , a m i d d l e t e r m p l a n f o r an i n c r e a s e
i n t h e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y percentage should be e s t a b l i s h e d . M u l t i p l e p l a n t i n g s o f m u l t i p l e crops and d i r e c t r e g i o n a l s u p p l y s h o u l d be promoted w i t h i n
t h e framework o f t h i s p l a n . For t h e use o f i d l e l a n d , r e n t s h o u l d be p a i d
by t h e S t a t e s . Concerning t h e f i n a n c i a l resources, we must a b o l i s h t h e
i m p o r t q u o t a system and i n s t a l 1 a f r o n t i e r t a x system; i n t h i s way, by i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s , we may have t h e resources f o r
t h e r e f o r m o f domestic a g r i c u l t u r e .
Second, A g r i c u l t u r a l Cooperatives s h o u l d be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and r e g i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l management. Land s h o u l d be s o c i a l i z e d : urban
l a n d s h o u l d be a d m i n i s t e r e d by s p e c i a l p u b l i c c o r p o r a t i o n s and a g r i c u l t u r a l
l a n d by Cooperatives. These Cooperatives would encourage and promote m i d d l e s c a l e management o f farms, development o f m u l t i p l e crops, j o i n t use o f ag r i c u l t u r a l machinery, t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s ( d a i r y p r o ducts, j u i c e o r canning) and d i r e c t b u y i n g o f m a t e r i a l s and s a l e s o f p r o d u c t s . The government s h o u l d encourage a g r i c u l t u r a l and l i v e s t o c k product i o n which does n o t use a g r i c u l t u r a l chemicals o r chemical a d d i t i v e s .
T h i r d , t h e s u p p l y o f a g r i c u l t u r a l and l i v e s t o c k wi 11 i n c r e a s e and p r i c e s
w i 11 decrease under farm management which develops mu1 t i p l e crops. T h i s ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a b o l i t i o n o f i m p o r t quotas, p r o v i d e s b e n e f i t s t o consumers.
The government s h o u l d a b o l i s h t h e p r i c e compensation system f o r producers
and adopt an income guarantee system. As a means o f income guarantee, t h e
government can pay r e n t and - a s s i s t a n c e f o r mu1 ti p l e c r o p a g r i c u l t u r e , d i s courage h i g h i n p u t s i n a g r i c u l t u r e ( e s p e c i a l l y h i g h energy consuming a g r i c u l t u r e such as hothouses) and e s t a b l i s h l o c a l f a c t o r i e s u s i n g l o c a l raw
materials.
Fourth, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n system s h o u l d be r a t i o n a l i z e d . Many l o c a l p r o d u c t s
o f d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f Japan a r e f i r s t c o n c e n t r a t e d i n c e n t r a l markets such
as Tokyo and t h e n r e d i s t r i b u t e d t o each p r e f e c t u r e . T h i s process i s accompanied by a heavy waste o f energy and c o s t s . T h e r e f o r e a system o f d i r e c t
r e g i o n a l s u p p l y from producers t o consumers through l o c a l communities should
be promoted.
These measures aim t o adopt t h e market mechanism as t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e system
o f resources, t o p u t a g r i c u l t u r e i n t o t h e compteti ti on o f a 1 ib e r a l ized economy and t o balance development o f i n d u s t r y and a g r i c u l t u r e as w e l l as t h a t
o f r e g i o n a l economies and t o i n c r e a s e t h e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y percentage through
qua1 it a t i v e improvement o f domestic a g r i c u l t u r e .
T h a t i s why t h i s a g r i c u l t u r a l development must be accompanied w i t h r e f o r m
o f industry.
U n t i 1 now, i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n has been h e a v i l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n l a r g e - s c a l e ,
c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i ve heavy and chemical i n d u s t r i e s . These i n d u s t r i e s have ac h i e v e d t h e mass p r o d u c t i o n o f homogeneous goods v e r y e f f i c i e n t l y , u s i n g
i m p o r t e d raw m a t e r i a l s , p o l l u t i n q t h e environment and e x p o r t i n g a l a r g e
p a r t o f t h e i r p r o d u c t s abroad. However these i n d u s t r i e s
w i l l encounter d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e coming decades: f i r s t , people become
i n c r e a s i n g l y conscious o f p o l l u t i o n and t h e r e a r i s e s a problem o f f i n d i n g
s u i t a b l e s i t e s f o r f a c t o r i e s ; second, t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f raw m a t e r i a l s w i l l
pose a problem as producers o f p r i m a r y p r o d u c t s push t h e i r own i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ; t h i r d , w i t h r i s i n g l a b o r c o s t s and s o c i a l needs t h e margin o f p r o f i t i n I n d u s t r i a1 i z e d c o u n t r i e s wi 11 decrease, l e a d i n g t o l a b o r - s a v i n g new
i n v e s t m e n t , s o t h a t b i g i n d u s t r i e s w i l l be unable t o deal w i t h t h e problem
o f i n c r e a s i n g unemployment.
The Japanese government now advocates changing t h e p r e s e n t Japanese i n d u s t r i a l s t r u c t u r e t o a " k n o w l e d g e - i n t e n s i v e " one, b u t t h i s move would n o t r e s o l v e t h e problem o f unemployment o f " b l u e c o l l a r " workers n o r m o d i f y t h e
domination-dependence r e l a t i o n s h i p which e x i s t s between Japan and T h i r d
World c o u n t r i e s . Reform o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d be developed
i n f o u r ways.
F i r s t , medium and s m a l l s c a l e e n t e r p r i s e s based on r e g i o n a l economic s t r u c tues, u s i n g raw m a t e r i a l s produced l o c a l l y and f i n d i n g markets l o c a l l y
s h o u l d be promoted.
Second, these e n t e r p r i s e s would use l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e as w e l l as knowledgei n t e n s i v e t e c h n o l o g i e s s o t h a t t h e y may c o n t r i b u t e t o r e s o l v i n g t h e problem
o f unemployment t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e problem o f p o l l u t i o n .
T h i r d , t h e p r e s e n t f i n a n c i a l system i s t h a t l o c a l banks c o l l e c t money l o c a l l y
and l e n d i t t o b i g e n t e r p r i s e s i n f i n a n c i a l c e n t e r s ; i t i s necessary t o
r e v e r s e t h i s t r e n d and encourage l o c a l l e n d i n g .
F o u r t h , i t i s necessary t o break t h e monopoly o f t h e t e n b i g t r a d i n g compan i e s and t o m o d i f y t h e f l o w o f goods and resources through t h e c e n t e r ; each
r e g i o n s h o u l d develop i t s own t r a d i n g company, p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e , and p r o mote t h e l o c a l f l o w o f goods and r e s o u r c e s .
By t h e end o f t h e 1980s t h e a c t u a l share o f heavy and chemical i n d u s t r i e s i n
t o t a l i n d u s t r i a1 p r o d u c t i o n s h o u l d be d i m i n i s h e d t o around 50%.
T h i s r e f o r m o f b o t h i n d u s t r y and a g r i c u l t u r e i s f e a s i b l e o n l y i f i t i s ass o c i a t e d w i t h t h e development o f p o l i t i c a l , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and f i n a n c i a l
d c e n t r a l i z a t i o n . I t i s c r u c i a l t o modify t h e p r e s e n t c e n t r a l i z e d p u b l i c f i nance system i n o r d e r t o develop l o c a l autonomy and d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n .
I n f a c t , t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f Japan assures " l o c a l autonomy", b u t t h i s a u t o nomy i s n o t r e s p e c t e d i n p r a c t i c e .
Today, 70% o f p u b l i c e x p e n d i t u r e s a r e made by l o c a l communities, b u t among
p u b l i c revenues o n l y 33% a r e c o l l e c t e d by them; t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s t r a n s f e r r e d
b y t h e c e n t r a l government t o l o c a l governments ( i n t h e f o r m o f s u b s i d y o r
g r a n t ) . This f i n a n c i a l system based on control by the central government
i s often c a l l e d "one-third autonomy" and heavily l i m i t s
uses of tax and
consequently the autonomy of local communities. The 1a t t e r a r e heavily
dependent on the central government.
In t h i s r e s p e c t , we must confirm the p r i n c i p l e t h a t the costs of building
up local communi t i e s should be borne by the communities themselves and
achieve decentralized development respecting local autonomy and local i n i t i a t i v e , giving t o the local governments the power t o c o l l e c t taxes as well
as t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o i s s u e bonds, thus increasing the a v a i l a b i l i t y of
autonomous resources.
In the 1980s i t i s necessary t o reorganize the e x i s t i n g subsidy system i n
order t o t r a n s f e r more resources t o t h e control of local governments: 70%
of revenue should eventually be controlled by them. This kind of respect
f o r local i n i t i a t i v e i s very important i n order t o generate a new v i t a l i t y
in the Japanese economy and s o c i e t y as well as t o l o c a l l y resolve the
unemployment problem.
Decentralization must be accompanied by p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the people a t each
level of local administration. The base of local autonomy may be the town,
vi 1 lage o r educational d i v i s i o n based on secondary schools; peoples counci 1s
can be created a t t h i s level whose r o l e i s t o r e f l e c t people's opinions in
administrative s e r v i c e , public works, conservation of the environment and
c u l t u r a l a f f a i r s and t o promote people's p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
This system of d i r e c t democracy should be connected with a system of i n d i r e c t
democracy, which i s t h e only r e p r e s e n t a t i v e system today. Regional assemb l i e s ( v i l l a g e , town, c i t y , p r e f e c t u r e ) should be responsible f o r the d i s t r i b u t i o n and coordination of work with t h e central government, approval of
the budget, supervision of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , auditing of accounts o r d i s c l o s u r e
of information.
Together with t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of c i t i z e n s a t the local l e v e l , p a r t i c i p a tion in e n t e r p r i s e s should be promoted: employees, workers, consumers and
users would p a r t i c i p a t e in the management of public and p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s .
On t h e board of d i r e c t o r s of these e n t e r p r i s e s , a t h i r d of the positions
would be a1 located t o managers and stockholders ( i n the case of public
corporations, t o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the S t a t e o r local government), a t h i r d
t o employees and workers and a t h i r d t o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of community r e s i d e n t s , consumers and users. Thus, progress i n d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n , p a r t i c i p a tion and self-management may be made in every p a r t of Japan.
Welfare s o c i e t y and t o t a l development
of human beings,
-I t i s often pointed out t h a t i n Japan s o c i a l welfare has been delayed in
comparison with economic growth. In r e c e n t years t h e r e c e r t a i n l y has been
considerable progress in the s o c i a l s e c u r i t y system, n e v e r t h e l e s s , in 1975,
the share of t r a n s f e r i n terms of s o c i a l s e c u r i t y amounts t o approximately
8% of the national income, which i s a much smaller sum than the 20% or s o
which p r e v a i l s in European c o u n t r i e s . The Japanese s o c i a l s e c u r i t y system
has been concentrated on health insurance and as a r e s u l t housing, l i f e en4.
vironment and the c o m p l e t i o n o f a pension system were d i s r e g a r d e d . F o r
example, s o c i a l c a p i t a l r e l a t e d t o t h e n a t i o n ' s l i f e such as p a r k area,
n u r s e r i e s o r sewage p e r c e r t a i n number o f i n h a b i t a n t s i s much s m a l l e r c m pared w i t h o t h e r developed n a t i o n s . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s marked c o n t r a s t w i t h
t h e general d i f f u s i o n o f consumers d u r a b l e goods such as automobiles,
household e l e c t r i c a l a p p l i a n c e s , e t c .
Also, a r e a l w e l f a r e s o c i e t y i s n o t c o n s t r u c t e d o n l y by i n c r e a s i n g t h e budg e t f o r s o c i a l s e c u r i t y o r s o c i a l w e l f a r e . I t i s a l s o formed b y i n t e g r a t i n g
t h e s o c i a l l y weak o r people s u b j e c t e d t o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n t o t h e development a l process o f s o c i e t y .
I n Japan, aged people were v e r y o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d as an impediment t o product i o n . The percentage o f aged people who r e c e i v e s u b s i d i e s under t h e L i v e l i hood P r o t e c t i o n Law amounts t o 35%. I n P u b l i c E s t a b l i s h m e n t s f o r Aged
People, f o u r o l d men l i v e i n one s m a l l room ( 8 mat s i z e ) and f a c i l i t i e s r e main elementary. The pension system i s v e r y i n c o m p l e t e . Under t h e e x i s t i n g
h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e system p r e v e n t i v e m e d i c i n e and r e h a b i 1 it a t i o n are almost
neglected.
As f o r handicapped people, t h e number i s i n c r e a s i n g due t o work a c c i d e n t s ,
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a c c i d e n t s (a h a l f m i l l i o n people a r e k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d e v e r y
y e a r ) and p o l l u t i o n . The i n u n d a t i o n o f a r t i f i c i a l poisonous a d d i t i v e s i n
f o o d and t h e use o f a g r i c u l t u r a l chemicals g i v e r i s e t o an i n c r e a s i n g numb e r o f c o n g e n i t a l l y handicapped c h i l d r e n . B u t i n Japan m e n t a l l y and phys i c a l 1y handicapped persons have been i s o l a t e d f r o m s o c i e t y . The l e g a l
quota f o r t h e handicapped i s e x t r e m e l y l o w b o t h i n t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e
s e c t o r s and i s o f t e n n o t f i l l e d . The r i g h t s o f handicapped people, recogn i z e d i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n 1975, a r e n o t guaranteed i n Japan.
There i s a l s o t h e p r o b l e m o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n agains m i n o r i t y groups.
a r e t h r e e types o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
There
F i r s t , t h e r e i s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n agains s o c i a l groups who have h i s t o r i c a l l y
been s u b j e c t e d t o d i s c r i m i n a t i o n such as t h e buraku people, who number
more t h a n two mi 1 l i o n .
Second, t h e r e a r e s m a l l m i n o r i t y e t h n i c groups such as t h e Ainu, W i l t a ,
Ni kbun, n a t u r a l i z e d Koreans, e t c . who have Japanese n a t i o n a l i t y . These two
c a t e g o r i e s o f people v e r y o f t e n encounter s o c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n employment,
marriage, e t c .
T h i r d , about 750,000 f o r e i g n r e s i d e n t s l i v e i n Japan ( i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e app r o x i m a t e l y 650,000 Koreans and 50,000 Chinese) and a r e d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t
i n many r e s p e c t s . These p e o p l e obey Japanese l a w and pay taxes, b u t are n o t
assured o f t h e i r r i g h t s as c i t i z e n s and a r e d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t l e g a l l y
and s o c i a l l y i n employment, p u b l i c s u p p l y o f housing, s o c i a l s e c u r i t y , e t c .
L a s t l y , t h e r i g h t s o f women a r e n o t r e s p e c t e d . I n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n equal
r i g h t s between t h e sexes a r e assured, b u t i n p r a c t i c e , i n e d u c a t i o n , employment, p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g system and c u l t u r e , we see widespread gaps and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
In employment, women account f o r one-third of the labor f o r c e , but they a r e
employed mainly in the office-work, s e r v i c e and professional s e c t o r s ; in
t h e managerial s e c t o r women comprised only 6'i of the workers i n 1976. In
Japanese business e n t e r p r i s e s women are given ceneral a s s i s t a n t work, so
t h a t t h e i r average s a l a r y ( i n 1976) corresponds t o only 56% of a man's s a l a r y ( i n France i t i s 86% and i n West Germany i t i s 72: f o r the same y e a r )
and t h e i r average period of employment i s 5.6 years as opposed t o 10.3
years f o r men. Housewives a r e considered as a shock absorber i n time of
depression. That i s why many firms i n s t a l 1 discriminatory measures a g a i n s t
women such as a g e - l i m i t s , forced retirement by marriaqe or pregnancy, employment with a proviso of "beauty", e t c . There a l s o i s discrimination in
promotion and t r a i n i n g . For example, 31% of the manufacturing firms have
e s t a b l i s h e d d i f f e r e n t age-limi t s according t o sex.
This kind of discrimination i n work corresponds t o unequality in education
( i n 1976, 41% of male graduates of high schools went t o u n i v e r s i t i e s as
opposed t o 13% of female graduates) o r in the decision-making process (among
the 504 members of Parliament only 7 are women as of 1979; women's share of
members in p r e f e c t u r a l assemblies i s 1 . 2 % ) .
Sex discrimination i s supoortecf by a man's c u l t u r e whose com~onb e l i e f i s
"Work f o r men, family f o r women". This f i c t i o n of d i v i s i o n of labor o r i g i nates in a c e r t a i n difference between t h e two s e x e s : women d e l i v e r children
and r a i s e them. This natural d i f f e r e n c e i s taken by men and transformed
into a social difference.
The Japanese government f i n a l l y r a t i f i e d the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Covenants of
Human Rights i n 1979. In order t o c o n s t r u c t a welfare s o c i e t y s t a r t i n g from
the Peace C o n s t i t u t i o n , i t i s necessary t o implement the r i g h t s of freedom
as well as s o c i a l r i g h t s defined in the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Covenants and t o a bolish a l l kinds of discrimination domestically.
There are three movements important in t h e implementation of human r i g h t s
f o r people s u b j e c t t o discrimination.
F i r s t i s s e l f - r e l i a n c e . As long as one depends on o t h e r s , there i s no equal
and e q u i t a b l e re1 a t i o n s h i p . Abolition of discrimination i s no more than
s e l f - l i b e r a t i o n from dependence, a c q u i s i t i o n of an i d e n t i t y as being d i s criminated against and opressed and establishment of a s e l f - r e l i a n t s p i r i t .
But these should be supported by public p o l i c y . Social welfare and p a r t i c i pation must be guaranteed f o r s o c i a l l y weak people. For minority e t h n i c
groups, we may apply, f o r example, a "Law of Autonomy of Minority Nationalit i e s " instead of t h e e x i s t i n g "Law of Protection of Indigenous People". For
permanent foreign r e s i d e n t s we must guarantee t h e i r r i g h t s as c i t i z e n s . And
f o r women, an Equal Employment Opportunity Law should be enacted.
Secondly, we must have preferences f o r promotion and i n t e g r a t i o n of d i s c r i minated-against people. Because of h i s t o r i c a l reasons, these people, even
i f t h e i r r i g h t s are guaranteed by laws, cannot be i n t e g r a t e d s o c i a l l y . Tradi t i o n , custom, p r a c t i c e and c u l t u r e become s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e s . In t h i s case
.
c e r t a i n measures f o r preferences s h o u l d be a p p l i e d i n f a v o r o f d i s c r i m i n a t e d - a g a i n s t people: income guarantees f o r s o c i a1 l y weak people, p r i o r i t y
employment o r employment quotas f o r buraku people, m i n o r i t y n a t i o n a l i t i e s ,
handicapped, permanent f o r e i g n r e s i d e n t s and women, p r i o r i t y e n t r y i n h i qher
e d u c a t i o n f o r candidates who a r e members o f d i s c r i m i n a t e d - a g a i n s t groups o r
who a r e f r o m remote i s l a n d s o r i s o l a t e d r e g i o n s i n which e d u c a t i o n a l opp o r t u n i t i e s are rare, e t c .
T h i r d l y , s o l i d a r i t y o f d i s c r i m i n a t e d - a q a i n s t peoples i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . T h i s
i s i n f a c t t h e p r i n c i p a l element t o break o u t o f t h e e x i s t i n g system o f dom i n a t i on and dependence. People overcome d i s c r i m i n a t i o n through s o l i d a r i t y
o f t h e oppressed and d e l i v e r themselves f r o m s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n c r e a t e d by
social discrimination.
Development o f such a p e o p l e ' s movement may become
t h e seed o f a new s o c i e t y : d o m e s t i c a l l y , people oppressed by s o c i a l systems
and b i g o r g a n i z a t i o n s would l o o k f o r f u r t h e r s o l i d a r i t y w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l
movements o f oppressed peoples. T h i s movement o f d i s c r i m i n a t e d - a g a i n s t and
oppressed p e o p l e i s a movement o f human beings l o o k i n g f o r t o t a l development.
I n e d u c a t i o n , we can conceive s e v e r a l measures t o r e a l i z e t o t a l human development. F o r t h i s purpose, t h e e x i s t i n g e d u c a t i o n a l system o f e l i t e s e l e c t i o n which has c o n t r i b u t e d t o a h i g h growth o o l i c y must be reformed. Under
t h e e x i s t i n g system, h a l f o f t h e c h i l d r e n i n p r i m a r y school a r e s a i d t o be
unable t o f o l l o w classwork and t h r e e - f o u r t h o f p u p i l s i n h i g h school cannot
d i g e s t mathematics, s o t h a t a t t h e age when t h e y s h o u l d be engaged i n h i g h e r
e d u c a t i o n , an a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y o f young men have a l r e a d y "dropped o u t " f r o m
s o c i e t y . The Growth s o c i e t y formed an e l i t e c l a s s and t h e r e b y c r e a t e d many
dropouts.
Here t h e r e f o r m o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i s o f c r i t i c a l importance, because a
f i e r c e l y c o m p e t i t i v e system i n a11 l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n i s a i m i n g a t t h e ent r y o f c h i l d r e n i n t o " f i r s t . -rankedu u n i v e r s i t i e s . The main elements o f
t h e r e f o r m may be as f o l l o w s :
F i r s t , i t i s necessary t o reduce t h e gap between n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t i e s and
p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t i e s and f o r t h i s purpose a U n i v e r s i t y C o r p o r a t i o n s h o u l d be
e s t a b l i s h e d t o f i n a n c e a11 t y p e s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s .
Second, u n i v e r s i t i e s , b o t h p u b l i c and p r i v a t e , s h o u l d adopt a common w r i t t e n
e x a m i n a t i o n system based on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a c c a l a u r e a t , as t h e f i r s t s t e p
o f e n t r y examinations, and as t h e second s t e p t h e y may a p p l y an o r a l examin a t i o n o r e x a m i n a t i o n based on t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an essay, a c c o r d i n g t o
the nature o f the i n s t i t u t i o n .
T h i r d , h i g h schools and u n i v e r s i t i e s may be reformed on t h e b a s i s o f l o c a l
s o c i e t y w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on t h e boards o f d i r e c t o r s o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s
b y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f l o c a l communities, t e a c h i n g s t a f f , s e c r e t a r i a t and
s t u d e n t s . These i n s t i t u t i o n s would respond t o t h e needs o f l o c a l communities
f o r s c i e n c e , t e c h n o l o g y and c u l t u r e and e s t a b l i s h t h e i r own p e r s o n a l i t y .
F o u r t h , t h e number o f s t u d e n t s s h o u l d be l i m i t e d (2000 t o 4000) p e r u n i v e r s i t y and exchanges o f t e a c h i n g s t a f f and s t u d e n t s among t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s s h o u l d
be promoted. Also, u n i v e r s i t i e s s h o u l d t a k e charge o f t h e l i f e - l o n g educat i o n o f community members and open c e r t a i n courses t o t h e p u b l i c . The
u n i v e r s i t y o f a w e l f a r e s o c i e t y s h o u l d be an open u n i v e r s i t y .
Japanese e n t e r p r i s e s , e s p e c i a l l y b i g ones, have a common p r a c t i c e o f r e c r u i t i n g new members o n l y from c e r t a i n " f i r s t - r a n k e d " u n i v e r s i t i e s (des i g n a t i o n o f u n i v e r s i t y system). The e n t r y examination a l s o has a general
l i m i t a t i o n o f age. To end t h e "diploma d i s e a s e " p r e v a i l i n g i n s o c i e t y , i t
i s necessary t h a t e n t e r p r i s e s a b o l i s h t h e examination system based on t h e
d e s i g n a t i o n o f u n i v e r s i t i e s and 1 i m i t a t i o n o f age, t o g e t h e r w i t h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n by sex o r s o c i a l groups. The e x i s t i n g system o f e d u c a t i o n encourages
d i p l o m a d i s e a s e " a t every l e v e l o f human f o r m a t i o n and v i o l a t e s , by cent r a l i z e d and u n i f o r m e d u c a t i o n , t h e i n t e r n a l r i c h n e s s o f t h e y o u t h , thus
l i m i t i n g many p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f human and s o c i a l development.
5.
New l i f e s t y l e and e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s
Asked about t h e i r l e v e l o f l i v i n g , 90% o f t h e Japanese r e p l y t h a t t h e y have
a m i d d l e s t a n d a r d o f l i f e . I n s p i t e o f a r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l o f w e l f a r e ,
m i d d l e c l a s s consciousness i s p r e v a l e n t among Japanese. One o f t h e reasons
f o r t h i s may be t h e i n u n d a t i o n o f consumers d u r a b l e goods. According t o
an o p i n i o n survey made a n n u a l l y b y t h e Prime M i n i s t e r ' s O f f i c e on t h e nat i o n ' s l i f e , people who t h i n k t h a t h o u s i n g and food a r e n o t y e t s a t i s f a c t o r y account f o r 50% o f t h e t o t a l r e p l i e s i n r e c e n t s e v e r a l
( t h e q u e s t i o n i s : " I n t h e f u t u r e , what a s p e c t o f l i f e do you hope t o f u l f i l l
more?"), b u t people who r e p l i e d t h a t t h e y w i l l devote more t o consumers dui
r a b l e goods t o t a l 10%. I n o t h e r words, one o u t o f two Japanese i s n o t sat i s f i e d w i t h b a s i c needs such as housing and food, i s i n possession o f many
consumers goods b u t i s i r r i t a t e d by t r a f f i c congestion, and i s o b l i g e d e v e r y
y e a r t o buy new p r o d u c t s whose design i s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t f r o m l a s t y e a r ' s
model.
However, i t w i l l become i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t i n u e t h i s k i n d of l i f e s t y l e which c o n s i s t s o f t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f huge amounts o f raw m a t e r i a l s
f r o m abroad, t h e continuous development o f "new" consumer goods which, i n
f a c t , have a v e r y l i m i t e d use i n d a i l y l i f e and t h e e m i s s i o n o f huge quant i t i e s o f waste. This i s due t o t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h e environmental p r o blem as w e l l as t o i n c r e a s i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f raw
m a t e r i a l s and f u e l s f r o m abroad.
A t t h e same t i m e t h i s s o r t o f l i f e - s t y l e a c c e l e r a t e s a l i e n a t i o n among people,
because t h e aim o f l i f e becomes c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l
goods. I n t h i s s o c i e t y , tourism, one o f t h e main f i e l d s o f p e o p l e ' s l e i s u r e ,
i s a l s o commercial l y organi zed and package t o u r s d i m i n i s h t h e sense o f f r e e dom, adventure and encounter w i t h o t h e r s , which a r e i m p o r t a n t components
o f a u t h e n t i c t o u r i sm.
To c o n s t r u c t a more autonomous, s e l f - r e l i a n t l i f e - s t y l e , i t i s necessary t o
connect i t w i t h t h e development o f 1 o c a l s o c i e t y . Many people l i v e i n suburbs and go t o work i n down town areas, r e q u i r i n g many hours t o commute.
We must c o m p l e t e l y r e c o n s i d e r t h i s k i n d o f 1 i f e - s t y l e which wastes energy.
I f i n a r e g i o n a l o r l o c a l s o c i e t y one c o u l d f i n d employment t o g e t h e r w i t h
h o u s i n g and p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s , i t would c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e
r e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e c i t y , which has become devastated i n many p a r t s o f t h e
I n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s , as a c i t i z e n s community. I n t h i s community e v e r y t h i n g
would be found w i t h i n w a l k i n g d i s t a n c e . There would be no need f o r a u t o m o b i l e s , o l d p a r k i n g l o t s c o u l d be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o gardens o r v e g e t a b l e
farms and c h i l d r e n c o u l d p l a y f r e e l y among t h e greenery and f l o w e r s . I n
each b l o c o f apartments a h e a t i n g system u s i n g s o l a r energy o r a power
p l a n t u s i n g w i n d power c o u l d be i n s t a l l e d . There would a l s o be a bakery
o r s u p p l i e r o f r i c e . Many household e l e c t r i c machines c o u l d be used comm u n a l l y , t h u s s a v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e energy. There would be no need f o r publicity.
Each person would c o n t r o l h i s o r h e r i n f l a t e d d e s i r e s , so t h a t
i t would n o t be necessary t o work l o n g hours and people c o u l d share j o b s .
T h i s c o u l d c o n s t i t u t e an answer t o t h e problem o f unemployment. A p p r o p r i a t e
technology may be developed i n the community a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n a l o r
l o c a l wisdom. A t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l , each town c o u l d exchange i t s p r o d u c t s
f o r food produced i n r u r a l areas w i t h o u t a g r i c u l t u r a l chemicals.
P r e s e n t l y , p e o p l e ' s l i f e - s t y l e s a r e o v e r c o n c e n t r a t e d on consumption, s o i t
i s necessary t o develop v a r i o u s l i f e - s t y l e s i n which human n a t u r e can devel o p . We s h o u l d a v o i d d i r e c t c o n t r o l by t h e government, b u t t h e government
can i n d u c e t h i s change f r o m a w a s t e f u l s o c i e t y , i n which a r t i f i c i a l needs
a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y c r e a t e d and s a t i s f i e d , t o a s o c i e t y i n which l i f e - s t y l e s
a r e more s i m p l e and c i t i z e n s can be more autonomous, by c h a r g i n g f o r example
a 1% t a x on each model change i n consumer goods ( i n t h e case o f Japan, if
o n l y c o l o r TV s e t s and automobiles a r e t a x e d i n t h i s way, t h i s would const i t u t e around 200 b i l l i o n y e n - 1 b i l l i o n U.S. d o l l a r s e v e r y y e a r ) o r by
e x t e n d i n g guarantee p e r i o d f o r consumer goods f r o m t h e c u r r e n t one y e a r
t o three years.
r e o r g a n i z i n g i t s domestic economy and soThe Peace Japan o f t h e 19&0s,
c i e t y f r o m a g r o w t h - o r i e n t e d one t o one i n which w e l f a r e and human r i g h t s
a r e r e s p e c t e d , need n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w t h e p a t h o f overseas expansion,
as Japan has f o l l o w e d u n t i l now.
The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f Peace Japan t o t h e w o r l d community s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h an
i n i t i a t i v e i n general disarmament; f o r t h i s purpose Japan must b e g i n w i t h
i t s own disarmament. C u r r e n t l y , t h e defense e x p e n d i t u r e o f Japan i s around
1% o f i t s GNP, b u t i n a b s o l u t e terms i t amounted t o 8.6 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n
1977 and was t h e n i n t h r a n k i n g m i l i t a r y power i n t h e w o r l d . Japan s h o u l d ,
as a f i r s t s t e p t o disarmament, f r e e z e h e r m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e s a t t h e
e x i s t i n g l e v e l and t a k e an a c t i v e p a r t i n r e g u l a t i n g arms t r a n s f e r s i n t h e
w o r l d and i n c r e a t i n g a n u c l e a r f r e e zone i n A s i a and t h e P a c i f i c .
Secondly, Japan must i n i t i a t e a program o f t h e removal o f a l l f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y bases i n s i d e Japan w i t h i n t e n y e a r s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , Japan must
d e m i l i t a r i z e t h e i s l a n d s o f Okinawa, i n w h i c h 53% o f a l l U.S. m i l i t a r y bases
i n Japan a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d . The government s h o u l d i n s t a l l a North-South
Exchange Center on these i s l a n d s and t r a n s f o r m them i n t o a b r i d g e c o n n e c t i n g
Jaoan and A s i a n c o u n t r i e s .
Thirdly, the Disatmament Center of the United Nations should be invited t o
Japan and i t s Asian Center e s t a b l i s h e d . Also, a Peace Documentation Center
of Asia can be e s t a b l i s h e d j o i n t l y with UNESCO. These i n s t i t u t i o n s would
s e r v e t o monitor the s i t u a t i o n of armament and disarmament i n Asian countries
a s well as arms t r a n s f e r s , and t o p o s i t i v e l y work f o r peace i n the Asian
region.
Fourth, peaceful Japan should end a l l m i l i t a r y t r e a t i e s and d e c l a r e permanent
n e u t r a l i t y under the Peace Constitution.
Peace Japan would adopt a f r e e t r a d e policy in enlarging her t r a d e and
reform i t s domestic s t r u c t u r e , but, with Third World c o u n t r i e s , would apply
genera1 preferences together with governmental based long-term t r e a t i e s by
which Japan would o f f e r productive goods and science and technology in
exchange f o r f u e l s and other commodities a t s t a b l e p r i c e s ,
As f o r p r i v a t e overseas investment, e x i s t i n g measures of governmental support
should be abolished. This can be l e f t t o t h e f r e e choice of p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s , but the government should conclude a t r e a t y with Third World countries
t o promote t h e l o c a l i z a t i o n of Japanese e n t e r p r i s e s together with technology
transfer.
Concerning i n t e r n a t i o n a l currency, i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of t h e yen i s now
progressing following t h e decay of t h e gold exchange standard ( i n f a c t ,
d o l l a r s t a n d a r d ) . Many experts foresee t h e coming of an age of a t r i p o l a r
currency system: U.S. d o l l a r , EC currency and Japanese yen. However, i t i s
not d e s i r a b l e t h a t Japanese yen obtains a s p e c i a l advantage as the key
currency of Asia. This would lead t o a p a r a s i t i c l i f e f o r Japanese and t o
a decrease in Japan's productivity. Also, a hegemonism associated with a
key currency system would cause c e r t a i n c o n f l i c t s between Japan and Third
World c o u n t r i e s . Instead Japan should c ~ n t r i t u t et o t h e formation of plural
i n t e r n a t i o n a l c u r r e n c i e s , including SDR, yen or cmmodities such as petroleum
o r rubber and of a rational i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e t t l e m e n t system, which would
resolve the problem of i n f l a t i o n ( l a c k of d i s c i p l i n e ) caused by t h e key
currency system.
With respect t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation, Japan should c o n t r i b u t e t o resolve
the so-called one-world problems such as population, environment, resources,
food, e t c . , which a r e v i t a l f o r world peace, along with North-South i s s u e s ,
in which i t i s deeply involved. Japan may t r a n s f e r the resources saved by
reorganization of i t s d o m s t i c s t r u c t u r e and not gained by e x p o r t s , in order
t o c o n s t r u c t a one-world community.
In the Third Development Decade of t h e United Nations , i t i s v i t a l t h a t
Growth Japan i s transformed i n t o Peace Japan. If t h i s i s not successful
Japan w i l l follow t h e road of expansion and hegemony, which w i l l lead t o
many c o n f l i c t s , both on the domestic and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l s . I f t h i s i s
s u c c e s s f u l , the Japanese people can, f o l l owing the period of high growth,
f i n d a new national o b j e c t i v e of c o n s t r u c t i n a the world comuni t y , which w i l l
c o n s t i t u t e , t h e r e i s no doubt, t h e s u r e s t means o f n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n a
changing w o r l d . T h i s would c o n s t i t u t e a t t h e same t i m e , f o r each i n d i v i d u a l ,
t h e s u r e s t way o f f i n d i n g new o b j e c t i v e s i n l i f e i n t h e age of p o s t indus tri a l i z a t i on.
B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l not*
T h i s p o l i c y paper i s based e s s e n t i a l l y on t h e f o l l o w i n g r e c e n t works o f
Nishikawa and on d i s c u s s i o n w i t h f i v e a d v i s o r s t o t h i s p r o j e c t , t o whom
t h e a u t h o r i s deeply i n d e b t e d ,
The names o f a d v i s o r s a r e as f o l l o w s :
Dr. ADACHI I k u t s u n e
F a c u l t y o f Agronomy, U n i v e r s i t y o f Shimane)
Dr. KITAMURA H i r o s h i
F a c u l t y o f Economics, I n t e r n a t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n
University
Dr. MIYAMOTO K e n ' i c h i
F a c u l t y o f Commerce, The C i t y U n i v e r s i t y of Osaka
Ms. NAKAJIVA M i c h i k o
Advocate
Mr. U I Jun
F a c u l t y o f Urban Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y o f Tokyo
The works o f Nishikawa a r e as f o l l o w s :
Takokuseki K i g y o t o Daisan Sekai (The T r a n s n a t i o n a l C o r p o r a t i o n s and t h e
T h i r d World) (Tokyo: M a i n i c h i Shimbun-sha, 1976).
K e i z a i H a t t e n no R i r o n (The Theories o f Economic Development)
Nihon Hyoron-sha, 1977).
(Tokyo:
Daisan Sekai no K6z6 t o D 6 t a i (The S t r u c t u r e and Dynamics of t h e T h i r d
World) (Tokyo: ChGo K6ron-sha, 1977).
Fukakutei J i d a i no Sentaku
Daiyamondo-sha, 1973).
(The O p t i o n i n t h e Age o f U n c e r t a i n t y )
Nan-boku Mondai (The North-South I s s u e s )
1979).
(Tokyo:
(Tokyo: Nihon H6s6 Shuppan Kyokai,
" J a p a n ' s O p t i o n : I n t e r n a t i o n a l Order o r Regional O r d e r ? " , Peace Research
i n Japan (1977-1973), pp. 13-24.
"Resource C o n s t r a i n t s : A Problem o f Japanese Economy", i n S. Tsuru ( e d . ) ,
Growth and Resources Problems R e l a t e d t o Japan (Tokyo: Asahi Evening
News, 1978).
"The S t r a t e g y o f Japanese ! l u l t i n a t i o n a l s and South E a s t A s i a " , paper p r e s e n t e d
t o t h e UNITAR Conference on A l t e r n a t i v e Development, S t r a t e g i e s and t h ~
F u t u r e o f A s i a (New D e l h i , 11-17 March 1980).
Each i s s u e o f t h e "HEIWA KENKYU" (Peace S t u d i e s -- Annual r e v i e w p u b l i s h e d
by t h e Peace S t u d i e s A s s o c i a t i o n o f Japan s i n c e 1976) i s a l s o c o n s u l t e d .
B U I L D I N G BLOCKS
WHAT TO DO ABCUT HOUSING
-
I T S PART I N AIOTHER DEVELOPPIEPIT
by John F.C. Turner
AHAS
5 Dryden S t r e e t
London WCZE 9NW, U n i t e d Kingdom
O r i g i n a l language:
English
L A QUESTION DU LOGEMENT E T UN AUTRE DEVELOPPEMENT
Rbsm6: Cet a r t i c l e rdsume Zes imp2ieutions pour L f a c t i o n d'une u u t r e approehe 2 Lu q u e s t i o n du Zogement. I2 repose sur L1expc?rience d'une v i e
traduiLe duns Zes ouvrages de L'uuteur mentionnis 2 La page 9 . I2 i d e n t i f i e
quelques prineipes de base e t de pratiques gin4raZes pour une ' a c t i o n Zogement ' par Zes i n t 6 r e s s 4 s em-mGmes uu s e i n de Zeurs communuut6s Zocules,
par eeux qui exereent une i n f l u e n c e Z&gisZative flu a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , e t par
c e m qui peuvent utilement a g i r e ? ~t a n t qufintermc?diuires enLre Les deux
cutbgories prbegdentes.
SeuLes queZques pratiques gin6raZes sont esquissc?es,
Zfhypoth2se 6 t u n t que Zes pratiques partieuZiZres ne peuvent n i ne sauraient
Z t r e r4pbtkes dar~sdes c o n t e x t e s d i f f g r e n t s . L ' a ~ ~ t e unr r o f f ~ pus
e
de r e c e t k s ,
mais seulement une c o n t r i b u t i o n 6 une inteLLigence meiLLeure des d i f f i r e n t s
~3Zbmentsduns Z f e s p o i r d ' a i d e r 2 une v i s i o n plus e l a i r e de ce qui d e v r a i t
e t pourrait Z t r e f a i t , que22es que s o i e n t Zes c o n d i t i o n s l o c a l e s .
L r a r t i e Z e anuZyse Ze Zogement c o m e une a c t i u i t i , non c o m e un produit;
i l e o n s t a t e l f 6 c h e c du Zogemerit pour Zes mzsses e t La n 6 c e s s i t L d'une a c t i o n Zogement p g Zes masses duns Le c o n t e x t e u ' u n 6quiZibre nouueau e n t r e la C O P
mnauf.6 ZoeaZe, le ma~eh6de 2 ' E t u t , e t non d'une hi9Gmunie Je 2 'un de c e s
t r o i s s e c t e u r s . I 1 e x m i n e e n s u i t e l e s domaines de Zfuetion-Zogement; Zes
forrnes du Zogement; Les ressourees ( S O L , t r u u u i 2, t e c h n i q u e s ) ; e t Zes i n s bitut i o n s (eapacitL de dbeision, r 2 g l . e ~ e t percepbion des r 6 s u Z t u t s par Zes
int6ressbs).
QUE HACER SOBRE L A V I V I E N D A - SU PAPEL EN OTRO DESARROLLO
Resumen: Este informe resume l a s impliraeiones para La u e e i ~ j nde un o t r o
p l a n t e m ~ i e n h d e la e u e s t i 6 n deZ aZojumiento. Se upoga en Zu experienria de
una v i d a truducidu en Zus obras deL autor meneionadas en 2u phgina 9. EZ
i d e n t i f i c u aZgunos & Zos p r i n e i p i o s de base y de pr6ctieas generaZes paru
una f'ueci6n-aLojmiento" por 20s i n t e r e s a d o s , eLlos mismos en e l seno
sus
comunidades LocaZes y por aqueZZos que e j e r e e n infLuencia Z e g i s Z a t i ~ ~ua
a & i n i s t r u t i v a , y por aqueZZos LIP pueden actuar como i n t ~ r m e d i u r a i oe~n t r c Lor
dos categorius a n t e r i o r e s . Se Zos quejan s o l o uLgunas p r ~ ? e t i c mgeneruZes
(Cont. en l a pagina 1G).
WHAT TO DO ABOUT 11OUSING
-
ITS PART IN ANOTHFB DEVELOPMENT
For fulfilment there must be a resorption of government into the body of the
community? How? By cultivating the habit of direct action instead of waiting
upon representative agencies.
Patrick Geddes, in What To Do, London, 1912.
Where the aims was the resorption of the state by society, we are faced with a
desperate attempt to adapt the whole of living society into the crystalline
structure of the state, Stratifica~ioninstead of socialization, in other
words socialization in a totallv alienated form.
Rudolf Bahro, in The Alternative in Eastern Europe, GDR?!
1977.
This paper summarises the policy implications of an approach to housing
described in the authorls most recent publications listed on page 9.
It identifies some basic principles and some general practises for housing
action by people in their local communities, by those in positions of legislative or administrative influence who can support local action, and by those
who can mediate between the other two. Only
basic principles are identified; and only peneral practises are outlined as it is assumed that most
particular practises cannot or should not be repeated in different contexts.
Recipes are not offered, only contribL.tions to a clearer understanding of the
ingredients in order to see more clearly what should and can be done, whatever the local conditions.
1.0
f10usin.u in Development
The approach outlined can only be seen clearly when Ihousing1 is understood as
an activity: as a complex process of many people and organisatlons doing many
things in order to get many kinds of expected or unexpected results. When the
word housing is used to mean a stock of houses, understanding is clouded and
actions are likely to be ineffective or even counterproductive. As a mere
product, housing is seen as a Isector' and a tsocial overhead cost1 dependent
on !directly productive activitiesf and, therefore, on political, economic and
industrial organisation of society. Seen as an activity, involving everyone
and much of their time and savings, as a large part of industry and occupying
most urban land, housing is obviously an instrument and vehicle for change as
well as being partly dependent on changes in other spheres of action. m e n
housing is misunderstood and treated as a commodity serving the interests of
commercial or political manipulators, attention is focussed on the end products and diverted from the ways and means by which homes and neighbourhoods
are planned, built and maintained. Conventional modern housing policies,
the world over, suppose that material standards and quantities are all that
a view that was never shared by anyone trying to improve their homes
mtter
or neighbourhoods, or even by the Iexperts1 in their private lives. No actual
or prospective householder concerns him or herself solely with the quantity or
material quality of the !housing unit1--one is often more concerned about
its location or neighbowhood, onels tenure and rights and freedoms of use and
change, as well as the direct and indirect costs of living in it.
--
*/
-
Written in German Democratic Republic; English translation D. Fernbach,
New Left Books, London, 1978.
What matters about housing is what it does for people, not just wlnt it is
materially.
1.2
The disastrous consequences of Islum clearance1, 1redevelopmentl,industrialised housing systems and of centrally administered modern mass-housing
programmes in general are now evident. The simplistic notion that the lliousi~lg
problem' is a numbers game exclusive to the industrialists, bankers and government is practically discredited. Even those in charge of the corporate housing
~roductionmachine can no longer pretend that the lprobleml will be solved by
ouring more money into it or with technological or managerial ginunicks
such as Industrialised Building Systems or directed lSelf-Helpl housing programmes.)I
?
1.3 As it becomes clear that suffering from the consequences of materially
poor and mismatched demand and supply of housing goods and services can only
be relieved by making better use of available resources, and that more money,
machines or managers c a m o t do this, attention focusses on the ways and means
of housing. The immediate
of housing action are, of course, usable
living space for personal, household and community activities along with
in appropriate places, with
necessary utilities, services and facilities
adequate security and transferability, and at affordable costs and prices.
These immediate ends are generated from the basic resources of which they are
made: land, work and technics (or the materials, tools, water and energy for
building, use and maintenance).
These resources are the
used i11
determined by the basic institutions: the power structure or decision and
control system, the (formal and informal, explicit and implicit) rules within
which decisions are made and powers exercised, and the exchange values placed
on actions and products
sales and purchases, loans and credit,
barter or !gifts1).
--
1.4
Changing the governing institutions, or the ways of housing is clearly
essential but direct action on them is almost a l m y s difficult and often
personally dangerous. Changing the locations and technology of l~ousingcan
have substantial longer-term effects on institutions as well as immediate
effects on the quancity and quality of goods and services provided. Changes to
the forms of housing have relatively limited effects but they are often the
only changes that can be made, especially where centralised powers are overtly
oppressive. Although priorities for housing action are seli-evident in this
view, action in any field can be used tactically, at least9 to prepare the
ground for strategic action and structural change. Spcific fields of action
are outlined in the second part of this summary.
2.0
The Failure of Mass Housing & The Necessity of IIousinn By the Masses.
2.1
The viability of any housing strategy or policy must be judged by the
range and freedom of choice it provides, or increases as a result. The immense
variety of personal and household needs and priorities are combinations of only
three basic lcourses of action1 or programmes which anyone dissatisfied or
suffering from their housing situation will take or attempt: those threatened
with eviction who anticipate worse conditions as a result will try to
establish their tenancy; those living in unsatisfactory conditions will try to
.improve their environment; and those without suitable or improvable homes or
neighbourhoods will seek alternatives, whether a new development or accomodation
in an existing area. For convenience and because appropriate in most cases in
newly urbanising contexts9 this third alternative is referred to as development
in this and related papers. The often exclusive emphasis given to new developments by governments in their housing policies highlights the vested interests
in conventional government programmes and the misconceptions that justify
them. In countries where citizens are free to organise locally, policies are
now changing and giving far greater emphasis to the support of local communities and the improvement of their homes and neighbourhoods. At the same time,
and also stimulated by local demands, governments are increasingly seeking
alternative ways and means of generating both sufficient provision and adequate
another kind of development that will relieve them of the
choice in housing
burden or pretense of being the principal suppliers.
--
Before the resurgence of demands for identity and autonomy at all levels
2.2
of society and when enthusiasm for corporate urban-industrialism was at its
peak, there was a general acceptance of a supposed necessity for mass-production
in all spheres, including housing. Such was faith in industrial science and
technology that it was commonly assumed that the 'housing problem' was due to
the 'backwardness' of the housing construction industry and that once the
assumed 'economies of scale* had been achieved through factory production and
central planning and distribution, everyone could be decently housed. It is
now becoming obvious that technically simple and geographically fixed assemblies
(like houses and streets) with highly complex uses and economies cannot be
dealt with in the same wa s as technically complex movable machines for simple
It is increasingly evident that 'housing by the
purposes (like motor cars).
masses' is far more economic and socially viable than 'mass housing* and that
the economic scale for the design, construction and management of housing is
small and local. It is also evident that the basic resources from which
housing is made
land, work and most readily available materials
are both
local and extremely variable and can only be properly used by people and small
local organisations which know them well and can match them and their products
to personal and local needs. Centrally administered housing tends to be
extremely wasteful of both material and human resources.
--
3.0
--
The Reassertion of Community.
3.1
Two conditions for changing the nature of development are increasingly
common: the reassertion by people of their rights to determine and act upon
their own needs and priorities, and government policies of increasing personal
and local access to resources so that people in their own communities can, as
Patrick Geddes urged: "cultivate the habit of direct action, instead of waiting
upon representative agencies". Many involved are still confused by the modern
habit of letting the experts decide and the government provide
not the tools
an ingrained habit in professionalised urban-industrial
but the end products
countries. It is tragically self-defeating when local initiatives are perverted into demands for ready-made, pre-packaged goods and, therefore, counterproductive centralisation. Many seeking fulfilment through social action are
afraid that the principles of self-reliance and local autonomy means technoor
logical regression and hard labour through having to do it all oneself
that it is a subtle way of justifying and encouraging capitalist exploitation.
These misunderstandings are rooted in authoritarian attitudes and the now
collapsing faith in pyramidal structures and centralising technologies.
--
--
-
The alternative described and which is easy to understand through housing,
5.2
is the establishment of a new balance between community, market and state, not
the hegemony of any one sector or system. The complement and corollary of
personal and local freedom to act is the guarantee of access to basic resources
which only central government planned industry and controlled markets can provide. The choice is not between total dependency in hierarchic structures and
subsistence in archipelagos of totally independent self-sufficient islands.
Autonomy is not the same as autarchy: self-government, acceptance of responsibility for making decisions and for using one's own resources, demands networks
of people and small organisations with enough equality to negotiate freely.
Such networks, which have been the traditional basis for what we all now see
to be or to have been excellent housing, act as vehicles for local development.
In housing, for example, networks of autonomous agents negotiate for the acquisition of the elements and components of dwellings or neighbourhoods (for
materials, tools and work or for existing properties) within commonly recognised and respected limits set by custom and law. Without rules setting and
maintaining limits to what people and organisations may do and without access
to locally scarce resources, autonomy cannot survive
it will either drift
into an impoverished autarchyor be absorbed by state or market monopolies.
--
3.3
In the absence of adequate local organisation, the hegemony of the market
or the state and the suppression of community seem inevitable. Where the
market plays a predominant role in low-income contexts as in most third world
cities, the intrusion of corporate commercial and government agents in the
sphere of housing contributes to the increasingly general polarisation of
highly centralised hierarchic and dependent, or heteronomous systems and marginalised, often physically peripheral and scattered pockets of involuntarily
self-sufficient or autarchic settlements
3.4 On the assumption that both the state and the market are necessary in
modern society
and can be related in many different ways-- alternative responses to community action must be clearly formulated end demanded, preferably
and perhaps necessarily from within as from without. The needed government
provisions must be made in the form of 'loose parts' instead of 'tight packages'
The most effective and productive demands are for those complements
that release or correct the use of unused, underused or misused resources.
When people have the land, materials, tools and skills they need, but no water,
for instance, and no way of getting it at economic prices for themselves, the
provision of a piped water supply can generate a massive amount of building in
a short time
housing by the masses. The conventional mass-housing approach
has the opposite effect; by responding to officially defined 'housing needs'
for 'minimum standard houses' and on the assumption that only the market and
the state have the resources and capacity for providing these, the usual government response is to launch a categorical programme of housing projects.
Preparations take several years. Minimum standards set by middle-class officlals according to their own priorities are very high and,together with the
overheads of centrally administered and commercially contracted building,
result in prices far higher than the great majority of intended 'beneficiaries'
can afford or are willing to pay. When governments of low income countries
with very small budgets subsidize the differences, the number of dwellings
built is drastically reduced. The few that are provided are almost always
formally or informally re-allocated to the better-off; the resources the original community had are largely wasted, and the government is landed with heavy
recurring costs and a debt they are unlikely to recover. All these and other
costs can be avoided only when the needed components are provided and in ways
that allow the users to adapt them to their own resources. This means separating each component service or provision to the greatest practical extent,
thereby maximising local freedom of assembly. Conventional 'housing schemes'
or projects and categorical programmes must be phased out and replaced with
open service systems as quickly as possible, wherever possible.
--
.
--
4.0
Fields of Housing Action
4.1
Any long-term strategy for change is a composite of short-term tactical
actions. For planning and implementation it is essential to have a clear
picture of the components of action that can be taken which shows how they
relate to each other and to the context. This section identifies a range of
discrete fields of action, any one of which can be a starting-point for change.
For brevity, each field is still at a rather general level and there are many
ways of dealing with each one. There are a huge number of different combinations and permutations and there should be few situations where nothing can
be done. The essential differences and more or less independent variability
of the three aspects of action are pointed out above; the
which housing
goods and services take, of the means or resources and instruments with which
they are produced and of the ways or institutions with which the means are
managed. Each of these general aspects must be subdivided into more specific
fields of action in order to plan and programme. While many more subdivisions could be made, the principal areas should be distinct and independently variable actual or potential pressure or leverage points.
The Form of Housing
4.2
As observed in 2 . 3 above, the design of dwellings arid neighbourhoods is
the least influential aspect of action as forms are largely consequences of
the ways and means that generate them. So, although design changes can change
the technics and, even, the management, these are usually limited to particular
projects or programmes. Changes of style and of form in the deeper sense can
have wider consequences, but these are indirect. Direct actions on resource
allocation or institutions are politically impractical in many contexts; as
design is seen to be politically neutral, this is often the only field of
action open where market or state forces suppress overt attempts to make structural changes.
4.3
The key issue in the architecture of housing is the relationship between
boundaries, networks and volumes, the three basic elements of built environments. Boundaries are the institutional limits between uses, tenures and
responsibilities for management or maintenance; they are generally marked by
and coincide with physical barriers, like walls, or changes of surface materials, as between a street and a park. Networks are the infrastructures connecting and servicing areas and volumes defined by the boundaries and buildings.
The network of public paths and passages, roads and streets, or all rights-ofway necessarily coincides with certain boundaries. Volumes are the threedimensional spaces provided by structures, landscaping and planting and, sometimes, by boundaries that cut across open spaces and may even be unmarked.
The issue of architectural form is to what extent these three elements are
separable and independently variable. They can be largely independent, as in
the case of low density dispersed developments composed of separate buildings
within plots, or they can be inseparable, as in the case of high-rise monolithic structures or mega-structures.
Experience and observation suggest that the higher the degree of indepen4.4
dent variability, and separateness, of boundaries, networks and volumes, the
more responsive the physical environment is to change. But it is also evident
that excessive dispersal, like excessive concentration, weakens or perverts
relationships between neighbours (taking into account the widely different cultural traditions and behaviour). The worst conditions appear to be those of
the
monolithic structures which subsume most boundaries and most networks
greater part of both are inseparable from the buildings themselves, making
--
changes to any one generally impossible without changing the rest. It is clear
that the most commonly preferred form of settlements, throughout history, are
those now commonly called 'low-rise/high-densityt
usually on public streets
or semi-public courts formed by contiguous but structurally independent buildings a few stories high with private or semi-private space within. The immense
variety of particular forms which these 'concentrated' forms of developments
take, and their often great antiquity show how adaptable they are. Both the
modern monolithic forms and the modern dispersed suburban forms that they have
stimulated, are replacing traditional concentrated forms (although the trend
is being reversed in some countries already). Both modern forms are extraordinarily similar everywhere despite climatic and cultural contrasts--they
are remarkably insensitive and unresponsive to local differences and the monolithic form, especially, is extremely inflexible and unadaptable. They are
already proving to be very short-lived as well as very expensive to build and
maintain. Recent analyses and evaluations show that properly designed concentrated forms are by far the most economic, allowing for and even stimulating
responsible and cooperative management and maintenance by residents by providing a potentially convivial environment.
Resources: Land, Work and Technics
4.5 As noted above, the basic resources are land, work and technics.(~one~,
although commonly called a 'resource' is really an institution, and is dealt
with below.) Land is now a universally recognised issue, though few governments are yet taking active steps to implement generally agreed principles.
It should no longer be necessary to point out that land cannot be marketed as
if only because it
a commodity without severe diseconomies and injustices
is immovable and the supply does not increase wit11 demand. The dominant issue,
however, is still limited to 'public' versus 'private' ownership. Although
20th century experience confirms great advantages in public ownership, state
or even municipal monopolisation can make land as inaccessible to citizens and
local enterprises as inflated free market prices. The issue that urgently
needs active exploration is more complex: between local community ownership
or, rather, trusteeship, and the public and private (or semi-private) alternatlves.
--
--
4.6
If the first consideration in the field of work and its organisation is
its usefulness or the production of use-values rather than earnings or profits
or of commodities independently of their usefulness, then both organisational
and technological changes are indicated by experience. The most useful, creative and enjoyable kinds of work are those in which the worker has high levels
of responsibility and scope for the exercise of skill. These are also the most
common conditions for economy when this is understood as resourcefulness, or
getting more from less. The larger the organisation or the heavier the tools,
the more difficult it becomes to maintain high levels of responsibility or
skill in the field or at the work bench, drawing board or desk. As large corporations have discovered, even conventional efficiency and productivity demand
decentralisation and the increase of personal and small team autonomy. Managerially, work must be organised in ways that maximise personal responsibility
and opportunities to develop and exercise skills. Technologically, therefore,
work must be a function of materials, tools and forms of energy that can be
handled by individuals or small hains. These demand the reinforcement
and increase of network structures and intermediate technics. They also demand
institutions which maximise personal and local access to land, and the freedom
to use it in socially viable ways, and which minimise dependence on centralised
banking and finance.
4.7
In order to counteract the inflationary, centralising and dependencycreating effects of an increasing proportion of building technics now used,
it is essential to increase the use of materials which are: a) very plentiful
or easily renewable; b) low in energy (or heat) content and non-polluting;
c) durable, require little or no maintenance and can be recycled; d) local
and therefore reduce demands on transportation, increase local, regional or
national autonomy and which increase cultural identity and diversity; and
e) which require only simple or light tools and equipment that can be handled
by skilled workers and managed by small organisations. The highest priority
in most contexts is to rapidly increase small-scale, local production,reducing
demands on fossil fuel for processing and which, by reducing transportation
further decrease demands on fuels as well as losses resulting from loading and
off-loading, pilferage, warehousing, and over- or under-ordering. Both cement
and burnt clay products, for example, can be produced much more economically
in small or medium Sized local plants than in the huge centralised ones imposed by the market system and bureaucratic centralism. Small local plants
may produce lower grades of materials such as cement and steel, but of qualities entirely satisfactory for small and medium-sized structures.
Institutions: Sides, Rules and Scoring.
4.8
Like games, all activities depend on three basic institutions: the sides
that people take and the decision-making powers they have, the rules within
which they act, and the scores they give to actions carried out. The central
issue is: Who decides? In housing it is the people in their own communities
who must have the power to deciderif housing is to be a satisfying and effective vehicle for personal and social development. And, as already argued, this
means both auto-generation and government support of grassroots organisation;
this, in turn, demands the provision of those goods and services that must be
supplied by large, centrally administered organisations in the form of loose
parts which small, local organisations can use and assemble in their own ways.
4.9
The 'rules of the game' must set the limits to what the various sectors
and levels of authority may do: they must not lay down lines that &be
followed, anyway by people and local organisations. =scriptive
law liberates,
~ s c r i p t i v elaw oppresses. Most modern housing, building and planning rules
and regulations amount to specifications; many laws are detailed descriptions
of categorical programmes stating who shall get what packages of goods and
services and, even, when where and how. Law-and-planning and planning-anddesign have become increasingly confused; only those with vested interests in
centralised production, distribution and government have gained. Some progress
has been made in the field of construction standards: performance standards,
setting the functional limits of building elements and the physical quality of
enclosed space, have begun to replace 'specification standards' which predetermine forms. The phrase 'progressive development' is now commonly used, indicating acceptance of the fact that buildings and dwelling environments normally
develop over time and must do so if they are to be economic and respond to growing and changing communities. Little work has been done so far on the relationships between tenure and investment, and levels of investment with time and
tenure~regulatingthe uses of temporary, incomplete or naturally decaying
structures, for instance. Past and current experience indicate that evaluations
and experiments are urgently needed.
4.10 As already noted, neither money nor finance, nor other forms of exchange
are resources in the proper sense of the word: exchange is the scoring system
decided on or generated wholly by society and therefore an institution. The
habit of calling money a resource is dangerous as it can further the interests
of those who have it by implanting or reinforcing the notion that those who do
not have enough moneJ are powerless to do anything. This habit of mind is complemented by the common assumption thai- maximum monetisation is both necessary
and desirable, increasing the confusion of market and use-values as well as
reinforcing divisions between age and sex groups and between socio-economic
classes. The recent and growing interest in the 'gift economy', the 'informal
sector', household economy and the roles of the sexes revolves around the
'ssue of monetisation as well as instutionalisation, professionalisation and
industrialisation. Monetisation should be minimised, not maximised. Increased
access to money and credit is, of course, essential for those without it, or
without enough to do what they need. Practical alternatives to centralised
banking and credit systems which concentrate corporate bankers or state powers
are both essential and closely related to the issue of land. The local use
of local savings can be maximised when land is in local community hands and can
be used as collective collateral.
4.11 The achievement of a proper balance or equilibrium between monetary and
non-monetary exchange systems, between the market economy and the gift economy,
or between the 'formal' and 'informal' sectors, depends on government policies
for taxation, price and income controls and subsidies. Too often, these cornbine to penalise personal and local initiative, to discourage real economy and
to reward extravagance. These characteristics are common in housing: improvement is burdened with taxes, while disinvestment is relieved; the greater the
demands on money, the cheaper it is and, worse still, the more scarce resources
it consumes, like electricity or water where it is especially scarce, the less
one pays. Not only the relative costs but also the absolute costs per unit of
housing are inversely proportional to income, in most if not all contexts.
Direct action on these inequities can only be made through taxation, and where
and these nusi.all be used in ways
practical, subsidies and price controls
that increase the scope of nail-monetary exchange.
--
4.12 Firstly and lastly comes the exchange of experience and ideas. There is
a paradox in the explosion of modern communications: the actual exchange between persons is greatly reduced; on the one hand by a plethora of second-hand
msesages and, on the other, by the inaccessibility of documents and people due
to the immense production of published material and the excessive speed of
modern transportation. The sheer quantity of publications overwhelms those at
the center while those at the periphery are starved, partly because of delays,
difficulties and costs of obtaining documents and partly becuase it is so difficult to know what would be useful and worth the effort and expense to obtain.
Matters are made worse by the absurdly short periods that can be afforded for
the faster and farther we can travel, the more time
interregional visiting
we are condemned to spend in vehicles. Counter-information systems are rapidly
growing, however, and more and more people are getting useful information and
contacting helpful people through the multiplication of overlapping, often
world-wide networks of people and small organisations. Only through networks
and activities like those '&or which this summary paper is an intended contribution, can we share knowledge widely and fast enough to carry out Another
Development.
--
John F.C.
Turner, AHAS, London, 1979.
EPILOGUE
AHAS is exploring practical ways and means of extending communications to
accelerate creative learning and action in housing and neighbourhood improvement by setting up a pilot "Housing Tools Exchange". This paper and the work
it summarises aims to generate action, rather than yet more talk and paper,
This can only be done by increasing communication between doers and those who
have more time to reflect upon their experience. Together they can move toward
changes in values, rules and the structure of power and decision-making.
Networks of people committed to understanding and action provide the matrix
of creative change. First-hand information needed for local and personal
development flows dynamically between such persons and those who seek them out.
Hierarchic systems can only issue forth one-way, second-hand messages to
which people, seen as 'consumersT, cannot respond.
A small number of networkers in different parts of the world are now designing
and testing methods for increasing communication between active persons and
their access to useful information and resources. This network of regional/
local exchanges links with other networks sharing the same principles and
dealing with other fields of action and tools. We hope that increasingly compatible methods will develop as a result.
AHAS-ilot
project will initially provide a Resources Index of cross-referenced
people and organisations, significant cases and a selective number of useful
current texts and audio-visual materials. As additional funds become available,
AHAS and other Tools Exchanges will be enabled to send information on request,
in exchange for evaluative comments or better informationu
Simultaneously, small groups of correspondents will be working together on
critical issues to identify common principles and specific applications of
practical use in particular contexts. The first of these, on alternative
systems of land tenure, has already generated a dossier of correspondence of
great value to those in three continents who are taking part. An edited
bulletin prepared from the material is planned, to be made generally available
A complementary correspondence on the related issue of finance for homes and
neighbourhoods is being conducted. AHAS anticipates acting as midwife to
other corresponding groups on other vital issues. Although our current capacity for response is very limited and overstretched, we give priority to carefully thought out suggestions and specific requests of kinds we can either
respond to or pass along to other network correspondents.
John F. C. Turner directs an annual Special Programme on Housing in Development
for people with experience in Third World countries. An annotated version of
this paper is being prepared as a background paper for the next SP ( ~ ~ r i17
lJuly 11,1980). It will be run, like those of previous years, as a seminar for
the international exchange of experience and ideas. During the next SP,
a workshop is planned (provisionally June 15
23) to which field workers and
community leaders are invited to discuss with the participants their proposals
for ways and means by which their government agencies can support local housing action. Funds are being sought for those who cannot afford the fees and
travel costs. A limited number of places are still available for SPH-80 at
the time of publication and applications for it as well as for the June Workshop should be made without delay to John F.C. Turner, Development Planning
('nit, 9-11 Endsleigh Gardens, London WUlE OEI).
-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following publications of the author's work develop the themes summarised
this paper:
Freedom to Build Dweller Control of the Housi Process, co-edited with
Robert F
i
c
h
l VerbasandPart Two,
Increasing Autonomy in Housing: A Review and Conclusions, with Robert
Fichter and Peter Grenell. The Macmillan Company, New York, 1972.
Housing By People, Towards Autonomy in Building Environments,
Marion Boyars, London, 1976; and Pantheon Books, New York,1977.
Translated by Jose Corral as Vivienda: todo poder a 10s usuarios,
H. Blue Ediciones, Madrid, 1977; by Hubert Deymann as
durch Arkitektur, Rowohlt, Hamburg, 1978; by Priscilla van Leeuwen as
Henseli.ik wonen
Anders wonen, Baarn, Netherlands, 1978; by Massimo
Giacometti as LIAbitareAutogestito, Jaca Books, Milan, 1978; and by
Maud Sissung as Le Logement est Votre Affaire, Editions du Seuil,Paris,1979.
--
Otro Concepto del Auto-alo.jamiento in CAU No. 51, September-October 1978,
Barcelona, Spain. Published in English as Mass-Housing and User ParticipaOpen House, Vol. 33 No, 3, S.A.R., Eindt~oven,Netherlands,l978.
w,
Housing in Three Dimensions: Terms of reference for the Housing: Question
redefined, in World Development, Spring 1979, Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K.
ya que la hip(5tesis e s que las p r 5 c t i c a s pcrticular>es no pueden s e r n i s e r h
r e p e t i d a s en c o n t e x t o s d i f e r e n t e s . El, u u t o r no o f ~ e c er e c e t a s , s i n o zdna
e o n t r i b u e G n d mejor e n t e n d w i e n t o de dij'erentes elementos en la esperanza
de ayudar en l a busc-a por una v i s i o n r r L k ~Zmwdc l o que s e deb&
y fie pn(1r"ta
haeer, sean l o que scan l a s condiciones l o c a l e s .
El informs a n a l i z a a2 alojamiento como una aet'ividad LJ no r'omo un producto,
e s t u b l e c e e l fracaso d e l alo,lamienta para Zas masus y l a neces-idad de tina
aecihn - a l c j m i e n t n pop las rr,usas en e l context'o de un nuevo e q u i t i b r i o e n t r e
l a comunidud f o c a l , e l rnercudo y e l Estado, y no de una heqemonia de uno de
e s o s t r e s s e c t o r e s . E x a m h a entonces Zos cmpos de l a accihn-al,~.~~,ian^'ento;
las
formas de a l ~ m i e n t o ;20s re<-ursos ( t e r r e n e , trabajo, t k n i e a s ) ; y l a s
i n s t i t u c - i o n e s (capacidad para tomar dec-isicnes, r e g l a s y la pcpeepi-iftn d e 20s
restiZLados por 20s i n t e r e s a d o s ) .
THE SEVEN DEAD END STREETS OF
INTERNATI ONAL COOPERATION
B U I L D I N G BLOCKS
THIRD WORLD COMODITY POLICY AT THE CROSSROADS;
ISSUES
SOME FUNDAMENTAL
by C a r l o s F o r t i n
The I n s t i t u t e o f Development S t u d i e s
a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Sussex
B r i g h t o n , Sussex BN1 9RE, England
O r i g i n a l language:
English
Abstract: Third World commodity policy i s facing a major c r i s i s o f d e f i n i t i o n
and p r i o r i t i e s , following t h e f a i l u r e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l attempts a t organizing
market i n t e r v e n t i o n along t h e l i n e s of UNCTAD'S Integrated Programme for Comm o d i t i e s . T h i s c a l l s for a re-exurnination o f t h e fundamental nature o f t h e
choices open t o Third World policy makers. On t h e b a s i s o f a s e r i e s o f commodity s t u d i e s sponsored bg t h e Third World Forwn i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e Third
System Project o f IFDA, t h i s paper attempts a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c
i s s u e s , centered around t h e r e l a t i o n betmeen commodity p o l i c y and t h e broader
development s t r a t e g i e s adopted by Third World c o u n t r i e s . I t argues t h a t
p o l i c i e s t h a t see t h e commodity s e c t o r s o l e l y a s t h e s u p p l i e r o f foreign
exchange tend t o correspond t o s t r a t e g i e s t h a t emphasize i n t e g r a t i o n i n t h e
uorld c a p i t a l i s t economy a s a way o f a s s i m i l a t i n g technologies, a t t r a c t i n g
c a p i t a l and generating growth w i t h i n a given p a t t e r n of income d i s t r i b u t i o n
and consumption; conversely, p o l i c i e s t h a t emphasize t h e m a t e r i a l i t y o f t h e
commodity and i t s p o t e n t i a l t o s a t i s f y - d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y - b a s i c
human needs tend t o c o r r e l a t e u i t h s t r a t e g i e s t h a t value s e l f - r e l i a n c e ,
autonomy and an e g a l i t a r i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l product. The paper
d i s c u s s e s t h r e e p o s s i b l e l i n e s of p o l i c y , i . e . maximizing local consu@tion
and linkages, processing for export and i n t e r v e n i n g i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
market, and t r i e s t o i d e n t i f y t h e main i s s u e s involved i n each of them. I t
argues t h a t t h e main o b s t a c l e t o a commodity p o l i c y linked t o s e l f - r e l i a n c e
i s t h e r e f u s a l o f t h e dominant s e c t o r s i n many Third World s o c i e t i e s t o
accept t h e fundamental r e - s t r u c t u r i n g of power, u e a l f h and p r i v z l e g e i m p I i c i t
i n t h e n o t i o n o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e , i n t h e case o f processing for export the main
o b s t a c l e seems t o be t h e control over productive processes and market e x e r c i sed by transnational corporations; i n t h e ease o f market i n t e r v e n t i o n the main
d i f f i c u l t y i s t h e i n a b i l i t y of the Third World t o reach a l e v e l o f p o l i t i c a l
s o l i d a r i t y high enough t o push proposals through t h e o p p o s i t i o n of t h e indus6rialized countries.
L A P O L I T I Q U E DES PRODUITS DE BASE DU T I E R S MONDE
DES CHEMINS ; QUELQUES PROBLEMES FONDAMENTAUX
A
L A CROISEE
R6sumL: S u i t e 2 ZrQchec des e f f o r t s i n t e r n a t i o n a u x pour organiser des i n t e r v e n t i o n s sur Ie marzch6 S U P l a base du p r o p m e i n t Q g r 6 des produits de hasp
LA P O L I T I C A
D E PRODUCTOS B A S I C O S D E L TERCER MUNDO EN LA ENCRUCIJADA: ALGUNAS CUESTIONES FUNDAMENTALES
Reswnen:
-La poL-itica d e l Tercei' Kundo en n u t e r i u de prodnatcs I'IS-Lcoz <?st,':
e n f r e n t a d a a unu c r i s i s de definicii'in y p r i o r i d a d e s corn ~ m s u t t u d od e l f r a r a s o de Los i n t e n t o s i n t e m c i o n a ' l e s de o r g m i : : a r ir'.tervencicrzes en lc's ricrcados s e q h t o propuesto en eL Programs Integrado de Pyoductos b i k ? k o s dc l a
UNCTAD. Ello haee n e c e s a r i o un re-examen de la n a t u r u l e z a fundamm?,aL dc
las opciones que s e o f r e c e n a 20s r e s p o n s a b i s s de l a s poZLticas del. Tcrcer
Mundo. Sobre l a base de una s e r i e ae e s t u d i o s de productos b(:sicos p a i r o c i nada p r el Foro d e l W c e v Uundo en e l c., v k x m d e l Pvogecto T e r c w Cisterm
FIFAD, e l presentc t r a b a j o inl-enta ~ u l i z n i70s
~ p r o b l e m s p r i n c i p a l e n en
torno a l a reLucihn e n t r e La p o l i z i c a de produvios 'bhic-os y Las eci.rcrtcpias
mds m p L i a s de dc'carrotlo adoptadus por 10s ] . a i s c s del Tei9ccr blundo. E l ir'abu<jo s o s t i e n e <;uo Lus p o l L t i m s q u ~o u ~ !e ~ P; I .scxdtcr de J ' Y W ~ U C ~ L h~ iSs i c o , ~
s o l m e n t e un proucedor ue div7~sa.spuucicn terser a co^^esponder' a ~ s t r a t e q i u s
qze roncn F~~.--~xi:c
< ~z iL: ~ ' ~ 1 t ~ ! - r ( z cen
i 6 niz
,ny,r,r,<(~
r~z<~;ci!al
~ w ~ i ? a l 7 : . s t~oo r c
( c o n t . en l a p i g i n a 1 4 ) .
Carlos F o r t i n
T H I R D WORLD COMMODITY POLICY AT THE CROSSROADS:
SOME FUNDAMENTAL
ISSUES
1.
Introduction
The i n t e r n a t i o n a l debate on comnoai t y p o l i c y i n t h e second h a l f o f t h e 1970s has
l a r g e l y c o n c e n t r a t e d on i s s u e s o f p r i c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n t h r o u g h m a r k e t i n t e r v e n t i o n
T h i s i s , o f course, due t o t h e impact o f t h e I n t e g r a t e d Programme f o r Commodit i e s , proposed i n e a r l y 1975 by UNCTAD's S e c r e t a r i a t and which q u i c k l y became
t h e f o c a l p o i n t f o r commodity p o l i c y d i s c u s s i o n s and n e g o t i a t i o n s . To be sure,
t h e Programme - adopted as R e s o l u t i o n 93 ( I V ) a t t h e F o u r t h UNCTAD Conference
i n May 1976 - c o n t a i n e d r e f e r e n c e s t o elements o t h e r t h a n p r i c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n :
expansion o f p r o c e s s i n g o f p r i m a r y products i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f e x p o r t s , s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f e x p o r t earnings through i n c r e a s e d compensat o r y f i n a n c e and improvements i n t h e competitiveness o f n a t u r a l p r o d u c t s f a c i n g
s y n t h e t i c c o m p e t i t i o n a r e a l l mentioned - among o t h e r s - i n R e s o l u t i o n 93 ( I V ) .
B u t t h e element t h a t caught t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f T h i r d World policy-makers and
analysts
a1 ike was t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n t e r v e n t i o n i n commodity markets
through t h e s e t t i n g up of j o i n t producer-consumer b u f f e r s t o c k arrangements,
backed by a Common Fund t o which b o t h I n d ' t i a l and T h i r d l d o r l d c o u n t r i e s would
c o n t r i b u t e and which would a l s o be j o i n t l y a d m i n i s t e r e d .
T h a t t h i s s h o u l d have been t h e case i s no cause f o r s u r p r i s e . A p a r t from t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e S e c r e t a r i a t tended t o p l a y up t h i s element t o t h e d e t r i m e n t of
t h e o t h e r s , t h e m a r k e t - i n t e r v e n t i o n component o f t h e Programme - a t l e v e l o f
appeared t o
g e n e r a l i t y a t which, o f n e c e s s i t y , i t was o r i g i n a l l y f o r m u l a t e d
h o l d t h e promise o f , a t l e a s t , a modest r e p e a t o f t h e success o f o i l p r o d u c i n g
c o u n t r i e s i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e w o r l d o i l market. Improving t h e terms o f t r a d e
and e x p o r t revenue o f commodity-producingThird World c o u n t r i e s seemed suddenly
w i t h i n reach. Even f o r those c o u n t r i e s o f the T h i r d World t h a t do n o t e x p o r t
t h e commodities i n c l u d e d i n t h e Programme t h e r e was t h e a t t r a c t i o n o f a' Common
Fund t h a t looked l i k e a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n t o whose r e sources t h e y would have access, and whose decision-making, u n l i k e those o f t h e
IMF and t h e World Bank, would be shared between I n d ' t i a l and T h i r d World countr i e s . More s i g n i f i c a n t l y , f o r those T h i r d World governments commi t t e d t o i n t r o d u c i n g major changes i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f p o l i t i c a l and economic power a t t h e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l t h e proposals appeared as a s t e p towards e s t a b l i s h i n g an
a d m i n i s t e r e d system o f w o r l d commodity t r a d e i n which producers would have a
d e c i s i v e say.
-
I t would be i d l e t o d w e l l on t h e e x t e n t t o which these hopes have been f r u s t r a t e d . D e s p i t e t h e agreement t o e s t a b l i s h a l i m i t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e Common Fund,
no n e g o t i a t i o n on s p e c i f i c commodity agreements, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f n a t u r a l
r u b b e r , has made any progress. This has l e s s t o do w i t h a l l e g e d f l a w s i n t h e
economics o f t h e p r o p o s a l s - t h e c r i t i c i s m s o f I n d ' t i a l c o u n t r y a n a l y s t s a r e
themselves o f t e n based on j u s t as d e b a t a b l e n e o c l a s s i c a l economics - t h a n w i t h
t h e i r f a u l t y p o l i t i c a l theory; w h i l e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s c o u l d r e a d i l y agree
on general o b j e c t i v e s , n o t a b l y on t h e need t o r e s t r u c t u r e power i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
economic r e l a t i o n s , t h e i r s o l i d a r i t y was much l e s s s t r o n g when d e a l i n g w i t h
c o n c r e t e p r o p o s a l s . With t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Germany and Japan d e c i d e d l y opp o s i n g any such r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f power - a l b e i t w i t h arguments couched i n terms
o f t h e need n o t t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f " t h e f r e e f o r c e s o f t h e mark e t " -, t h e degree o f e f f e c t i v e s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e T h i r d World was i n s u f f i c i e n t
t o s u s t a i n meaningful p r o g r e s s i n commodity n e g o t i a t i o n s .
I n some sense, UNCTAD V gave express r e c o g n i t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e marketi n t e r v e n t i o n p a t h i n commodity p o l i c y has, a t l e a s t f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g , r e a ched a dead-end.
B u t t h e r e a r e a l r e a d y d i s q u i e t i n g s i g n s t h a t a comparable
replacement - i . e . a n o t h e r s i n g l e focus f o r T h i r d World commodity p o l i c y - i s
a c t i v e l y b e i n g sought, and m i g h t have been found i n t h e n o t i o n o f p r o c e s s i n g .
The n o t i o n , o f course, i s undoubtedly f u l l o f p o t e n t i a l i t i e s m e r i t i n g d e t a i l e d
e x a m i n a t i o n : UNCTAD and g e n e r a l l y T h i r d World a n a l y s t s do w e l l i n d e v o t i n g ser i o u s a t t e n t i o n t o i t . B u t t h e danger i s , a g a i n , t o f a l l i n t o a p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g y t h a t seeks t o maximize t h e m o b i l i s a t i o n o f T h i r d World p o l i t i c a l w i l l by
i d e n t i f y i n g a s i n g l e , s i m p l e r a l l y i n g p o i n t . R e a l i t y has a way o f r e a s s e r t i n g
i t s c o m p l e x i t y i n such c o n t e x t s by showing t h e inadequacy o f s i m p l e s o l u t i o n s ;
t h e end r e s u l t i s more o f t e n t h a n n o t p o l i t i c a l impasse.
Thus, w i t h T h i r d World commodity p o l i c y f a c i n g a major c r i s i s o f d e f i n i t i o n and
p r i o r i t i e s , i t would appear t h a t t h e most p r o m i s i n g avenue i s a r e t u r n t o t h e
e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e fundamental n a t u r e o f t h e choices t h a t T h i r d World p o l i c y
makers f a c e , and o f t h e f u l l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f p r e f e r r i n g c e r t a i n o p t i o n s t o
o t h e r s . The e x e r c i s e i s , t h e r e f o r e , l e s s one o f s u g g e s t i n g s p e c i f i c p o l i c y
p r e s c r i p t i o n s t h a n o f c l a r i f y i n g p r e c i s e l y what i s i n v o l v e d i n i d e n t i f y i n g and
s e l e c t i n g p o l i c y o p t i o n s . F o r these purposes, a r e c e n t s e r i e s o f commodity
s t u d i e s sponsored by t h e T h i r d World Forum w i t h t h e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t o f t h e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Foundation f o r Development A l t e r n a t i v e s * p r o v i d e s some u s e f u l
e m p i r i c a l d a t a and a n a l y t i c a l approaches. The remainder o f t h i s paper w i l l
o f f e r some c o n s i d e r a t i o n s on these b a s i c i s s u e s , u s i n g t h e T h i r d World Forum
s t u d i e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e q u e s t i o n s and t h e d i v e r s i t y o f t h e
p o s s i b l e responses.
2.
Commodity P o l i c y and T h i r d World Development
I f i t i s agreed t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e o f T h i r d World commodi t y p o l i c y i s
t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e development - i n some sense o f t h e term - o f T h i r d World
economies and s o c i e t i e s , t h e most f r u i t f u l s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n
seems t o be t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e phenomenon - w e l l known t o c l a s s i c a l p o l i t i c a l economy - o f t h e d u a l n a t u r e o f commodities. A commodity i s , on t h e one
hand, a b u n d l e o f m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s which, a f t e r processes o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
o f v a r y i n g degrees o f c o m p l e x i t y , i s capable o f s a t i s f y i n g human needs; on t h e
o t h e r hand, a commodity can be t h o u g h t o f as t h e embodiment of an amount o f
v a l u e t h a t can be r e a l i z e d t h r o u g h exchange i n t h e market.
A p p l y i n g t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e q u e s t i o n a t hand, a p r i m a r y
commodity s e c t o r i n a T h i r d World c o u n t r y can be b a s i c a l l y c o n c e i v e d as e i t h e r
a s u p p l i e r o f f o r e i g n exchange t h a t w i l l p r o v i d e t h e resources f o r development,
o r as a c h a i n o f economic and s o c i a l processes and r e l a t i o n s l e a d i n g t o t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f goods necessary f o r development and l i n k e d i n v a r i o u s ways t o
o t h e r s e c t o r s e q u a l l y p r o d u c i n g necessary goods. I n t h e f i r s t case emphasis
i s p u t on t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f commodi t i e s , i n t h e second on commodity p r o d u c t i o n .
O b v i o u s l y , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n i s o n l y a c o n v e n i e n t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f a more
c o m p l i c a t e d s e t o f problems: i n p r a c t i c e any commodity p o l i c y w i l l t a k e i n t o
account b o t h aspects, i f o n l y because even t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s i m p l e commodit i e s s o l e l y f o r e x p o r t e n t a i l s m a t e r i a l processes and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t
cannot be i g n o r e d . B u t t h e emphasis on one o r t h e o t h e r a s p e c t i m p l i e s - we
suggest - some v e r y fundamental c h o i c e s .
L e t us b e g i n b y n o t i n g t h a t t h e two faces o f t h e commodity seem t o correspond
t o t h e two broad p o l i c y o p t i o n s - market i n t e r v e n t i o n and p r o c e s s i n g - ment i o n e d above. The correspondence i s , however, o n l y p a r t i a l : i t i s o e r f e c t l y
c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t a p o l i c y of p r i m a r y commodity p r o c e s s i n g i n a T h i r d World
c o u n t r y be undertaken e s s e n t i a l l y i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e exchange v a l u e o f
t h e commodity o r o t h e r w i s e improve i t s c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
market. I n f a c t , t h i s seems t o be v e r y much t h e r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d c u r r e n t d i s cussions o f , and e f f o r t s a t , p r i m a r y commodity p r o c e s s i n g i n t h e T h i r d World
(and, o f course, as w i l l be d i s c u s s e d below, i n many cases t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s
a r e v e r y p r o b l e m a t i c , g i v e n t h e economic and t e c h n i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
commodities i n q u e s t i o n ) .
B u t t h e r e i s a more p r o f o u n d i m p l i c a t i o n t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f emphasis on t h e
I t can be
exchange v a l u e as d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e use v a l u e o f t h e commodities.
argued t h a t commodity p o l i c i e s t h a t emphasize t h e a b i 1 it y o f t h e commodity sect o r t o generate f o r e i g n exchange may t e n d t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h n a t i o n a l developw n t s t r a t e g i e s t h a t a t l e a s t accept, i f n o t p o s i t i v e l y f a v o u r , a h i g h l e v e l
of i n t e g r a t i o n i n t h e w o r l d economy and o f commercial, f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n o l o g i c a l dependence on t h e advanced c a p i t a l i s t c e n t r e s . Conversely, p o l i c i e s
t h a t p l a c e fundamental emphasis on t h e commodity as a good p o t e n t i a l l y capable
o f s a t i s f y i n q human needs t e n d , i n t u r n , t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h development s t r a t e g i e s t h a t c e n t e r around s e l f - r e l i a n c e , t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e commodi t y s e c t o r
i n t h e n a t i o n a l economy and a degree o f d e - l i n k i n g f r o m t h e c e n t r a l c a p i t a l i s t
economy and o f r e - l i n k i n g w i t h i n t h e T h i r d World. Once a g a i n , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
i s n o t complete. One can c e r t a i n l y c o n c e i v e o f p o l i c i e s aimed a t m a x i m i z i n g
t h e exchange v a l u e o f e x p o r t commodities i n t h e w o r l d m a r k e t i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
e f f o r t s a t s e l f - r e l i a n c e undertaken elsewhere i n t h e economy - and, i n d e e d , f o r
t h e purpose o f f i n a n c i n g t h e l a t t e r ; t h i s was, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e case o f copper
p o l i c y under t h e A l l e n d e government i n C h i l e i n 1970-73, and i s a l s o t h e b a s i c
d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e o i l p o l i c i e s o f some o f t h e OPEC c o u n t r i e s . As i n t h e case
o f p r o c e s s i n g , f u r t h e r m o r e , i n a number o f i n s t a n c e s i t i s s i m p l y n o t v i a b l e
t o t h i n k o f a g i v e n commodity as b e i n g e a s i l y i n t e g r a t e d i n a process o f i n c r e a s i n g s e l f - r e l i a n c e and d e - l i n k i n g .
B u t , as a1 ready suggested, t h e d i s t i n c t i o n r e t a i n s importance as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h e k i n d o f fundamental r e a p p r a i s a l o f commodity p o l i c y t h i n k i n g t h a t i s b e i n g argued h e r e , and we s h a l l
t h e r e f o r e e x p l o r e some o f i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f u r t h e r .
2.1.
Commodi t y P o l i c y and S e l f - R e l i a n t Development S t r a t e g i e s
-
S e l f - r e l a i n c e - i t i s by now v e r y c l e a r
i s n o t coextensive w i t h autarchy; i t
r e f e r s r a t h e r t o t h e e f f o r t o f a s o c i e t y t o maximize t h e use o f i t s own n a t u r a l , human and man-made resources towards t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e fundamental
needs o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n . R e l a t i o n s and t r a n s a c t i o n s w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e
w o r l d a r e n o t r u l e d o u t , a l t h o u g h autonomy i s p o s t u l a t e d as a goal; i n d e e d t h e
n o t i o n o f c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e emphasizes t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f 1 i n k s among
T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s b o t h f o r t h e purpose o f j o i n t l y a t t e m p t i n g t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e needs o f t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s and o f d e a l i n g c o l l e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e
I n d ' t i a l c o u n t r i e s . The c r u c i a l element i n s e l f - r e l i a n c e i s , t h u s t h e r e d e f i n i t i o n o f p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n , consumption and
e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s i n terms o f t h e needs o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n as a whole.
The c l e a r e s t 1 i n k between a s e l f - r e l i a n t approach and commodity p o l i c y would
be t h e a t t e m p t a t consuming t h e b u l k o f t t i e commodity o u t p u t l o c a l l y and
t h r o u g h a p a t t e r n o f d i s t r i b u t i o n based on e f f e c t i v e need. T u r n i n g f o r a moment t o t h e T h i r d World Forum s t u d i e s r e f e r r e d t o above, p r e c i s e l y such a s t r a t e g y o f r e - d i r e c t i n g a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f p r o d u c t i o n towards i n t e r n a l consumpt i o n i s advocated f o r c o t t o n ( n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , s i n c e , taken as a whole, t h e
T h i r d World i s a s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e m a r k e t t o absorb t h e t o t a l c o t t o n product i o n of t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ) . The r e l a t i o n i n such cases between a s e l f r e l a i n t s t r a t e g y and c o t t o n p o l i c y i s d e s c r i b e d as a two-way s t r e e t : a s t r a t e g y
o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e would expand t h e p o t e n t i a l i n t e r n a l m a r k e t f o r c o t t o n , w h i l e
a concommi t a n t c o t t o n p o l i c y would p r i v i l e g e t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f i n t e r n a l demand w i t h r e s p e c t t o e x p o r t s .
Even i n c o t t o n , though, and c e r t a i n l y i n t h e o t h e r commodities s t u d i e d , t h i s
k i n d o f s c e n a r i o i s under p r e s e n t circumstances c l e a r l y u n r e a l i s t i c . F o r one
t h i n g , t h i s approach would o n l y make sense i f a p p l i e d b y t h e T h i r d World as a
whole: t h e s i z e o f t h e m a r k e t o f i n d i v i d u a l commodity p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s i s
i n g e n e r a l i n s u f f i c i e n t t o absorb t h e i r own o u t p u t .
(Conversely, there are
s i g n i f i c a n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f expanding t h e markets o f j u t e , r u b b e r and copper
i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d ) . B u t even i f such an i n t e g r a t e d T h i r d World m a r k e t c o u l d
be e s t a b l i s h e d , s i g n i f i c a n t problems remain. I n some commodities - e.g. cocoa
- a s i m p l e r e - d i r e c t i o n o f consumption towards t h e i n t e r n a l m a r k e t does n o t
seem n e c e s s a r i l y t o e n t a i l s i g n i f i c a n t p r o g r e s s towards t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f
b a s i c needs; i n o t h e r s , such as sugar, t h e r e - d i r e c t i o n , i f i t i s t o a f f e c t
f a v o u r a b l y t h e s t a n d a r d o f n u t r i t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n must be accompanied by
an i n c r e a s e i n p r o t e i n and v i t a m i n i n t a k e s , i .e. an improvement i n t h e general
s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g ; y e t i n o t h e r s , such as rubber, j u t e and copper, an expans i o n o f t h e economic base appears as a p r e - r e q u i s i t e t o make an i n c r e a s e i n
domestic consumption p o s s i b l e ( a l t h o u g h u n d o u b t e d l y s y s t e m a t i c p o l i c i e s t o
promote l o c a l use o f those i n d u s t r i a l raw m a t e r i a l s m i g h t , i n t u r n , h e l p b r i n g
about some expansion o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l b a s e ) . A paradox seems, t h e r e f o r e , t o
c o n f r o n t u s , whereby t h e commodity s e c t o r s can o n l y make t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
s e l f - r e l i a n t development a f t e r development has l a r g e l y t a k e n p l a c e .
There a r e , on t h e o t h e r hand, ways around t h e problem o f t h e i n a b i l i t y o f t h e
T h i r d World economies t o absorb t h e i r commodity o u t p u t , and t h e v i c i o u s c i r c l e
t h a t t h i s a p p a r e n t l y causes. A r a d i c a l approach, i n t h e case o f non-renewable
commodities, would be s i m p l y t o l i m i t t h e l e v e l o f e x t r a c t i o n s o as t o save t h e
m a t e r i a l s i n t h e ground f o r such t i m e i n t h e f u t u r e when t h e y w i l l be needed.
Such s t r a t e g y has, on o c c a s i o n , been argued by T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r y a n a l y s t s .
T h i s , however, i s o n l y p o s s i b l e when s u b s t a n t i a l f o r e i g n exchange r e s e r v e s
make i t l e s s t h a n i m p e r a t i v e f o r T h i r d W o r l d governments t o t r y and maximize
t h e i r c u r r e n t revenue; such p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n i s today o n l y e n j o y e d by a few
o f the o i l producers o f t h e T h i r d World.
A more a t t r a c t i v e f o r m o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e s e l f - r e l i a n c e i m p a c t o f t h e commodity
s e c t o r i n t h e n a t i o n a l economy i s , o f course, p r o c e s s i n g . L e t us observe t h a t
t h e f u r t h e r downstream p r o c e s s i n g goes, t h e more i t approximates a s i t u a t i o n o f
l o c a l consumption o f t h e raw commodity; depending on i t s p h y s i c a l and t e c h n i c a l
f e a t u r e s , t h e commodity i s a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t p r o d u c t i v e l y consumed i n process i n g and m a n u f a c t u r i n g even though i t m i g h t n o t have reached i t s f i n a l end-use.
Even a t r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l s , however, p r o c e s s i n g m i g h t have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t i n terms o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e economy and r e d u c i n g i t s ext e r n a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y . Linkages w i t h o t h e r s e c t o r s o f t h e economy may h e l p gen e r a t e new a c t i v i t e s o f a s e l f - r e l i a n t k i n d ; i n t e g r a t i o n upstream, f o r i n s t a n c e ,
m i g h t l e a d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f i n p u t s f o r t h e commodity s e c t o r t o r e p l a c e p r e v i o u s l y i m p o r t e d ones. Again, t h e - c o t t o n s t u d y suggests t h a t some o f t h e p r o ducers c o u l d p r o f i t a b l y move i n t o p r o d u c t i o n o f f e r t i l i z e r s - a f i n d i n g c o n t a i ned i n a number o f o t h e r s t u d i e s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f j o i n t product i o n o f i n p u t s f o r commodity i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e T h i r d World i s a c e n t r a l compon e n t o f a s e l f - r e l i a n t commodity p o l i c y . The copper s t u d y suggests t h a t j o i n t
v e n t u r e s f o r p r o c e s s i n g o r f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f i n p u t s c o u l d be undertaken by
t h e m a j o r L a t i n American and t h e m a j o r A f r i c a n producers ( C h i l e / P e r u and Z a i r e /
Zambia r e s p e c t i v e l y ) ; s i m i l a r s u g g e s t i o n s can be made f o r I n d i a and Bangladesh
i n j u t e , f o r Jamaica and Guyana i n b a u x i t e , f o r M a l a y s i a , T h a i l a n d and Indonesia i n rubber, etc.
Another p o s s i b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f p r o c e s s i n g t o s e l f - r e l i a n c e s t r a t e g i e s m i g h t
be i n t h e development o f new p r o d u c t s f r o m t h e p r i m a r y commodities t h a t can be
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e process o f o p e r a t i o n and expansion o f t h e l o c a l economy.
The sugar s t u d y g i v e s examples o f p o s s i b l e i n d u s t r i a l complexes d e r i v i n g f r o m
t h e sugar s e c t o r , r a n g i n g f r o m t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f l i v e - s t o c k and d a i r y p r o d u c t s
w i t h sugar cane and molasses as t h e b a s i c i n p u t s , t o t h e use o f bagasse s u i t a b l y processed - as b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l , t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a l c o h o l f u e l
f o r combustion engines.
O t h e r p o l i c y p r o p o s a l s t h a t can f i t a s t r a t e g y o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e concern t h e
i s s u e o f t h e i n t e r n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b e n e f i t s i n t h e commodity s e c t o r . S e l f r e l i a n c e s t r a t e g i e s are, as a l r e a d y suggested, e s s e n t i a l l y a t t e m p t s a t maximi z i n g t h e s h a r i n g o f t h e s o c i a l p r o d u c t i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n as a whole.
Particul a r l y i n t h e case o f a g r i c u l t u r a l commodities, whether f o o d and beverages o r
i n d u s t r i a l raw m a t e r i a l s - an i m p o r t a n t i s s u e i s t h a t o f t h e share o f t h e t o t a l s u r p l u s g e n e r a t e d t h a t accrues t o t h e grower, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n cases where
- as i n c o t t o n , j u t e , r u b b e r and, t o a somewhat l e s s e r e x t e n t , cocoa - p r o d u c t i o n i s o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h s m a l l peasant u n i t s . P a r t i c u l a r l y low shares a r e
r e p o r t e d i n t h e cases o f cocoa and c o t t o n . An improvement i n t h e s h a r e o f
growers would i n such cases n o t o n l y improve income d i s t r i b u t i o n g e n e r a l l y a p r e - r e q u i s i t e f o r t h e r e - s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e p r o d u c t i v e apparatus i m p l i e d i n
t h e s t r a t e g y o f c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e - b u t would a l s o p r o b a b l y h e l p i n c rease t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f accompanied by add i t i o n a l i n c e n t i v e s t o i n v e s t m e n t . T h i s , however, m i g h t have some unfavourab l e e f f e c t s : employment m i g h t be n e g a t i v e l y a f f e c t e d and as a r e s u l t income
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n r e a l terms m i g h t become more r e g r e s s i v e .
It s h o u l d be c l e a r f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g t h a t r a i s i n g t h e q u e s t i o n o f commodity
p o l i c y f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f a s e l f - r e l i a n t s t r a t e g y o f development a l l o w s
a f r e s h l o o k a t some o f t h e s t a n d a r d p o l i c y p r e s c r i p t i o n s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e
c u r r e n t commodity debate. It s h o u l d a l s o be c l e a r t h a t i t e n t a i l s some v e r y
d i f f i c u l t problems; i n p a r t i c u l a r , p r o c e s s i n g , a1 though l e s s p r o b l e m a t i c when
l i n k e d t o a s e l f - r e l i a n t s t r a t e g y t h a n when o r i e n t e d towards e x p o r t s , nevert h e l e s s r a i s e s complex q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e g e n e r a t i o n
o f i n d i g e n o u s techno1 o g i e s as a g a i n s t t h e i n c o r p o r a t i on o f t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s
f r o m abroad, and o t h e r s ; some o f them w i l l be discussed i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n ,
t h a t d e a l s w i t h e x p o r t - o r i e n t e d commodity-based development s t r a t e g i e s . B u t
t h e main problem i s , undoubtedly, n o t technico-economic b u t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l .
The a d o p t i o n o f s e l f - r e l a i n c e development s t r a t e g y r e q u i r e s some fundamental
changes i n t h e way i n which s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a r e d e f i n e d , p r o d u c t i o n and d i s tri b u t i o n a r e o r g a n i z e d and consumption i s o r i e n t e d . From t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i dence, i t would appear t h a t t h e dominant s e c t o r s i n a m a j o r i t y o f T h i r d World
c o u n t r i e s a r e n o t prepared t o undertake t h e fundamental r e - s t r u c t u r i n g o f
power, w e a l t h and p r i v i l e g e t h a t i s i n v o l v e d . Commodity p o l i c y i s , t h e r e f o r e ,
i n most cases d e f i n e d by r e f e r e n c e t o development s t r a t e g i e s t h a t , r a t h e r t h a n
d i s e n g a g i n g f r o m t h e w o r l d economy, seek t o f i n d a more f a v o u r a b l e accomodation
f o r t h e n a t i o n a l economy - o r f o r t h e r u l i n g s e c t o r s i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s - w i t h i n i t . The n e x t s e c t i o n s w i l l b r i e f l y d i s c u s s two s e t s o f i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h a t development approach f o r commodity p o l i c y .
2.2
Processing f o r Export
P r o c e s s i n g o f p r i m a r y commodities i n t h e T h i r d H o r l d c o u n t r i e s can - i t has a1ready been suggested - be undertaken e s s e n t i a l l y t o improve t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r y i n t h e w o r l d market. P r o c e s s i n g n o t o n l y i n c r e a ses t h e v a l u e added o f t h e p r i m a r y commodity, b u t i n some cases i t m i g h t a l l o w
t h e p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r y t o move away f r o m an o l i g o p s o n i s t i c m a r k e t i n t o a more
c o m p e t i t i v e one, t h u s i n c r e a s i n g i t s b a r g a i n i n g power. T h i s i s c l e a r l y t h e
case i n copper, f o r i n s t a n c e , where t h e m a r k e t f o r b l i s t e r copper i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more c o n c e n t r a t e d t h a n t h a t f o r r e f i n e d copper. An even more extreme
example i s t h a t o f b a u x i t e / a l u m i n i u m , where t h e markets f o r b a u x i t e and a l u mina a r e h i g h l y o l i g o p s o n i s t i c w h i l e t h a t f o r r e f i n e d aluminium i n g o t s i s f a i r 1y c o m p e t i t i v e ( i n o t h e r cases, though, i t i s necessary t o move q u i t e f a r downs t r e a m b e f o r e t h e m a r k e t ceases t o be o l i g o p s o n i s t i c , e.g. r u b b e r ) . By b o t h
i m p r o v i n g t h e r e t u r n s t o t h e p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r y and s t r e n g t h e n i n g i t s p o s i t i o n
i n t h e w o r l d market, p r o c e s s i n g i s s a i d t o c o n t r i b u t e t o a c h i e v i n g an i n c r e a sed degree o f autonomy.
I f t o t h a t one adds t h a t even p r o c e s s i n g o r i e n t e d t o wards e x p o r t can be i n t r o d u c e d w i t h a view t o m a x i m i z i n g l o c a l l i k a g e s and s t i m u l a t i n g growth i n o t h e r s e c t o r s o f t h e economy, t h e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s
p o l i c y i s understandable.
There are, however, s e r i o u s problems i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a p o l i c y o f i n c r e a s i n g p r o c e s s i n g o f e x p o r t a b l e p r i m a r y commodities as a p a r t o f a comprehensive
development s t r a t e g y . * *
To b e g i n w i t h , a number o f p r o c e s s i n g o p e r a t i o n s have
r e l a t i v e l y h i g h c a p i t a l i n t e n s i t y , and t h e r e f o r e pose f o r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s
porblems o f a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c a p i t a l and o f l a b o u r a b s o r p t i o n . I n t e r e s t i n g l y
enough, i n some m i n e r a l commodities t h e s i t u a t i o n seems t o be d i f f e r e n t ; i n
copper t h e c a p i t a l i n t e n s i t y o f the o p e r a t i o n s and t h e c a p i t a l c o s t p e r u n i t
o f o u t p u t decrease as p r o c e s s i n g i n c r e a s e s . On t h e whole, however, T h i r d World
p o l i c y m a k e r s c o n s i d e r i n g moving i n t o p r o c e s s i n g o f commodities a r e faced w i t h
choices c o n c e r n i n g a l t e r n a t i v e investments t h a t m i g h t have b e t t e r employmentc r e a t i o n e f f e c t s . A c h o i c e o f f u r t h e r p r o c e s s i n g i n such cases m i g h t r u n - as
h i n t e d a t i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n - a g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f autonomous,
broad-based development. On t h e o t h e r hand, d i r e c t employment e f f e c t s do n o t
t e l l t h e whole s t o r y ; we have a l r e a d y suggested t h a t an i m p o r t a n t element i n a
p o l i c y o f commodity p r o c e s s i n g m i g h t be t h e l i n k a g e e f f e c t s and t h e g e n e r a t i o n
of connected economic a c t i v i t i e s .
A second area worth e x p l o r i n g i s t h a t o f t h e t r a n s p o r t c o s t e f f e c t s o f process i n g . Two t r e n d s i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s seem t o operate h e r e : one i s t h e r e d u c t i o n i n t r a n s p o r t c o s t d e r i v e d from w e i g h t r e d u c t i o n as a r e s u l t o f process i n g , t h e o t h e r i s the e f f e c t o f ocean l i n e r f r e i g h t r a t e s , which a p p a r e n t l y
d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t processed commodities.
By f a r the most.serious problem i n processing, though, i s t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e
b a r r i e r s t o e n t r y posed by t h e dominance o f m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s i n p r o d u c t i o n , m a r k e t i n g and technology, and t h e p r o t e c t i o n i s t p o l i c i e s o f advanced
c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s . The T h i r d World Forum s t u d i e s p r o v i d e some s t r i k i n g i1l u s t r a t i o n s o f these problems. I n cocoa, attempts by Ecuador t o process t h e
b u l k of i t s o u t p u t i n t o cocoa b u t t e r and powder a r e b e i n g t h w a r t e d by confect i o n e r s who f e e l t h a t t h e Ecuadorian l i q u o r i s i n f e r i o r i n q u a l i t y , and have
r e p l a c e d t h e Ecuadorian component o f t h e i r b l e n d w i t h West I n d i a n and Papua
New Guinea coca, which t h e y buy as beans. Other o b s t a c l e s i n t h e way o f cocoa
producers e n t e r i n g t h e processed market a r e t h e h i g h e r e f f i c i e n c y o f I n d ' t i a l
c o u n t r y p l a n t s and t h e i r c o n t r o l over t r a d e s e c r e t s and m a n u f a c t u r i n g t e c h n i ques. I n t h e case o f sugar, B r a z i l ' s l o n g - s t a n d i n g e f f o r t s t o d e r i v e motor
f u e l f r o m sugar cane have n o t y e t produced economic r e s u l t s , w h i l e i n England,
f o l l o w i n g a s h o r t e r p e r i o d o f research and development, t h e announcement has
a l r e a d y been made o f t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n i n t h e near f u t u r e o f a p l a n t n e a r L i v e r p o o l u s i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y more advanced technology ( t h i s does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
a f f e c t t h e B r a z i l i a n p l a n s s i n c e t h e i r e v e n t u a l f u e l o u t p u t i s meant f o r t h e
i n t e r n a l m a r k e t ) . F u r t h e r p r o c e s s i n g i n b a u x i t e and i n r u b b e r a l s o has t o f a ce b a r r i e r s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d n a t u r e o f t h e w o r l d aluminium
and t y r e i n d u s t r y r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n t h e l a t t e r case - as w e l l as i n j u t e and
c o t t o n - an a d d i t i o n a l problem i s , o f course, t h e o l i g o p o l i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f
t h e s y n t h e t i c s u b s t i t u t e s i n d u s t r y , and t h e i r l i n k s w i t h t h e f i n a l consumer i n d u s t r i e s . A p o l i c y o f i m p r o v i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y i n o r d e r t o compete w i t h t h e syn t h e t i c p r o d u c t i n t h e w o r l d market, w h i l e o b v i o u s l y a d v i s a b l e i n t h e s e k i n d s
o f commodity i n d u s t r i e s , m i g h t f i n d o b s t a c l e s beyond t h e p u r e l y technico-economic ones. I n c r e a s i n g p r o t e c t i o n i s m i n developed c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s has l e d
t h e governments o f C h i l e and Zambia t o eschew t h e b e n e f i t s o f p r o c e s s i n g i n
terms o f l i n k a g e s and t o go ahead w i t h s e t t i n g up p l a n t s f o r t h e continuous cas t i n g o f copper r o d through j o i n t ventures w i t h European r e f i n e r s and l o c a t e d
i n Germany and France r e s p e c t i v e l y . F u r t h e r p r o c e s s i n g i s t h u s achieved o n l y
a t t h e c o s t o f i n t e n s i f i e d i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e copper i n d u s t r i e s o f t h e two
T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s i n t o t h e w o r l d c a p i t a l i s t economy. T h i s i s j u s t i f i e d i n
terms o f t h e f a c t t h a t continuous c a s t i n g c a p a c i t y i s b e i n g i n s t a l l e d w i t h i n a
c l e a r l y o l i g o p o l i s t i c p a t t e r n : a few major r e f i n e r s c o n t r o l t h e b u l k o f t h e
European c a p a c i t y . As continuous c a s t i n g p r e s e n t s t e c h n i c a l advantages o v e r
c o n v e n t i o n a l processes, i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e o l i g o p o l y w i l l d i s p l a c e t h e much
more fragmented and c o m p e t i t i v e s e c t o r o f c o n v e n t i o n a l m i l l s , and t h e r e f o r e
t h e producers o f raw copper w i 11 be f a c e d w i t h a s i t u a t i o n o f 01 igopsony unl e s s t h e y themselves move i n t o r o d p r o d u c t i o n .
G e n e r a l l y speaking, a way t o overcome some o f t h e p r e c e d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s i s t o
e n t e r i n t o j o i n t v e n t u r e w i t h m u l t i n a t i o n a l f i r m s t h a t can p r o v i d e access t o
markets, p r o c e s s i n g technology and i n some cases f i n a n c e f o r investment. The
problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f j o i n t ventures are, however, w e l l
known, and w i l l have i n each case t o be weighed by T h i r d World policy-makers
as a g a i n s t t h e advantages o f moving i n t o f u r t h e r p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e i r commodi-
t i e s . And t h i s h i g h l i g h t s t h e l a s t problem t o be mentioned i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h
t h e p o l i c y o f p r o c e s s i n g f o r e x p o r t : i t Seems f a i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t i n
many cases i t s immediate e f f e c t i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e T h i r d World c o n t r y ' s e x t e r n a l dependence i n f i n a n c i a l terms - because o f t h e need f o r r e l a t i v e l y h i g h
i n v e s t m e n t -, and i n t e c h n o l o g i c a l t e r n s - because o f t h e need t o compete i n
t h e w o r l d m a r k e t and t h e r e f o r e t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y . Conversely, market
dependence m i g h t i n some cases be reduced, as i n d i c a t e d above i n c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h copper. A l s o i n some commodity i n d u s t r i e s where p r o c e s s i n g can t a k e p l a ce t h r o u g h s m a l l u n i t s and s i m p l e t e c h n o l o g i e s , a s m a l l s c a l e c a p i t a l goods
s e c t o r c o u l d be s t i m u l a t e d , thus c o n c e i v a b l y r e d u c i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l dependence.
The problems o f p r o c e s s i n g f o r e x p o r t as a commodity p o l i c y a r e , t h e r e f o r e ,
q u i t e s e r i o u s . A l i n e o f p o l i c y t h a t i s porposed j o i n t l y o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y sugg e s t s t o dispense a l t o g e t h e r - a t l e a s t i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e - w i t h t h e mat e r i a l i t y o f t h e commodity and c o n c e n t r a t e on g e t t i n g t h e most o u t o f i t s exchange value. I t i s an approach c e n t e r e d around commodity c i r c u l a t i o n and mark e t m a n i p u l a t i o n , and we s h a l l b r i e f l y d i s c u s s i t i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n .
2.3.
Markets and M a r k e t I n t e r v e n t i o n
The range o f p o l i c i e s i n c l u d e d under t h i s h e a d i n g i s , o f course, v a s t , and has
been d i s c u s s e d r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e l y , p a r t l y because o f t h e phenomenon - mentioned
i n t h e opening paragraphs o f t h i s paper - o f t h e f o c u s i n g o f commodity p o l i c y
d i s c u s s i o n s i n r e c e n t y e a r s on m a r k e t i n t e r v e n t i o n . We s h a l l n o t , t h e r e f o r e ,
a t t e m p t a comprehensive t r e a t m e n t b u t r a t h e r w i l l h i g h l i g h t p o i n t s t h a t seem
i m p o r t a n t f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f t h e fundamental p o l i c y choices t h a t have been
p r e s e n t e d above.
L e t us s t a r t by r e c a l l i n g t h a t emphasis on m a r k e t i n t e r v e n t i o n assumes a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f t h e o r y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e and o f p r i c e f o r m a t i o n i n t h e
w o r l d m a r k e t which emphasizes t h e power a s p e c t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic r e l a t i o n s , and whose most r e c e n t e x p r e s s i o n i s t h e "unequal exchange" h y p o t h e s i s
proposed b y A r g h i r i Emmanuel and developed by Amin, Braun, S a i g a l and o t h e r s .
An e a r l i e r e x p r e s s i o n o f t h i s approach was t h e P r e b i s c h - S i n g e r e x p l a n a t i o n o f
t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e terms o f t r a d e o f p r i m a r y commodities i n terms o f t h e
a b i l i t y o f t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s i n t h e advanced c o u n t r i e s - e x p o r t e r s o f manufact u r e d p r o d u c t s - t o a p p r o p r i a t e t h e f r u i t s o f t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s , an a b i l i t y
n o t matched b y t h e w o r k e r s and peasants i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s t h a t e x p o r t
p r i m a r y commodities ( s o t h a t i n c r e a s e s i n p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e l a t t e r a r e e f f e c t i v e l y passed on t o I n d ' t i a l c o u n t r y consumers v i a l o w e r p r i c e s ) . The p o i n t
t o n o t e i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i s s i m p l y t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r k i n d o f approach i s
by no means g e n e r a l l y accepted, and t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e approaches m i g h t l e a d i n t o
e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t p o l i c y c o n c l u s i o n s . I n f a c t , y e t an e a r l i e r v e r s i o n o f t h e
P r e b i s c h - S i n g e r t h e s i s - a c c o r d i n g t o which t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e terms o f
t r a d e o f p r i m a r y commodities i s due t o t h e i r l o w e r income e l a s t i c i t y o f demand
as compared t o manufactured p r o d u c t s - would suggest t h a t i t i s t h e " p r i m a r i ness" o f commodities t h a t condemnes them t o have e v e r d e t e r i o r a t i n g terms o f
t r a d e . The p o l i c y c o n c l u s i o n i s , o b v i o u s l y , n o t t o a t t e m p t an i m p o s s i b l e p r o cess o f r e d r e s s b u t t o g e t o u t o f p r i m a r y commodities a l t o g e t h e r : hence t h e
i m p o r t - s u b s t i t u t i o n p r e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e 1950s amd 1960s i n L a t i n America and
elsewhere. A s i m i l a r r e a s o n i n g c o u l d today be used t o j u s t i f y emphasis on p r o c e s s i n g w i t h p r e f e r e n c e t o m a r k e t i n t e r v e n t i o n i n commodities.
One does n o t , of course, have t o adopt a f u l l y c o h e r e n t and comprehensive t h e o r y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e t o suggest some p o l i c y m t i o n s whose b e n e f i t s - and
problems - can be assessed on t h e b a s i s o f e m p i r i c a l evidence and p a s t exper i e n c e . But awareness o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l underpinnings o f v a r i o u s p o l i c y approaches seems t o be a u s e f u l component o f a r e - a p p r a i s a l o f p o l i c y o p t i o n s by
T h i r d World decision-makers and a n a l y s t s .
W i t h i n t h i s broad framework, a meaningful d i s c u s s i o n o f s p e c i f i c market s t r a t e g i e s can proceed on a more c o n c r e t e b a s i s , one t h a t w i l l have t o r e f e r t o
p a r t i c u l a r commodities a t g i v e n p o i n t s i n t i m e . The T h i r d World Forum s t u d i e s
c o n t a i n a f a i r l y comprehensive l i s t o f such s t r a t e g i e s , i n c l u d i n g : 1 ) g r e a t e r
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e producer c o u n t r i e s i n m a r k e t i n g world-wide (common t o a1 1
cases);
2 ) improved s u p p l y management ( p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r e s s e d i n t h e case o f
cocoa, where i t r e v o l v e s around t h e i s s u e o f improved s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s ) ;
3 ) i n c r e a s e d use o f f u t u r e markets by producers (cocoa and r u b b e r ) , w i t h t h e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t e r m i n a l markets as a medium t e r m goal ; 4 ) expansion
o f markets o u t s i d e t h e developed c a p i t a l i s t c e n t r e s (argued i n a l l cases);
5 ) t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o r improvement o f a d m i n i s t e r e d forms o f market, by means
o f l o n g - t e r m s a l e s agreements, producer-consumer b u f f e r s t o c k s t a b i l i z a t i o n
arrangements o r h i g h l y r e g u l a t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l regimes, such as those co-exist i n g i n sugar (which t h e s t u d y f e l t , however, t o be i n need o f r a d i c a l r e v i s i o n
t o improve t h e p o s i t i o n of T h i r d World p r o d u c e r s ) ; 6 ) i n c r e a s i n g t h e s o l i d a r i t y o f T h i r d World e x p o r t e r s w i t h a view t o s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e i r b a r g a i n i n g pos i t i o n i n m a t t e r s such as t a r i f f o r q u o t a b a r r i e r s i n t h e developed c o u n t r i e s ,
and ( i n t h e case o f copper) t o e x p l o r e even t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f u n i l a t e r a l p r i c e fixation.
The l i s t i s , c l e a r l y , b o t h l o n g and w e l l known; i t c o n t a i n s t h e k i n d o f measures advocated by T h i r d World spokesmen and i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s e v e r s i nce t h e Havana C h a r t e r o f 1948 r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f T h i r d World commodity pol i c y f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e as an i s s u e of concern f o r t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community.
I t would be o u t s i d e t h e boundaries o f t h i s paper t o r e v i e w t h e whole debate
around these p o l i c y o p t i o n s ; o u r purpose h e r e i s o n l y t o p r o v i d e a framework
w i t h i n which t h e y can be analysed and e v a l u a t e d . A few general comments, however, seem i n o r d e r .
To b e g i n w i t h , even though a l l t h e measures proposed under t h i s general heading
i m p l y a h i g h l e v e l o f i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e commodity p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s i n t h e
they e n t a i l
w o r l d economy - i n most cases, i n t h e w o r l d c a p i t a l i s t economy
v a r y i n g degrees o f c o n f l i c t and c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h t h e w o r l d c a p i t a l i s t system,
and can be c o n v e n i e n t l y p l a c e d a l o n g a continurn r u n n i n g f r o m minimal c o n f l i c t
t h a t i s f u r t h e r m o r e channelled through e x i s t i n g mechanisms (e.g. i n c r e a s e d use
by producers o f e x i s t i n g t e r m i n a l markets) t o r a t h e r more fundamental attempts
a t r e - s t r u c t u r i n g t h e r u l e s o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e system ( b u f f e r s s t o c k s t a b i l i z a t i o n arrangements, producers c a r t e l s , r e g u l a t e d markets).
-
I t can be f u r t h e r argued t h a t t h e more one moves towards t h e c o n f l i c t i v e end
o f t h e continuum, t h e more t h e v i a b i l i t y o f t h e s t r a t e g y becomes dependent on
T h i r d World producers d e v e l o p i n g a h i g h degree o f s o l i d a r i t y and common p o l i t i c a l w i l l , and t h e more, consequently, t h e approach begins t o approximate t h e
c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e s t r a t e g y . Thus, i t i s reasonable t o suggest t h a t t h e
success o r f a i l u r e o f attempts a t s t a b i l i z i n g t h e market through b u f f e r s t o c k
o p e r a t i o n s i s l e s s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e technico-economic f e a t u r e s o f t h e c o m o d i t y i n q u e s t i o n - a l t h o u g h t h e y have an undoubtedly i m p o r t a n t b e a r i n g i n t h e
f i n a l outcome - t h a n o f t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e T h i r d World producers i n v o l v e d t o
r e a c h a l e v e l o f s o l i d a r i t y h i g h enough t o push t h e p r o p o s a l s t h r o u g h t h e opp o s i t i o n o f I n d ' t i a l c o u n t r i e s and t o m a i n t a i n t h e j o i n t f r o n t even i n t h e
presence o f d i s r u p t i v e f a c t o r s - such as v i o l e n t f l u c t u a t i o n s i n p r i c e s , consumer r e t a l i a t i o n , e t c . The same r e a s o n i n g a p p l i e s w i t h even more f o r c e t o t h e
q u e s t i o n o f c a r t e l i z a t i o n o r o f b a r g a i n i n g on t a r i f f s and on m a r k e t r e g u l a t i o n .
To what e x t e n t t h e dynamic o f s o l i d a r i t y t h a t i s r e q u i r e d t o s u s t a i n t h e conf l i c t i v e measures can i t s e l f develop i n t o a more general dynamic o f c o l l e c t i v e
s e l f - r e l i a n c e i s n o t easy t o assess; b u t t h e c o n n e c t i o n between t h e two s h o u l d ,
again, be r e c o g n i s e d i f p r o p o s a l s f o r m a r k e t r e g u l a t i o n i n t h e commodity f i e l d
a r e t o have any v i a b i l i t y .
3.
W h i t h e r T h i r d World Commodity P o l i c y ?
Some Concluding Remarks
The argument o f t h i s paper can now be summarized i n a few sentences. A fundamental r e - a p p r a i s a l o f commodity p o l i c y o p t i o n s . - which i s c a l l e d f o r by t h e
u n s e t t l e d s t a t e o f T h i r d World commodity p o l i c y f o l l o w i n g t h e f a i l u r e o f a t tempts a t o r g a n i z i n g m a r k e t i n t e r v e n t i o n a1 ong t h e 1 ines o f UNCTAD's I n t e g r a t e d Programme - r e q u i r e s a s e r i o u s e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n between commod i t y development and t h e b r o a d e r s t r a t e g i e s f o r s o c i a l and economic development
adopted by T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . P o l i c i e s t h a t t e n d t o see t h e commodi t y sect o r as t h e s u p p l i e r o f f o r e i g n exchange m i g h t t e n d t o correspond t o development
s t r a t e g i e s t h a t emphasize i n t e g r a t i o n i n t h e w o r l d c a p i t a l i s t economy as t h e
way o f a s s i m i l a t i n g t e c h n o l o g i e s , a t t r a c t i n g c a p i t a l and g e n e r a t i n g growth w i t h i n a g i v e n p a t t e r n o f d i s t r i b u t i o n o f power and w e a l t h o f a l e s s t h a n e g a l i t a r i a n c h a r a c t e r . Conversely, p o l i c i e s t h a t view t h e commodities as a m a t e r i a l i t y
h a v i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l t o s a t i s f y - d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y - t h e needs o f men
t e n d t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h development s t r a t e g i e s t h a t v a l u e s e l f - r e l i a n c e , a u t o nomy and an e g a l i t a r i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l p r o d u c t . The c h o i c e between t h e two broad development s t r a t e g i e s i s a m a t t e r o f fundamental p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s ; b u t once t h a t c h o i c e i s made, c e r t a i n consequences - n o t , o f course, m e c h a n i s t i c , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s r e a l - f o l l o w i n terms
o f commodi t y p o l i c y .
T h i s paper has t r i e d t o e x p l o r e some o f t h e s e consequences. W h i l e f a v o u r i n g
- as a m a t t e r o f i r r e d u c i b l e p o l i t i c a l and p e r s o n a l c h o i c e - t h e s t r a t e g y o f
s e l f - r e l i a n c e , s e c t i o n 2.1 attempted t o i d e n t i f y some o f t h e v e r y s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h e a d o p t i o n and subsequent i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s u c h a g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y and i t s a s s o c i a t e d commodity p o l i c y . The main d i f f i c u l t y was d e t e c t e d i n
t h e s t r u c t u r e o f power i n T h i r d World s o c i e t i e s , and t h e degree t o which t h e
dominant s e c t o r s p e r c e i v e a s e l f - r e l i a n c e p r o j e c t as i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e
perpetuation o f t h e i r social rule.
Commodi t y p o l i c i e s n o t r e q u i r i n g a fundamental r e - s t r u c t u r i n g o f i n t e r n a l
power r e l a t i o n s were t h e n d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n s 2.2. and 2.3.
Again, problems
i n t h e a t t e m p t a t advancing i n t h e p a t h o f p r o c e s s i n g and resource-based i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n w i t h o u t e f f e c t i n g a d e c i s i v e break w i t h e x t e r n a l dependence were
d i s c u s s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s t r a t e g y o f p r o c e s s i n g f o r e x p o r t , and i t s pot e n t i a l l y ( b u t n o t necessarily) dependence-intensifying impact explored b r i e f l y .
A s i m i l a r review of the seemingly most " i n t e g r a t i o n i s t " s e t of policy options
- those dealing with market manipulation - led t o the somewhat s u r p r i s i n g conclusion t h a t the more meaningful among those measures required, as an inescapable pre-condition f o r s u s s c e s s , a degree of s o l i d a r i t y among Third World commodi ty producers t h a t approximates a high level of c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e .
Once again, t h e s e r i o u s problems t h e Third World has had in s u s t a i n i n g any degree of j o i n t action in the commodities f i e l d - other than a t the l e v e l of rhet o r i c - were seen as the major o b s t a c l e t o progress in the f i e l d of the a s s e r t i o n of Third World market power.
Where does a l l t h i s leave us in terms of commodity policy options? Basically
with a s e r i e s of q u e s t i o n s , r a t h e r than with ready-made answers. But t h a t i s
in t h e nature of c r i t i c a l periods. With Third World commodity policy a t the
croosroads, r a i s i n g , hopefully, the r i g h t questions might well be more than
half-way towards finding answers t h a t help - as they should - t o f r e e the
Third World from poverty, i n j u s t i c e and i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x p l o i t a t i o n .
FOOTNOTES
* The p r o j e c t i s e n t i t l e d A conceptual Framework f o r Improving the S t r u c t u r e
World Trade i n E m a r y C ~ m ~ d ~ ~ ~ X ~ e ~ ms t u dpi e si
on individual commodities of which the following a r e a v a i l a b l e as Occasional
Papers of t h e Third World Forum:
0.f
Third World Countries in t h e International Cotton Economy, by t h e Egyptian
I n s t i t u t e of National Planning ( O F no. 6 ) .
World Trade in a Primary Commodity: The Case of J u t e . by t h e Bangladesh
I n s t i t u t e of Development Studies ( O P no. 7 ) .
World Trade in Natural Rubber, by t h e Malaysian Rubber Research and
Development Board ( O P no. 8 ) .
The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Sugar Industry and the Third World, by D.H.M. Alleyne
( O P no. 9 ) .
The S t r u c t u r e of World Trade in Cocoa, by Tetteh A. Kofi ( O P no. 10)
MB.
**
(Copper i s t h e r e f o r e excluded; t e a i s s t i l l a d r a f t ; bauxite w i l l be
a v a i l a b l e only in December.)
The discussion on processing owes a good deal t o the a r t i c l e by M. Roerner,
Survey",
Resource-Based I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i n n i n +he nevelcrinc Countries.
Journal of Development Economics, Vol . 6 !l979), pp. 163-202.
r
i
c
a
e usir'.ilar ~ e c n o l o g i a s , a t r a e r c a p i t a l y generar crecimiento dentro de
un marso dado de di.stribuci6n a e l ingreso y de consume; pov la inversa, las
p o l i t i c a s que ponen i n f a s i s en la materialidad de 20s productcs M s i c o s y su
p o t e n t i a l para s a t i s f a c e r - d i r e e t a o irdirectcmente - l a s neees-idades hurranas
bdsicas tienden a correlacionarse eon e s t r a t e g i a s que valoran e l e s f u e r s o
propic, la autonom-ia y una distribucic5n i q u a l . i t a r i a d e l pfoducto s o c i a l . El
t r a b a ~ 'd~i s e u t e t r e s l i n e a s poszbles p o l i t i c a s , a saber, aumentar at mhimo
e l conswno local y 20s nexos con l a econornia locate aurnentar e l procescwi-ento
para la e x p o r t a c i h e i n t e r v e n i r e n e l rereado internac-ional, y t r a t a de
i d e n t f i c a r l o s prineipaZes problemas que cada una plantea. Se s o s t i e n e que
e l principal obst6eulo para una p o l i t i c a de produetos bdsicos ligada e l autoe s f u e r s o e s l a r e s i s t e n c i a de 20s s e c t o r e s dominantes en muchos paises d e l
Tercer Uundo a aceptur l a reestructuracit5n fundamental del poder, l a riqueza
y e l p r i v i l e g i o i m p l i e i t a en l a noc-ion de auto-esfuerzo; en e l caso d e l mayor
proeesami-ento para la e x p o r t a c G n e l p r i n c i p a l obstdeulo e s e l control de l a s
empresas transnacionales sobre 20s procesos productivos y 20s rnereados;
respecto de l a i n t e r v e n e i 6 n en e l mercado, l a d i f i e u l t a d principal e s l a i n capacidad d e l Tercer Mundo de alcanzar un n i v e l de solidaridad p o l i t i c a s u f i cientemente a l t o eomo para l l e v a r adelante sus propuestas a pesar de l a
oposicibn de 20s paises industriaZ'isados.
(
SEEDS OF THE EARTH
The Issues
Some T h i r d World farmers a r e o p t i n g o u t o f t h e Green R e v o l u t i o n and r e t u r n i n g
t o t r a d i t i o n a l c r o p v a r i e t i e s , because t h e s o - c a l l e d greening o f t h e T h i r d
World i s n o t w o r k i n g f o r t h e poor o f many c o u n t r i e s . Moreover, t h e Green
R e v o l u t i o n i s o n l y t h e most v i s i b l e p a r t o f a much l a r g e r a g r i c u l t u r a l
r e v o l u t i o n i n v o l v i n g farmers and consumers everywhere - t h e "Seed R e v o l u i t o n " .
T h i s r e v o l u t i o n i s g u i d e d by a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l number o f m u l t i n a t i o n a l
a g r i c h e m i c a l / p h a r m a c e u t i c a l e n t e r p r i s e s who a r e now moving r a p i d l y i n t o t h e
seed i n d u s t r y . Because seed i s so p i v o t a l t o t h e e n t i r e f o o d system, t h e
i n t e r v e n t i o n o f these i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i r m s and t h e i r n a t u r a l b i a s towards
chemical i n p u t s i s o f profound importance t o t h e f u t u r e food s e c u r i t y o f t h e
w o r l d . The "Seed R e v o l u t i o n " i s b e i n g a i d e d by two key t r e n d s : t h e move i n
t h e T h i r d World towards a second phase o f t h e Green R e v o l u t i o n , which w i l l
l e a v e p l a n t b r e e d i n g t o t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l s ; and, an a t t e m p t i n t h e F i r s t
World t o c r e a t e p a t e n t - e q u i v a l e n t p r o t e c t i o n and market c o n t r o l o f seeds f o r
t h e same mu1 t i n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s . Both t r e n d s are h e a v i l y i n f l u e n c e d by
private enterprise.
Much more needs t o be known about t h e "Seed R e v o l u t i o n " . The pace o f change
i s r a p i d and d i f f i c u l t t o analyze. R i g h t now, n a t i o n a l governments a r e
making p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s r e l a t e d t o a r e v o l u t i o n which t h e y have n o t planned
and do n o t r e a l l y p e r c e i v e . The f o l l o w i n g i s a summary o f o u r f i n d i n g s ,
o f f e r e d as a b a s i s f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n and s t u d y :
a ) The w o r l d l o o k s t o a h a n d f u l o f p l a n t s f o r i t s s u r v i v a l . Be i t wheat,
maize o r r i c e , each o f t h e e a r t h ' s m a j o r crops has i t s g e n e t i c home i n the
V a v i l o v Centres o f g e n e t i c d i v e r s i t y , l o c a t e d i n t h e T h i r d World. Although
everyone draws f r o m t h e germ plasm i n t h e s e areas t o m a i n t a i n f o o d s u p p l i e s ,
the gene-hungry n a t i o n s o f t h e F i r s t World a r e e s p e c i a l l y dependent upon t h e
T h i r d World f o r t h e i r c r o p s u r v i v a l ;
b ) The mythology o f t h e " p o p u l a t i o n e x p l o s i o n " has l e d t o t h e spread o f " h i g h response" p l a n t v a r i e t i e s v i a t h e Green R e v o l u t i o n . New v a r i e t i e s a r e
r e p l a c i n g t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t i v a r s and w i l d r e l a t i v e s i n t h e c e n t r e s o f g e n e t i c
d i v e r s i t y , w i p i n g o u t sources f o r f u t u r e p l a n t b r e e d i n g and l e a v i n g t r a d i t i o n a l farmers w h o l l y dependent upon expensive new v a r i e t i e s ;
c ) G l o b a l companies have v i r t u a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e second phase o f t h e Green
R e v o l u t i o n , a l l o w i n g them t o "package" i n p u t s o f seeds and chemicals w i t h t h e
h e l p o f government s u b s i d i e s , f o r e i g n a i d and h i g h e r f a r m p r i c e s ;
d ) As a r e s u l t , a g r i c h e m i c a l f i r m s have c o n s t r u c t e d a g l o b a l d i s t r i b u t i o n
system and m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g y f o r t h e i r seed and chemical p r o d u c t s , a t t h e
same t i m e as c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l c r o p v a r i e t i e s has been reduced;
e ) There i s a w i d e l y - h e l d i l l u s i o n t h a t v a n i s h i n g germ plasm i s b e i n g s a f e l y
s t o r e d i n r e g i o n a l and g l o b a l gene banks.
I n f a c t , these banks a r e p o o r l y
funded and have e x p e r i e n c e d d i s a s t r o u s equipment f a i l u r e s r e s u l t i n g i n t h e
l o s s o f p r e c i o u s g e n e t i c r e s o u r c e s . More c o l l e c t i o n s a r e u r g e n t l y r e q u i r e d
i n almost every p a r t o f the world;
f ) The emerging network o f gene banks t a k e s n a t i o n a l g e n e t i c t r e a s u r e s f r o m
t h e T h i r d World t o be s t o r e d abroad. I n e f f e c t , these n a t i o n a l resources
c r o s s a t e c h n o l o g i c a l f r o n t i e r , r o b b i n g t h e w o r l d ' s o r i g i n a l p l a n t breeders s u b s i s t e n t farmers - o f t h e i r r i g h t f u l h e r i t a g e , and l e a v i n g T h i r d World
governments dependent upon t h e F i r s t World f o r access t o t h e i r own germ plasm.
I n A f r i c a , examples a l r e a d y e x i s t where n a t i o n s have p a i d t o i m p o r t t h e immed i a t e genetic o f f s p r i n g o f t h e i r n a t i o n a l resources;
g ) An unknown f a c t o r i n g e n e t i c c o n s e r v a t i o n programmes i s t h e e x t e n t o f c o r p o r a t e c o l l e c t i o n s . I t i s known t h a t i n some crops a s i n g l e e n t e r p r i s e
dominates t o t a l w o r l d germ plasm h o l d i n g s ;
h ) P r o t e c t e d by r e s t r i c t i v e v a r i e t a l l e g i s l a t i o n ( p a t e n t s ) , a g r i chemical/pliarm a c e u t i c a l f i r m s i n t h e F i r s t World a r e moving a g g r e s s i v e l y t o achieve v a r i e t y
c o n t r o l i n major markets. S m a l l e r seed companies a r e q u i c k l y d i s a p p e a r i n g .
Public sector p l a n t breeding i s being v i r t u a l l y forced i n t o doing basic
r e s e a r c h i n areas o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e dominant companies;
i ) A g r i chemical c o r p o r a t i o n s seek t h e development o f p l a n t v a r i e t i e s b e s t a b l e
t o s t i m u l a t e chemical s a l e s . The r e s u l t i n g b i a s can l e a d t o g r e a t e r c r o p u n i f o r m i t y and d i s e a s e v u l n e r a b i 1 it y as we1 1 as i n c r e a s e d f i n a n c i a l and e n v i r o n mental c o s t s . The l a r g e s t e n t e r p r i s e s have c r e a t e d g e n e t i c r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s ,
c r o s s r e f e r e n c i n g p l a n t , animal and human chemical r e s e a r c h ;
j ) Because o f t h e i r i n v o l v e m e n t i n s e v e r a l phases o f t h e t o t a l f o o d system,
a g r i b u s i n e s s p l a n t breeders l o o k t o p r o f i t s f r o m s e v e r a l s e c t o r s . T h i s enables
them t o b r e e d seed s u i t a b l e t o t h e i r chemical, p r o c e s s i n g o r r e t a i l i n t e r e s t s ,
b u t n o t necessarily s u i t a b l e t o the p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f the farmer o r the n u t r i t i o n o f t h e consumer.
Conclusions
The "Seed R e v o l u t i o n " has been d i s c o v e r e d - and i s b e i n g debated - a t a t i m e
when i t can s t i l l be h a l t e d and t u r n e d around. The f i n a n c i a l resources and
t e c h n i c i a l e x p e r t i s e r e q u i r e d t o c o l l e c t and conserve endangered germ plasm
i s w e l l w i t h i n t h e p o l i t i c a l reach o f governments and agencies. Knowledgeable
governments can a c t t o p r o t e c t p u b l i c b r e e d i n g programmes and c u r t a i l t h e expansion o f t h e g l o b a l seed i n d u s t r y i n t o t h e i r own t e r r i t o r y .
The key t o m o b i l i z i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l " w i l l " r e q u i r e d t o p r o t e c t t h e w o r l d ' s
g e n e t i c base l i e s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g some m a j o r myths:
a ) t h e myth t h a t t h e " p o p u l a t i o n e x p l o s i o n " t h r e a t e n s o u r f o o d resources and
makes necessary t h e k i n d o f d r a c o n i a n development s t r a t e g i e s evidenced by t h e
Green Rev01 u t i o n ;
b ) t h e myth t h a t t h e F i r s t World has t h e answer t o i n c r e a s e d f o o d s e c u r i t y
t h r o u g h h i g h e n e r g y - i n p u t p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s ; and,
c ) t h e myth t h a t a g r i c h e m i c a l companies w i l l b r i n g i n n o v a t i o n and c r e a t i v i t y
t o p l a n t b r e e d i n g r a t h e r t h a n u n i f o r m i t y and chemical dependence.
The c r e a t i v i t y and genius o f a g r i c u l t u r e c o n t i n u e s t o l i e where i t has always
been - w i t h f a r m i n g f a m i l i e s . We do n o t propose a r e t r e a t t o o l d t e c h n o l o g i e s
o r a w i t h d r a w a l o f s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r t i s e . b u t we do a f f i r m t h a t t h e l o n g - t e r m
s e c u r i t y o f a ~ l o b a lfood s u p p l y and t h e b a s i s f o r p l a n t b r e e d i n g programmes
must r e s t w i t h t h e v i a b i l i t y of s u b s i s t e n t farmers t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r r u r a l l i f e .
These f a m i l i e s w i l l p r o t e c t o u r p l a n t g e n e t i c resources b e t t e r than gene banks
and d a t a c e n t r e s .
T h i s document does n o t s o much a r r i v e a t a "watershed" t i m e when t h e c r i s e s
has reached a peak, as a t i m e when t h e myths can be more c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d .
The v e r y n a t u r e o f p l a n t b r e e d i n g and t h e pace o f government l e g i s l a t i o n w i l l
undoubtedly s p r e a d t h e c r i s i s o v e r decades. We a r e i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e
'revolution".
We can s t i l l s t o p i t and develop a way t o achieve i n c r e a s e d
c r o p g e n e t i c d i v e r s i t y and g r e a t e r p u b l i c i n v o l v e m e n t i n c o n s e r v a t i o n and
b r e e d i n g . It i s n o t t o o l a t e . However, whereas i t has taken humanity t e n
thousand y e a r s t o b r i n g o u r f o o d s u p p l y t o i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e , we c o u l d do
i r r e p a r a b l e damage w i t h i n t h e n e x t decade.
A
(Thia -is t h e summary, pp. 101-I03, o f P.R. Mooney, Seeds of the Earth,
private or public r2esource?
-tInternation0.2 ~~&it& f o r ~bveZb~rnent
Action,
Bedford Chambers, Covent Garden, London W.C. 2, United Kingdom).
B U I L D I N G BLOCKS
SOVEREIGNTY OF NEEDS, REVERSAL OF UNJUST ENRICHMENT:
THEMES TOWARD ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT
by Prof. Jose R. Echeverria
Case Postale 238
1211 Geneva, Switzerland
Original language:
English
Abstract:
- The general principles of l a and the potential of international
lau are explored i n terms o f another development. Sovereignty o f needs i s
described as a neu r i g h t flouinq from the ancient principle of the general
r i g h t o f association. I t s potential for consumers and producers i s demonstrat e d i n terrns o f local as we22 as national a c t i o n against i n j u s t i c e and exptoit a t i o n . At the international l e v e l . Third World countries could make use of
the law i n the face of ¥injustic i n f l i c t e d by i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries. They
could demand restoration, breach o f contract by frustration, and develop
related legitimate instruments t o reverse u n j u s t enrichment.
L A SOUVERAINETE DES BESOINS, L E RENVERSEMENT DE L'ENRICHISSEMENT
INJUSTE:
THEORIES VERS UN AUTRE D~VELOPPEMENT
R b 6 : Les principaux g6n4raux de la l o i e t l e potentiel du d r o i t internat i o n a l sont e n v i s e s sous I'angle d'un autre d6veloppement. La souverainet6
des besoins e s t dhcrite come un d r o i t nouveau dhriv6 du pri.neipe ancien du
d r o i t d'association. Son potential pour l e s eonsorrnnateurs e t l e s producteurs
e s t d6montri en termes d ' a c t i o n locale e t nationale contre I ' i n j u s t i c e e t
I ' e x p l o i t a t i o n . Au plan international, l e s pays du Tiers Monde pourraient
uti-User l e d r o i t centre Z ' i n j u s t i c e caus6e par l e s pays i n d u s t r i a l i s 4 s . U s
pourraient demander des compensations, l a rupture de contrats e t divelopper
des instruments 26qanx pour renverser l'enriehissement i n j u s t e .
L A S O B E R A N ~ ADE NECESIDADES, L A RESTITUCI~N
INJUSTO :
TEOR I A S HAC f A OTRO DESARROLLO
POR E N R I Q U E C I M I ENTO
Resumen: Los principios generules del derecho y e l potencial del derecho
internaciona2 se exploran en euanto a o t r o desarrollo. La soberania de
neeesidades se describe como un nuevo derecho que t i e n e su origen en e l princ i p i o antiguo deZ derecho general de asociaci6n. Su potencial para consurnidores y productores se demuestra en condi-ciones de i n i c i a t i v a s locales tanto
como nacionalec en contra de la i n j u s t i c i a y l a explotacic5n. A n i v e l e s
internacionales, 20s paises del Terser Mundo pudieran u t z l i z a r l a l e y frente
a tnjustic-ias causadas par los pa-tses industr-ialisados. Podrian e x i g i r r e s t i tueion, inempZirniento de contratos por frustad-on, y desarrotlar instrumentor,
legi'timos para l a r e s t i t u d n del enriquecimiento i n j u c t o .
Jose R. E c h e v e r r i a
SOVEREIGNTY OF NEEDS,
REVERSAL OF UNJUST ENRICHMENT:
THEMES TOWARD ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT:'
Needs and J u s t i c e
B r i e f l y , my p r o p o s a l f o r what c o u l d become a UN s t r a t e g y f o r t h e 1980s and beyond would be t o use t h e j o i n t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g o f producers and consumers as
t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e f o r development i n b o t h i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and T h i r d World
c o u n t r i e s and i n t h e New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order. W h i l e i t i s t r u e t h a t
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a s s o c i a t i o n s o f producers has l o n g been a p a r t o f p o l i t i c a l
t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e , t h e i d e a o f such a s s o c i a t i o n s e n t e r i n g i n t o c o n t r a c t u a l
arrangements w i t h a s s o c i a t i o n s o f users has n o t r e c e i v e d t h e a t t e n t i o n and
p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n i t deserves. My recommendations w i l l t h e r e f o r e emphasize
t h i s aspect.
Viewed c l o s e l y , t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n i m p l i e s i n p o l i t i c a l terms t h a t t h e people
w i l l e x e r c i s e t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y i n two d i f f e r e n t c a p a c i t i e s and two complement a r y s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s : t h a t o f t h e w o r k e r and t h a t o f t h e u s e r o r consumer.
I t a l s o i m p l i e s a s h i f t away f r o m i n d i r e c t democracy by r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o democ r a c y by d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n numerous aspects i n c l u d i n g , o f course, t h e
process o f o r i e n t i n g and p l a n n i n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f goods and
s e r v i c e s . Only t h e n can needs be dominant. D e c i s i o n s by producers a l o n e o r
b y b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i a l i s m cannot end a l i e n a t i o n and m a n i p u l a t i o n o f needs.
A l i e n a t i o n i s f a c e d by t h e u s e r as w e l l as b y t h e worker. To end i t t h e r e
must be j o i n t c o n t r o l b y people as consumers and as workers.
The e x e r c i s e o f t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e e x e r c i s e o f t h e r i g h t t o
work, d u l y a m p l i f i e d t o i n c l u d e a v o i c e i n t h e a d o p t i o n o f d e c i s i o n s concerni n g t h e e n t e r p r i s e , must be supported a t e v e r y l e v e l by a g e n e r a l j u r i d i c a l
p r i n c i p l e which d e c l a r e s enrichment a t a n o t h e r ' s expense u n j u s t and u n l a w f u l
and, as a c o r o l l a r y , t h a t e n r i c h m e n t by t h i s means i s t o be a b s t a i n e d f r o m o r
due r e s t i t u t i o n made.
O b j e c t i o n s may a l s o be made t o t h e view w h i c h i s defended h e r e t h a t i t i s n o t
necessary t o b r i n g a b o u t s o c i a l m u t a t i o n , t o i n v o k e t h e i d e a o f j u s t i c e ,
which i s i m p l i c i t i n t h e v e r y name o f t h e p r i n c i p l e we a r e c o n s i d e r i n s when
i t i s d e s i g n a t e d as t h e " t h e o r y o f u n j u s t e n r i c h m e n t " .
On t h e c o n t r a r y , i t i s e s s e n t i a l p a r t i c u l a r l y because t h e mere r e f e r e n c e t o
j u s t i c e i n v e s t s t h e law w i t h i t s c r i t i c a l and c h a l l e n g i n g q u a l i t i e s which a r e
e q u i v a l e n t t o p o l i t i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s . What l e a d s p e o p l e t o a s p i r e t o f a r r e a c h i n g changes i n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s n o t , i n
t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , t h e p o v e r t y t h e y endure - i n t h e sense o f t h e want o f
goods - as a r e s u l t o f t h a t p a t t e r n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n . They would p u t up w i t h
t h e i r s u f f e r i n g s w i t h o u t r e b e l l i n g , even q u i t e p a s s i v e l y , so l o n g as those
s u f f e r i n g s a r e made t o seem t h e r e s u l t o f a c t s o f God o r n a t u r a l f a c t s , i n
*/
-
The a u t h o r expresses h i s thanks t o P r o f e s s o r R e g i n a l d H . Green f o r h i s
c o o p e r a t i o n and e d i t o r i a l s u g g e s t i o n s .
o t h e r words, so l o n g as t h e y a r e p r e s e n t e d as governed by n a t u r a l o r supern a t u r a l laws t o which submission i s t h e o n l y course. I t i s o n l y t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e t h e v i c t i m s o f a h i s t o r i c a l i n j u s t i c e , which i s t h e r e f o r e
h i s t o r i c a l l y r e p a r a b l e , t h a t w i l l l e a d them t o e x p e r i e n c e an awakening o f
consciousness and, u l t i m a t e l y , t o a r a d i c a l change i n t h e s t a t u s quo. T h i s i s
why t h e o r e t i c a l w r i t i n g s and m a n i f e s t o s have an e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t p a r t t o
p l a y as agents o f m a j o r s o c i a l change.
I n f a c t , j u s t i c e i s n o t m e r e l y an " i d e a " - however one understands t h i s l a t t e r
word; i t i s , above a l l , a fundamental human need.
Beside t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community ( a t e r m which u s u a l l y i n c l u d e s o n l y government r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and o f f i c i a l s o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s and o t h e r r e l a t e d
bodies) world public opinion, t h a t i s the public opinion o f a l l countries,
must be k e p t i n f o r m e d o f t h e s e two p r i n c i p l e s
t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f needs and
t h e r e v e r s a l o f u n j u s t enrichment - and o f a c t u a l s t r u g g l e s and n e g o t i a t i o n s
t o e n f o r c e them so t h a t t h e peoples themselves w i l l p u t p r e s s u r e on t h e i r
governments t o promote t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s and those o f o t h e r peoples. I n
t h i s way i t i s p o s s i b l e once more t o c r e a t e an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o l i d a r i t y o f
w o r k e r s and consumers which w i l l t a k e t h e f o r m o f c o n c r e t e a c t i o n . I t i s poss i b l e , i n f a c t , t h a t mankind i t s e l f may be a b l e t o d e c i d e by consensus on i t s
h i s t o r i c a l destiny.
-
Toward t h e S o v e r e i g n t y o f Needs
W i t h o u t d i s c u s s i n g y e t the problems connected w i t h the i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f
t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e and t h e consequent e x i s t e n c e o f a dispossessed T h i r d World,
emphasis must be l a i d on t h e p a t h t o b e t a k e n and t h e p r i n c i p l e s t o be observed
i n o r d e r t o p u t an end t o p r o f i t - m a k i n g b y t h e c a p i t a l i s t system a t t h e n a t i o n a l
l e v e l . The f i r s t r e q u i r e m e n t i s t o b r i n g about s o c i a l change so as t o complete
t h e work l e f t undone b y t h e l i b e r a l r e v o l u t i o n s , b y e x t e n d i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f
t h e people i n t o t h e r e a l m o f "economic a f f a i r s " . However, i n t h i s domain e x p l o i t a t i o n e x i s t s as much i n p r o d u c t i o n as i n d i s t r i b u t i o n , i n t h e purchase o f l a b o u r It
power as LIUC~ as i n t h e s a l e o f a11 t h a t i s produced by labour-power.
w i l l b e necessary n o t o n l y t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e workers i n t r a d e
unions b u t t o complement t h a t f o r m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n by u n i t i n g users and consumers
i n associations t h a t r e f l e c t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s .
The c o m b i n a t i o n o f these two f o r c e s c o u l d o f f e r s o c i e t y a way o f t r a n s f o r m i n g
i t s e l f . When t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n has t a k e n p l a c e , t h e same two f o r c e s may
become t h e agents through which s o c i e t y i n t e r v e n e s more e x t e n s i v e l y i n i t s own
a f f a i r s . Through n e g o t i a t i o n and agreements between t h e workers ' a s s o c i a t i o n s
and those o f consumers and u s e r s , i t w i 11 be p o s s i b l e t o r e g u l a t e f r o m w i t h i n
s o c i e t y i t s e l f t h e main processes i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f goods and s e r v i c e s . T h i s w i l l i m p l y t h e e x t e n s i o n o f p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n t y
t o t h e areas o f s o c i a l l i f e which a r e r e g a r d e d as economic r a t h e r t h a n p o l i t i c a l .
The c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e u s e r i n t o an a g e n t f o r s o c i a l change makes i t p o s s i b l e t o
g i v e t r a d e u n i o n s t r u g g l e s t h e i r t r u e h i s t o r i c a l dimension, b y removing a
l i m i t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e i r s , which i s t h e i r concern o n l y w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s
i m m e d i a t e l y a t s t a k e . I t a l s o i n t r o d u c e s t r u e r a t i o n a l i t y i n t o s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s b y r e s t o r i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e means and t h e end,
t h a t i s between l a b o u r and t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f needs. I t makes p o s s i b l e t h e
c u l m i n a t i n g phase o f s o c i a l i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n - d i s t r i b u t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o needs t o b e g i n , i f o n l y i n an i n c h o a t e form.
B u t u s e r s must a p p l y o t h e r techniques f o r s o c i a l a c t i o n t h a n t h o s e s u i t a b l e f o r
workers: t h e f o r m a t i o n o f neighbourhood consumer a s s o c i a t i o n s i n f e d e r a t i o n s
w i t h o t h e r s l i k e them t o enhance t h e i r impact; b o y c o t t o f c e r t a i n business
o r p r o d u c t s , and c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f purchase i n o t h e r s ; s y s t e m a t i c and c o n c e r t e d
w i t h h o l d i n g o r u n i l a t e r a l r e d u c t i o n o f r e n t s and charges f o r c e r t a i n s e r v i c e s ;
t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f a m o r a t o r i u m on c e r t a i n debts; r e n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h e n t r e p r e n e u r s , c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e workers o f t h e e n t e r p r i s e t o reduce t h e f u n c t i o n
o f those e n t r e p r e n e u r s f r o m t h a t of owners t o t h a t o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , w i t h i n
a system o f s u c c e s s i v e d e l e g a t i o n s o f power s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n s t a n t c o n t r o l o f
t h e s o c i a l base. The l o c a l neighbourhood can o b v i o u s l y be o n l y a p o i n t of
d e p a r t u r e . S e v e r a l such neighbourhoods a c t i n g t o g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e a c i t y ;
j u s t as many c i t i e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h the a d j a c e n t r u r a l areas, make up t h e r a t i o n a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e t e r r i t o r y o f a n a t i o n . N a t i o n s have t h e dual c a p a c i t y which
we have p r e v i o u s l y r e c o g n i z e d i n i n d i v i d u a l s : on t h e one hand, t h e y a r e producers
i n r e s p e c t o f f o r e i g n n a t i o n s ; on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e y a r e users.
Moreover, as each w o r k e r i s n e c e s s a r i l y a u s e r o r consumer as w e l l , t h e two
p a r t i e s t o t h e d i a l o g u e a r e , i n a c t u a l f a c t , t h e same persons i n two d i f f e r e n t
r o l e s . The d i a l o g u e w i l l t r a n s c e n d t h e economic l e v e l and be t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
a s i g n i f i c a n t c u l t u r a l i n n o v a t i o n - t h e achievement o f self-awareness b y each
i n d i v i d u a l i n r e l a t i o n t o s o c i e t y , and t h e view taken by s o c i e t y as a whole o f
itself.
I n o r d e r t o p u t t h e proposed s t r a t e g y i n t o e f f e c t , i t i s necessary t o promote
t h e r e c o g n i t i o n and e x e r c i s e o f a new r i g h t , which has n o t been e x p l i c i t l y
e n u n c i a t e d i n t h e U n i v e r s a l D e c l a r a t i o n o f Human R i q h t s o r i n t h e Covenants which
supplement i t , a l t h o u g h i t forms p a r t o f t h e g e n e r a l r i g h t o f a s s o c i a t i o n . T h i s
ew r i g h t may be expressed as f o l l o w s : "Anyone who succeeds i n
l i v i n g i s , f i r s t and foremost, needing - needing t h i n g s , energy, r e l a t i o n s w i t h
o t h e r s , s e r v i c e s , a f f e c t i o n T n d ~ m i a n y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e needs i n v o l v e d i n t h e
e x e r c i s e o f t h i s r i a h t , as seen f r o m t h e ~ r o v i s i o n a ld e f i n i t i o n (liven above.
s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d as more o r l e s s
and s o c i a l i n n a t u r e .
C e r t a i n approaches a p p a r e n t l y s i m i l a r t o t h e one s k e t c h e d above a r e e i t h e r
i n h e r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y o r i n t e g r a l l y i n a d e q u a t e . These i n c l u d e "consumerism",
d i r e c t p r o d u c t i o n o f use values, t h e c o o p e r a t i v e movement, and b u r e a u c r a t i c
socialism.
The movement known as "consumerism", such as t h a t promoted by Ralph Nader i n
the U n i t e d S t a t e s s u f f e r s f r o m t h e l a c k o f a g l o b a l v i s i o n o f s o c i e t y , and,
i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e l a c k o f w i l l t o make s y s t e m a t i c h i s t o r i c a l changes. I t does
n o t go beyond t h e l e v e l o f t h e purchase b y t h e b a s i c consumer, t h e p r i c e p a i d
by h i m i n t h e m a r k e t , t h e good o r bad q u a l i t y o f t h e merchandise, e t c . Above
a l l , b e i n g p e r i p h e r a l and m a r g i n a l , i t cannot a s p i r e t o the one t h i n g which
c o u l d make i t p o l i t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e : d i a l o g u e and n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h t h e workers,
and e v e n t u a l l y , i t s c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . The widespread t r e n d
towards g r a n t i n g s t a t u t o r y , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r j u d i c i a 1 p r o t e c t i o n t o consumers,
s t a r t s by a c c e p t i n g p r e c i s e l y t h e s i t u a t i o n which needs t o be changed - a
s i t u a t i o n in which the consumer lacks those conditions which a r e necessary i f
he i s t o impose h i s r i g h t s and ensure t h a t they a r e respected, by re-arranging
and d i r e c t i n g the processes of production and d i s t r i b u t i o n towards the s a t i s f a c t i o n of h i s needs.
There has recently been a tendency t o promote or strengthen t h e formation of
a s e c t o r of production which would be added t o t h a t involved in the generation
of exchange values, whether these a r e d i s t r i b u t e d by the market o r by the S t a t e .
This s e c t o r would be intended t o make use values d i r e c t l y a v a i l a b l e t o f a m i l i e s
o r local neighbourhoods. Unfortunately, t h i s form of s e l f - h e l p production
cannot be expected t o meet the basic needs of the population. Further i t i s
marginal- i t does not seek t o end a l i e n a t e d production and consumption but t o
s e t up a new non-alienated s e c t o r p a r a l l e l t o i t .
One cannot overlook the t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l importance in the p a s t and
present of the cooperative movement. In the c a p i t a l i s t countries i t has
performed a dual function p a r t i a l l y o f f - s e t t i n g t h e e f f e c t s of e x p l o i t a t i o n
while a t the same time serving as a screen o r a l i b i f o r i t . I t proposes,
simultaneously, two p a t t e r n s of organization which a r e contradictory: the
production cooperative and t h e consumer cooperative, without deciding whether
t h e process of the production and d i s t r i b u t i o n of goods and s e r v i c e s should,
i n the long run and as a whole, be managed by the producers o r t h e consumers.
This c o n t r a d i c t i o n can be overcome i f t h e productive s t a g e , f o r which the
f i r s t arrangement would be used, can be separated from the phase of d i s t r i b u t i o n , t o which the second would be a p p l i e d . B u t in t h a t c a s e , e i t h e r production would take place without regard t o needs, o r some means would have t o
be found f o r the producers and users of each e n t e r p r i s e t o come t o g e t h e r and
reach a negotiated agreement. I t i s the l a t t e r point which i s p e c u l i a r t o
the p r o j e c t advanced in t h i s study. I t i s a l i e n t o the cooperative t r a d i t i o n .
I t i s a l s o s u b j e c t t o the reproach made about community-based s e l f - h e l p
production which we have considered above: the f a c t t h a t , in r e l a t i o n t o
t h e dominant present forms of production and d i s t r i b u t i o n i t i s marginal and
dependent.
There i s no t r u t h in the statement t h a t plans drawn up by s p e c i a l i z e d organs
of the S t a t e in the s o c i a l i s t countries a r e a s a t i s f a c t o r y s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e
c a p i t a l i s t market. E i t h e r t h e plan i s as much a market as the market i t s e l f
as an a l l o c a t o r of g o a l s , o r t h e r e i s no real c a p i t a l i s t market t o replace as
an arena of consumer control o r producer competition. In actual f a c t , t h e
S t a t e plan, as the provider of resources and the a l l o c a t o r of tasks and
f u n c t i o n s , c r e a t e s a s i t u a t i o n which constrains most people t o s e l l t h e i r
labour-power on the conditions l a i d down in t h e plan and t o use and consume
whatever i s decided by i t a t the p r i c e i t s p e c i f i e s . The power t o draw up
t h e plan consequently confers the prerogative t o buy the labour-power of others
and t o b e n e f i t from t h e use made of t h a t labour-power and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
goods and s e r v i c e s on the terms l a i d down i n the plan i t s e l f , which the users
and consumers have had l i t t l e say i n determining. Through the p r i c e f i x e d f o r
each good and s e r v i c e , users and consumers must pay f o r maintaining t h e S t a t e
apparatus and thus the s a l a r i e s of public o f f i c i a l s on the b a s i s of c a l c u l a t i o n s
t h a t have been made by those same o f f i c i a l s .
I t may well be asked how progress i s t o be made towards sovereignty of needs
in the c o u n t r i e s t h a t consider themselves t o be s o c i a l i s t and marxi s t but
which in p r a c t i c e depend on c e n t r a l i z e d and a u t h o r i t a r i a n S t a t e planning o r
have a 1imi ted system of self-management i n which the workers have decisionmaking powers only with respect t o the management of e n t e r p r i s e s . I t should
be e a s i e r i f i t were n o t f o r t h e i d e o l o g i c a l i n f l e x i b i l i t y f r o m which t h e y
s u f f e r . A l l the works o f Marx advocate t h e replacement o f p r o d u c t i o n f o r
p r o f i t by p r o d u c t i o n f o r use, and i t i s undoubtedly t h e users themselves who
a r e b o t h e n t i t l e d and b e s t equiped t o d e f i n e t h e use t h e y w i s h t o make o f what
i s produced and t o c h a r t t h e course t h e p r o d u c t i o n process s h o u l d t a k e . Marx
makes t h e d i s t i n c t i o n i n h i s C r i t i q u e o f t h e Gotha Programme between t h e two
s u c c e s s i v e s t a g e s b y which s o c i a l i s m i s e s t a b l i s h e d . The f i r s t s t a g e , which
i s p r o v i s i o n a l and s t i l l bears t h e s t i g m a o f t h e o l d o r d e r from which i t
sprang, i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a p a t t e r n o f d i s t r i b u t i o n i n accordance w i t h t h e
work done, w h i l e f o r t h e second and d e f i n i t i v e s t a g e , when s o c i a l i s m i s f u l l y
e s t a b l i s h e d , Marx adopts t h e f o r m u l a which has i t s r o o t s i n S a i n t Simon's
shoo1 o f t h o u g h t : " t o each a c c o r d i n g t o h i s needs". U n t i l these needs have
been d e f i n e d by mutual agreement o f a l l those who f e e l them, and u n t i l a11 t h e
users have been g i v e n t h e necessary l e g a l powersto enable them t o o r i e n t t h e
p r o d u c t i o n process towards t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e i r needs, o r , t o l o o k a t
t h i s f r o m t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e , so l o n g as some o t h e r s , c a l l them c a p i t a l i s t s ,
S t a t e - p l a n n e r s o r workers p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e g e m e n t o f t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e ,
undertake t h i s work o f d e f i n i t i o n and p o l i c y - m a k i n g , t h e r e i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
human b e i n g , i n the sense i n which Marx employs t h i s term, w i l l c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t .
I n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t h e s o l u t i o n s t h a t have been b r i e f l y sketched above, t h e
s o c i a l i s m o f genuine self-management, f o r w h i c h a p l e a i s made here, t r a n s f e r s
d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o what has t o be produced and s u p p l i e d
t o an agreement o r c o n t r a c t t h a t i s t h e f r u i t o f n e g o t i a t i o n between t h e
consumers o r users on t h e one hand, and t h e workers on t h e o t h e r . Those
consumers and users express t h e i r needs and p r i o r i t i e s i n s o c i a l l y c o n c e r t e d
terms, t h a t i s , a f t e r i n d i v i d u a l p r e f e r e n c e s have been f i l t e r e d o u t . Through
t h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e c o l l e c t i v e w i l l , t h e wishes o f each i n d i v i d u a l a r e
r a i s e d t o a f i r s t degree o f r a t i o n a l i t y . B u t complete r a t i o n a l i t y i s
a t t a i n a b l e o n l y when d e s i r e s , a s p i r a t i o n s and p r e f e r e n c e s encounter t h e
i n e v i t a b l e c o n s t r a i n t s o f what i s p o s s i b l e and a t t a i n a b l e , o f what can be
done i n a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n i n t h e l i g h t o f e x i s t i n g resources, t h e degree o f
t e c h n o l o g i c a l development achieved and t h e a b i l i t i e s and s k i 11s t h a t r e a l l y
e x i s t . Those who a r e knowledgeable on these m a t t e r s a r e t h e persons who
have l e a r n t f r o m e x p e r i e n c e what the l a n d and t h e mine w i l l y i e l d , who
h a n d l e t h e machines and use t h e p r o d u c t i o n t o o l s , i n o t h e r words, t h e workers
themselves i n c l u d i n a i n t h i s conceot t e c h n i c i a n s , s o e c i a l i s t s and o r o f e s s i o n a l s
What i s envisaged t h e r e f o r e i s a species o f d i a l o g u e between what m i g h t be
termed t h e p r i n c i p l e o f d e s i r e and t h e p r i n c i p l e o f r e a l i t y . Each o f t h e s e
p r i n c i p l e s has a s o e c i f i c sookesman t o r e o r e s e n t i t i n t h e decision-makina
o f s o c i e t y : t h e u s e r and consumer f o r t h e ' f i r s t and t h e w o r k e r f o r t h e second.
Maximum r a t i o n a l i t y i n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g w i l l be a c h i e v e d when, t h r o u g h t h e
s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n o f these two c o n t r a s t i n g p r i n c i p l e s , what i s d e s i r e d i s
moulded b y t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f what i s a t t a i n a b l e and t h i s , i n i t s t u r n ,
endeavours t o develop i t s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s u n t i l i t can b e equated w i t h what
i s d e s i r e d . The mutual improvement t h a t i s made p o s s i b l e by t h i s d i a l o g u e
i s a t w o f o l d e d u c a t i o n a l process: t h e consumers and users, by i d e n t i f y i n g
themselves w i t h d i f f i c u l t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s b r o u g h t t o the f o r e by t h e
workers, l e a r n t o seek more r a t i o n a l goals, w h i l e t h e workers, who must
respond t o t h e demands made upon them b y t h e consumers and users, become
conscious o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e e n t e r p r i s e i n
which t h e y a r e employed and t h e ends i t s e r v e s and a r e t h u s a b l e t o harmonize
t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s w i t h t h e growth o f human needs.
What i s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y which i s t h e goal o f t h i s p r o g r e s s ? I n i t
the consumers would f o r m a s s o c i a t i o n s t o manage t h e e n t e r p r i s e s , by agreement
w i t h t h e workers employed i n them, i n such a way as t o r e c e i v e t h e goods and
s e r v i c e s t h e y r e a l l y need. These e n t e r p r i s e s , h o w e v e r , a r e a l s o users o f o t h e r
e n t e r p r i s e s , f o r example w h o l e s a l e d i s t r i b u t o r s , and v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s which
i n t u r n r e l y on heavy i n d u s t r y o r m i n i n g , and so on. The s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e
users w o u l d t h u s e x t e n d t o t h e e n t i r e economic process, d i r e c t l y o r by r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , r e q u i r i n g t h a t agreement be reached w i t h t h e workers i n v o l v e d i n
each e n t e r p r i s e o r s e r v i c e . I n t h i s way, t h a t s o v e r e i g n t y c o u l d pass through
t h e h e a l t h s e r v i c e s t o reach t h e pharmaceutical i n d u s t r y , and, from t h e r e , t o
c e r t a i n chemical i n d u s t r i e s ; t h r o u g h t h e e d u c a t i o n a l c e n t r e s i t c o u l d e x t e n d
t o t h e l o c a l l i b r a r i e s and bookshops, t h e n t o the p u b l i s h i n g i n d u s t r y and f r o m
t h e r e t o the p r o d u c t i o n o f paper, e t c .
Besides t h i s f u n c t i o n a l p r o g r e s s i o n through v a r i o u s e n t e r p r i s e s , f r o m users t o
s u p p l i e r s , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o promote a t e r r i t o r i a l expansion a l s o : f r o m
t h e neighbourhood t o the community, t o t h e p r o v i n c e , t o the r e g i o n , and t h e n
t o t h e n a t i o n o r t h e geographic-economic zone i n which i t i s s i t u a t e d , e t c .
I n e i t h e r case t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e i s t h e neighbourhood, based n o t m e r e l y
on a community o f economic i n t e r e s t s b u t a l s o on p e r s o n a l , emotional and
c u l t u r a l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e n o t i o n o f neighbourhood i t s e l f , e s p e c i a l l y i n
t h e w o r k i n g - c l a s s d i s t r i c t s , where these t i e s a r e o f t e n c l o s e r t h a n f a m i l y
r e l a t i o n s . The dual s t e p - b y - s t e p p r o g r e s s i o n which has i t s p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e
i n t h e neighbourhood tends t o o r g a n i z e and s t r u c t u r e t h e people by means o f t h e
s o l i d a r i t y which the v a r i o u s s t e p s on each o f these s c a l e s can p r o v i d e each
o t h e r , a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s and i n keeping w i t h whatever m o d a l i t i e s a r e
rendered a d v i s a b l e by p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e , so t h a t t h e s o v e r e i g n t y a s c r i b e d
t o t h e people i n the l e g a l t e x t s may come t o be e x e r c i s e d e f f e c t i v e l y and
through p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
The course o f events i n C h i l e , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e p r e s i d e n c y o f S a l v a d o r
A l l e n d e , i s i n s t r u c t i v e i n t h i s r e s p e c t . F o r s e v e r a l decades, up t o t h e end o f
t h e democratic regime i n 1973, a p o l i c y o f p r o t e c t i n g t h e u s e r was f o l l o w e d i n
C h i l e . T h i s i s evidenced by t h e l e g i s l a t i o n t o p r o t e c t t h e t e n a n t s o f r e n t e d
p r o p e r t y , and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n t h e 1930s o f t h e O f f i c e o f t h e Commissioner
f o r P r i c e s , whose f u n c t i o n s were s u b s e q u e n t l y t a k e n o v e r by t h e D i r e c t o r a t e o f
I n d u s t r y and Trade (DIRINCO). I t was soon d i s c o v e r e d t h a t , f o r t h i s p o l i c y t o
be r e a l l y e f f e c t i v e , i t had t o be supported b y a c t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e comm u n i t y i t s e l f . I n mid-1971, d u r i n g t h e Housewives' Assembly h e l d i n Santiago,
t h e M i n i s t e r o f Economic A f f a i r s proposed t h a t Supply and P r i c e C o n t r o l Boards
(JAPs) be s e t up. These Boards were o r g a n i z e d and spread r a p i d l y , and l a t e r
served as a means o f defense a g a i n s t t h e a n t i - g o v e r n m e n t s t r i k e o f t r u c k
d r i v e r s , tradesmen and p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n October 1972. By t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
1973, 54.4 p e r c e n t o f t h e housewives o f S a n t i a g o were b u y i n g t h e i r f o o d i n o r
t h r o u g h t h e JAPs. A survey r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e people were i n
f a v o u r o f them and wanted them t o remain i n f o r c e ("Las JAPs rompen e l empate",
I n a m e e t i n g on
i n C h i l e Hoy 33, week o f 26 January t o 1 February 1973, p.9).
p o p u l a r power, which was h e l d i n August 1973, p r o p o s a l s were made t o g i v e t h e
JAPs t h e power o f f i n i n g r e b e l l i o u s tradesmen and even o f c o n f i s c a t i n g t h e i r
s t o c k ( " F o r o sobre poder p o p u l a r " , i n C h i l e Hoy 61, week o f 10 t o 16 August
The same course o f e v e n t s was o b s e r v a b l e i n t h e h e a l t h
1973, pp.19 e t s e g . ) .
f i e l d , w i t h t h e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e Neighbourhood H e a l t h C o u n c i l s .
(Michel
R a p t i s , Quel S o c i a l i s m e au C h i 1 2 ( P a r i s , Anthropos, 1973) pp.129-145, desc r i b e s t h e J A ~ s , and on pp.85-91 t h e management o f s e r v i c e s by t h e i r u s e r s ,
i n detail).
T h i s s o c i a l model does n o t c l a i m t h e m e r i t o f a v o i d i n g c o n f l i c t s . These a r e
i n e v i t a b l e . The i n t e n t i o n i n e l a b o r a t i n g t h i s model has n o t been t o suggest
ways o f making t h e d i v e r s e and heterogeneous become u n i f o r m , b u t r a t h e r t o
s t r e s s t h e r a d i c a l " o t h e r n e s s " o f human b e i n g s , even a t t h e r i s k o f promoting
o r even a g g r a v a t i n g c o n f l i c t s . I t i s i n t e n d e d t h a t such c o n f l i c t s s h a l l be
b r o u g h t o u t i n t o t h e open, r e s o l v e d and p o s s i b l y e l i m i n a t e d t h r o u g h numerous
i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n t h i s way, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d t h e u n d e r c u r r e n t s o f
r a n c o u r which, f a i l i n g t o f i n d some way t o express themselves, t h e n b u r s t o u t
i n t h e form o f i r r a t i o n a l attacks, r e v o l t s , repressive acts, c i v i l o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l wars, e t c . T h i s s t u d y , i n o t h e r words, i s designed t o a s s i g n t o
c o n f l i c t i v e t e n s i o n i t s p r o p e r r o l e , as t h e b a s i s o f a peace w h i c h i s t h e
hard-won conquest o f mutual r e s p e c t .
The human r i g h t t o f o r m a s s o c i a t i o n s o f u s e r s t o s t e e r t h e process o f product i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n toward t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e i r needs w i l l c e r t a i n l y
a c q u i r e g r e a t importance i n t h e new i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. T h i s r i g h t i s , o f
course, a l r e a d y b e i n g e x e r c i s e d by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s when t h e y conf r o n t t h e dependent c o u n t r i e s f r o m which t h e y g e t t h e raw m a t e r i a l s t h e y need
f o r t h e i r i n d u s t r i e s . The c o u n t e r p a r t , however, i s l a c k i n g : t h a t i s , t h e
dependent c o u n t r i e s need t o a s s o c i a t e among themselves n o t o n l y as producers
- t h e most p o w e r f u l case o f which i s , o f course, OPEC s i n c e 1973 - b u t a t t h e
same t i m e as u s e r s and consumers o f what t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s produce.
Each dependent n a t i o n a l e n t i t y must c o n d u c t an a n a l y s i s which w i l l enable i t
t o r e p l y t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s : what a r e my needs, on t h e b a s i s o f a r a t i o n a l
development p l a n ? What a r e my p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s ? W i t h what I produce, t o
what e x t e n t can I s a t i s f y my needs, as d e t e r m i n e d b y t h a t c r i t e r i o n ? A c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n o f needs c o u l d , of course, n o t be met by domestic p r o d u c t i o n ,
w i t h t h e consequent need f o r i m p o r t s : i t i s a l s o p r o b a b l e t h a t some amount o f
p r o d u c t i o n be e x p o r t e d . The i m p o r t a n t t h i n g , i f t h e aim i s t o a c h i e v e a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f i n i t i a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e , i s above a l l t o ensure t h a t whatever can
be produced i s used on t h e b a s i s o f a p r i o r i t y g i v e n t o domestic needs. As
f o r t h e b a l a n c e ( i m p o r t s and e x p o r t s ) a d i s t i n c t p r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d be g i v e n t o
n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r i e s w i t h a view t o f o r m i n g b l o c k s o f such c o u n t r i e s . T h i s
i s what has been c a l l e d t h e South-South r e l a t i o n s h i p .
A p o l i t i c a l c r i t e r i o n , which w i l l b r i n g economic advantages o n l y o v e r t h e l o n g
term, must p r e v a i l o v e r t h e d e s i r e f o r immediate p r o f i t . Each r e g i o n a l u n i t
t h u s formed - t h e Andean Pact, t h e C e n t r a l American Common Market - i s an
o u t l i n e o f what i s intended; each one o f t h e b l o c k s which may be formed
must c a r r y o u t t h e analyses t h a t a r e r e q u i r e d t o r e p l y t o t h e q u e s t i o n s which
have a l r e a d y been f o r m u l a t e d i n o r d e r t o achieve r e l a t i v e c o l l e c t i v e s e l f r e l i a n c e . Then, and o n l y t h e n , would t h e s e c o u n t r i e s have g r e a t e r n e g o t i a t i n g
power i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . The proposal which
c o u l d b e p u t b y t h e South groups c o u l d b e as f o l l o w s : I f y o u a l l o w o u r e x p o r t a b l e manufactures o r semi-manufactures - c u r r e n t and f u t u r e - t o have access
t o y o u r domestic markets ( t o t h e advantage o f y o u r own consumers s i n c e o u r
c o s t s w o u l d t h e n b e l o w e r ) we would a l l o w y o u r p r o d u c t s t o e n t e r o u r markets
i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y t h e c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d needs o f o u r p o p u l a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g
o u r p l a n n e d development needs ( t o t h e advantage o f y o u r own p r o d u c e r s ) .
R e v e r s i n g U n j u s t Enrichment
When t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e dependent w o r l d , o r t h e p e r i p h e r y , manage t o break o u t
o f t h e c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n imposed on them by t h e m e t r o p o l it a n c e n t r e s , when
t h e y conduct an e f f e c t i v e d i a l o g u e and n e g o t i a t i o n s among themselves, t h e y w i l l
i n t u r n prove capable o f harmonizing t h e i r p o l i c i e s i n o r d e r t o n e g o t i a t e
j o i n t l y and as p o w e r f u l b l o c k s w i t h those c e n t r e s , demanding p r i c e s f o r t h e
p r o d u c t s needed by those c e n t r e s which bear some r e l a t i o n s h i p t o what t h e y
r e g a r d as t h e i r r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d i m p o r t needs. The p r i n c i p l e t h a t u n j u s t
enrichment must be avoided o r r e s t i t u t i o n made can be t u r n e d i n t o a powerful
weapon which can rescue t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s and o f t h e groups,
peoples o r n a t i o n s which t h e y form. The v e r y f a c t t h a t t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s ens h r i n e d i n much p o s i t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n , and t h a t i t i s , i n any case, a p p l i e d by
t h e c o u r t s o f a l l n a t i o n s when d e a l i n g w i t h r e l a t i o n s between t h e p o w e r f u l ,
makes i t p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l s u i t e d t o t h e needs o f those s u f f e r i n g f r o m t h e
g r e a t e s t form o f impoverishment: t h a t o f h a v i n g t h e i r conduct reduced t o t h e
s t a t u s o f an o b j e c t owned by someone e l s e . Since t h e general p r i n c i p l e s o f
law a r e one o f t h e recognized sources o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, t h e p r i n c i p l e o f
imposing t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o a v o i d o r make r e s t i t u t i o n f o r u n j u s t enrichment can
and must be r a i s e d t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f a concept governing t h e new i n t e r n a t i o n a l
r e l a t i o n s which need t o be e s t a b l i s h e d .
I t i s u s e f u l t o s t r e s s t h e a n t i q u i t y o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e , which e x i s t i n g l e g a l
systems and j u r i s p r u d e n c e have i n h e r i t e d f r o m Roman law i n u n i n t e r r u p t e d
succession, and t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s recognized t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . What i s
i m p o r t a n t today i s t o ensure t h a t i t i s e f f e c t i v e l y enforced.
A case i n p o i n t i s t h e noteworthy t h e o r e t i c a l development w i t h r e g a r d t o what
may be considered as causes ( i n t h e sense i n which I t a l i a n and French
authors use t h i s term, meaning by i t t h e t i t l e s ) t h a t a r e t h o u g h t t o j u s t i f y
t h e maintenance o f enrichment o b t a i n e d a t a n o t h e r ' s expense - and which
consequently p r e v e n t i t s r e s t i t u t i o n - and i n a more general f a s h i o n w i t h t h e
theory o f contracts.
I t would n o t be a p p r o p r i a t e t o go i n t o l e g a l t e c h n i c a l i t i e s h e r e . S u f f i c e i t
t o say t h a t i n most n a t i o n s t h e r e i s a tendency t o e x t e n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
a d i s c h a r g e founded on t h e harm o r f r u s t r a t i o n s u s t a i n e d by one o f t h e p a r t i e s
and t o a t t a c h a measure o f importance t o t h e i d e a t h a t e v e r y c o n t r a c t s h o u l d
t a c i t l y c o n t a i n the rebus s i c s t a n d i b u s clause, e n d i n g by a d m i t t i n g t h a t
t h e u n j u s t consequences o f t h e c o n t r a c t , such as t h e e x c e s s i v e enrichment o f
one p a r t y a t t h e expense o f t h e o t h e r , a r e a presumption o f i t s i n v a l i d i t y
and a l l o w f o r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n , by one means o r another, o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s
rendered. The n o t i o n o f a "cause" t h a t j u s t i f i e s enrichment - which i s
d e r i v e d from t h e v e r y name used i n some c o u n t r i e s t o designate t h i s p r i n c i p l e
as the " t h e o r y o f causeless enrichment" - lessens i t s scope and importance
as a r e s u l t .
I t i s n o t enough, however, t o make use o f remedies o r r u l e s t h a t a l r e a d y e x i s t
and a r e i n f o r c e . I t w i l l be d e s i r a b l e and necessary t o make i m a g i n a t i v e and
c o n s t r u c t i v e i n n o v a t i o n s , and t o pass f r o m one j u r i d i c a l l e v e l t o another i n
o r d e r t o ensure t h a t t h e terms o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s a r e f u l f i l l e d , even i f t h i s
r e q u i r e s t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d system of p r o p e r t y and t h e a b o l i t i o n
o f c e r t a i n acquired r i g h t s .
The j u r i d i c a l p r i n c i p l e which r e q u i r e s u n j u s t enrichment t o b e a v o i d e d o r
r e s t i t u t e d would n o t be a s u i t a b l e i n s t r u m e n t f o r amending t h e c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s
w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f resources, i f
t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d s o l e l y f r o m t h e p a t r i m o n i a l o r economic p o i n t o f view. I n
a l m o s t e v e r y c o u n t r y t h e j u r i s p r u d e n c e has extended t h e concept o f i n j u r y from
t h e p u r e l y economic domain t o non-monetary realms, t h u s g i v i n g r i s e t o t h e
concept o f moral i n j u r y .
A s i m i l a r analogy s h o u l d be made, n o t o n l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e damage imputa b l e t o t h e a c t i o n of a n o t h e r p a r t y , b u t t o such a c t i o n when t h e r e i s a benef i t i n v o l v e d . That i s , i n cases o f u n j u s t enrichment. I n these cases,
impoverishment, and i t s c o r o l l a r y enrichment, must t h e r e f o r e be c o n s i d e r e d
n o t o n l y f r o m t h e economic s t a n d p o i n t b u t a l s o i n terms o f a more i n t a n g i b l e
q u a l i t y which may be d e f i n e d as w e l l - b e i n g , o r on t h e c o n t r a r y m a l a i s e .
Something has a l r e a d y been done i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n , n o t a b l y i n t h e f i e l d o f t h e
supply o f labour a t the national l e v e l i n the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries. I t s
main d r i v i n g f o r c e has been t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e l a b o u r u n i o n s . As i t was
p o i n t e d o u t b e f o r e , t h e i r e f f o r t s need t o be broadened and i n p a r t i c u l a r coo r d i n a t e d w i t h s i m i l a r and p a r a l l e l e f f o r t s o f t h e users and consumers o f t h e
same e n t e r p r i s e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s must be a p p l i e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , so t h a t t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e peoples w i l l cease t o be a mere f i c t i o
j u r i s , and w i l l become a r e a l i t y , r e c t i f y i n g t h e unequal terms o f t r a d e and
t h e u n j u s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r imposed by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d and
i m p e r i a l i s t countries.
I n s h o r t , f o r t h e reasons a l r e a d y g i v e n , i t may sometimes be p o s s i b l e t o t a k e
advantage o f t h e laws i n f o r c e i n a c l a s s s o c i e t y f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e
l e a s t p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s i n i t i n o r d e r t o l i g h t e n t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n o r even
t o b r i n g about t h e disappearance o f t h e c l a s s system. T h i s i s a l s o t r u e i n
r e s p e c t t o t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l law.
What has been s a i d m i g h t perhaps be d e s c r i b e d as mere " r e f o r m i s m " , a l a b e l
which c o u l d d e s t r o y i t s c r e d i b i l i t y i n t h e eyes o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y elements.
It i s therefore c r i t i c a l t o t r y t o put the question i n a clearer l i g h t .
S o c i a l m u t a t i o n may t a k e p l a c e e i t h e r i n t h e gradual f a s h i o n t h a t i s t y p i c a l
o f t h e process o f " r e f o r m " o r i n t h e a b r u p t and g e n e r a l i z e d f a s h i o n t h a t may
t r u l y be termed a " r e v o l u t i o n " . These terms a r e n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e ; what
b e g i n s as a r e f o r m may end as a r e v o l u t i o n , o r a r e v o l u t i o n may r e q u i r e a
s e r i e s o f reforms t o c o n t i n u e and t o complete i t b e f o r e i t can be t r u l y e f f e c t i v e . To d e s c r i b e s o c i a l m u t a t i o n as r e f o r m i s t o r r e v o l u t i o n a r y i s t h u s a
q u e s t i o n o f degree and judgement. I n any case, i t i s necessary t o p o i n t o u t i n o r d e r t o a v o i d t h e dangers o f " d o g m a t i z a t i o n " on t h e w a y s i n w h i c h s o c i a l
change can b e s t b e a c h i e v e d - t h a t what g i v e s t h e t e r m r e v o l u t i o n " i t s t r u e
sense i s n o t t h e v i o l e n c e of t h e means employed, and s t i l l l e s s t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f armed and v o c i f e r a t i n g crowds, b u t t h e tempo, t h e e x t e n t and t h e
p r o f u n d i t y of t h e l e g a l exercise t h a t i s involved.
I t i s e v i d e n t i n any case t h a t , a t t h e h i s t o r i c o - w o r l d l e v e l , t h e i m p o v e r i s h ment o f t h e l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e i n connexion w i t h t h e enrichment o f a
p r i v i l e g e d m i n o r i t y a t t h e i r expense i s a c h a l l e n g e t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n which
t h e process o f p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n t a k e s p l a c e and j u s t i f i e s a s o c i a l
m u t a t i o n w h i c h f i n a l l y a b o l i s h e s t h e t i t l e s o f ownership i n v o k e d b y t h e benef i c i a r i e s o f those conditions.
So f a r t h e use which t h e dependent c o u n t r i e s have made o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w has
l a r g e l y been c o n f i n e d t o t h o s e two sources o f such law - custom and t r e a t i e s
w h i c h a r e l e a s t we11 s u i t e d t o t h e i r purpose. Custom, b e i n g a c o n c r e t e
e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e form o f g e n e r a l norms o f p a s t conduct, cannot be f a v o u r a b l e
t o t h e demands o f t h o s e c o u n t r i e s s i n c e by i t s v e r y n a t u r e i t i s c o n s e r v a t i v e
and tends t o keep t h e s t a t u s quo. The t r u t h o f t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s becomes
e v i d e n t i f one c o n s i d e m e p a s t conduct o f S t a t e s has been based on
power and e x p l o i t a t i o n and i s u n l i k e l y t o c o n t a i n precedents f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e
weak and t h e e x p l o i t e d . The same i s t r u e o f most t r e a t i e s a l r e a d y concluded.
As f a r as concerns those which may y e t be concluded, t h e i r terms w i l l depend
on t h e n e g o t i a t i n g power o f t h e p a r t i e s . N e g o t i a t i o n s t a k e p l a c e between
p o w e r f u l c o u n t r i e s and o t h e r s which depend on them o r whose governments a r e
generated by them. Mere e q u a l i t y between S t a t e s which a r e supposed t o be
s o v e r e i g n " cannot mask t h e a c t u a l i n e q u a l i t y o f t h e p o t e n t i a l p a r t i e s t o an
i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r e a t y as t h e y meet head-on o v e r t h e n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e : t h e y a r e
unequal i n terms o f power, t h e i r t e c h n i c a l c a p a c i t y f o r i n f o r m a t i o n , and a l s o
I t i s theret h e i r a b i l i t y t o make r e a s o n a b l y a c c u r a t e l o n g - t e r m f o r e c a s t s .
f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t , i n t h e circumstances, pessimism p r e v a i l s as t o t h e
chances o f s e t t i n g up a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r d e r ( N I E O ) b y such means.
The sources o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law a r e mentioned i n A r t i c l e 38 o f t h e S t a t u t e s
o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u r t o f J u s t i c e , which i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e U n i t e d
N a t i o n s C h a r t e r , under A r t i c l e 92 o f t h a t C h a r t e r . The t e x t mentions, i n t h i s
o r d e r : a ) i n t e r n a t i o n a l conventions; b ) i n t e r n a t i o n a l custom; c ) t h e general
p r i n c i p l e s o f law r e c o g n i z e d by c i v i l i z e d n a t i o n s ; d) j u d i c i a l d e c i s i o n s
f o r t h e case i n q u e s t i o n and w i t h r e g a r d t o the c o n t e n d i n g p a r t i e s , and t h e
o p i n i o n o f t h e most h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d a u t h o r s f r o m t h e v a r i o u s n a t i o n s , as
an a u x i l i a r y means o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r u l e s o f law.
The problem has been r a i s e d as t o whether t h i s t e x t p r o v i d e s o n l y a l i s t
o r whether i t e s t a b l i s h e s the p r i o r i t y o f t h e sources, i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e
o r d e r i n which t h e y a r e mentioned. D o c t r i n e has tended t o f a v o u r t h e f i r s t
o f these s o l u t i o n s , so t h a t a t r e a t y o r a custom c o u l d be amended o r completed
w i t h reference t o a general p r i n c i p l e o f law. T h i s i s c o n f i r m e d when one
c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h e v a l u e a s c r i b e d i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e t o conventions d e r i v e s
p r e c i s e l y f r o m t h a t g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e o f l a w which i s expressed i n t h e
f o r m u l a p a c t a s u n t servanda ( t r e a t i e s must b e honored).
These g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f law, as expressed i n t e x t s o r j u r i s p r u d e n c e f o r
more t h a n two thousand y e a r s , happen t o i n c l u d e t h e p r i n c i p l e whereby u n j u s t
e n r i c h m e n t o b t a i n e d a t t h e expense o f o t h e r s must be a v o i d e d o r r e s t i t u t i o n
made. The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e has been e x p l i c i t l y r e c o g n i z e d i n
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j u r i s p r u d e n c e . I t would be, a t t h e v e r y l e a s t uncomfortable, f o r
a p o w e r f u l n a t i o n which a s p i r e s t o e n j o y p r e s t i g e i n t h e eyes o f o t h e r s ,
t o r e f u s e t o a p p l y i n i t s r e l a t i o n s o r c o n f l i c t s w i t h weaker and dependent
n a t i o n s a p r i n c i p l e e n s h r i n e d i n i t s own domestic l a w and r e g u l a r l y a p p l i e d
by i t s own c o u r t s .
I t i s t r u e t h a t t h i s p r i n c i p l e c o u l d , i n some cases, harm i n t e r e s t s which appear
t o b e a c q u i r e d r i g h t s , i n o t h e r words whose l e g i t i m a c y d e r i v e s f r o m p r e v i o u s
t r e a t i e s o r p r o p e r t y t i t l e s . However, r e s p e c t f o r a c q u i r e d r i g h t s must y i e l d
t o t h e i d e a o f j u s t i c e and t o t h e p r i n c i p l e whereby, i n any case, t h e a c q u i s i t i o n and t h e e x e r c i s e o f such r i g h t s must be marked b y good f a i t h . I t seems
d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e t h i s good f a i t h w h i c h t h e permanent,mounting and proven
e n r i c h m e n t which the p o w e r f u l n a t i o n s o b t a i n i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h dependent
n a t i o n s and a t t h e expense o f those n a t i o n s .
The r e s e r v a t i o n s i n r e s p e c t o f a c o n t r a c t which b e n e f i t s one o f t h e p a r t i e s
t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f t h e o t h e r which have a l r e a d y been mentioned, i n p a r t i c u l a r
t h a t which c o n s i s t s o f t h e t a c i t c l a u s e rebus s i c s t a n t i b u s ( t o r e s t o r e t h e
i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n ) must a l s o be a p p l i e d i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w . I t i s t r u e t h a t
t h i s c l a u s e - o r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g breach by f r u s t r a t i o n - has been r e c o g n i z e d
w i t h h e s i t a t i o n by some n a t i o n a l c o u r t s . Yet such h e s i t a t i o n has ceased
whenever a community o r s o c i a l i n t e r e s t has been a t s t a k e . There i s a l l t h e
more reason t o r e c o g n i z e i t when what i s a t s t a k e i s t h e v e r y l i f e o f a n a t i o n
and i t s development.
I n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s l e g a l p r i n c i p l e one s h o u l d n o t c o n c e n t r a t e e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e r e c o v e r y o f n a t u r a l resources, i . e . the n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f f o r e i g n
i n v e s t m e n t i n t a n g i b l e , c l e a r l y d e f i n a b l e o r m a t e r i a l t h i n g s . On t h e c o n t r a r y ,
i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o r e g a r d as t h e s o l e o b j e c t o f o n e ' s demands t h a t s e r i e s o f
s u c c e s s i v e phenomena which take t h e f o r m o f unequal terms o f t r a d e ( i n c l u d i n g
what i s known as " i n v i s i b l e s " : f r e i g h t , i n s u r a n c e , commissions, e t c . ) , i n
the transfer o f technology, i n the "brain drain".
I n the l a s t analysis a l l o f
t h i s c o n s t i t u t e s a breach o f t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e n a t i o n o r people which i s
on t h e l o s i n ? s i d e i n such processes.
I n j u s t i c e and t h e absence o f good f a i t h a r e here a l l t h e more p o w e r f u l i n
t h a t the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries apply a p r o t e c t i o n i s t p o l i c y (through
t a r i f f s , i m p o r t quotas and o t h e r measures) t o manufactures o r semi-manufactures f r o m t h e dependent c o u n t r i e s which m i g h t compete w i t h those o f t h e i r
own i n d u s t r i e s , w h i l e on t h e o t h e r hand i m p o s i n g on these c o u n t r i e s ,
d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , a p o l i c y o f a b s o l u t e f r e e t r a d e , t h u s c o m p e l l i n g them
t o r e c e i v e what t h e y produce and t o d i s m a n t l e t h e i r nascent i n d u s t r i e s .
I n o r d e r t o g i v e f u l l e f f e c t i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l law t o t h e l e g a l p r i n c i p l e t h a t
u n j u s t e n r i c h m e n t o b t a i n e d a t t h e expense o f o t h e r s i s u n l a w f u l i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o emphasize: a ) i t s v e r y l o n g h i s t o r y and t h e f a c t t h a t i t has been
r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e law o f a11 n a t i o n s ; b ) t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l j u r i s p r u d e n c e which
has a p p l i e d i t ; c ) t h e p r o v i s i o n s o r r e s o l u t i o n s which e n s h r i n e i t i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l law i n a more o r l e s s e x p l i c i t manner, o r , i n some cases, o n l y
i m p l i c i t l y ; d ) t h e n e u t r a l n a t u r e o f t h e p r i n c i p l e which, depending on
circumstances, may o p e r a t e as a r e g u l a t o r o f i n v e s t m e n t s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e ,
e t c . f o r the b e n e f i t o f e i t h e r o f the i n v e s t i n g countries o r of the h o s t
countries; e ) the l i m i t a t i o n i m p l i e d by the consistent a p p l i c a t i o n o f the
p r i n c i p l e f o r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a c q u i r e d r i g h t s , e t c . A s i m i l a r procedure
can be f o l l o w e d i n r e s p e c t o f t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f debts by means o f compensa t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l law. I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o complete a body o f
j u r i s p r u d e n c e on such i n s t i t u t i o n s b y means o f t e s t cases b r o u g h t by a s i n g l e
c o u n t r y , i n a c a r e f u l l y chosen s i t u a t i o n , b e f o r e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u r t o f
J u s t i c e . The process c o u l d c u l m i n a t e i n t h e a d o p t i o n o f d e c l a r a t i o n s on t h e
m a t t e r b y t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s General Assembly. A d e c l a r a t i o n can and must
be passed b y t h a t Assembly recommending t h e amendment o f t h e U n i v e r s a l
D e c l a r a t i o n o f Human R i g h t s and t h e r e l a t e d Covenants so as t o i n c l u d e t h e
r i g h t t o s e t up, b o t h n a t i o n a l l y and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , a s s o c i a t i o n s o f users
and consumers, w i t h w e l l d e f i n e d and p r e c i s e powers , t o express and
r e a l i s e t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f needs. L a s t l y , i t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e p r e s e n t
system o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y s h o u l d be r e v i s e d , as demanded b y t h e Group o f 77,
and t h a t a t i m e - l i m i t n o t exceeding t h e l i f e t i m e o f t h e i n v e n t o r s h o u l d be s e t
f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y r i g h t s . On t h i s p o i n t i t i s necessary
t o s t r e s s t h a t such r i g h t s a r e u s u a l l y b e n e f i c i a l n o t t o t h e i n v e n t o r h i m s e l f ,
b u t t o p o w e r f u l companies which have used h i s s e r v i c e s o r bought h i s r i g h t s
f r o m him.
NB:
-
Two annexes ( i n Spanish and i n E n g l i s h ) examining t h e s e themes i n d e t a i l
a r e a v a i l a b l e from IFDA on r e q u e s t .
INTERACTIONS
SELECTIVE NORTH-SOUTH APPROACHES: A ROOM FOR V I N I - N I E O ?
*/
by Helge Hveem -
We assume t h a t i t i s o f some importance t o t h e c o n t i n u e d NIEO n e g o t i a t i o n s and
t h e North-South d i a l o g u e t h a t t h e Scandinavian c o u n t r i e s , p r e f e r a b l y wi t h t h e
s u p p o r t o f o t h e r 1 ikemi nded c o u n t r i e s , m a i n t a i n t h e i r r e l a t i v e pro-NIEO 1 i n e .
We a l s o assume t h a t a l t h o u g h c u r r e n t t r e n d s p o i n t t o t h e o p p o s i t e , t h e r e i s
s t i l l enough s u p p o r t f o r such a l i n e i n S c a n d i n a v i a t h a t a d i s c u s s i o n o f a l t e r natives o f action i s feasible.
F i n a l l y , we p o s t u l a t e t h a t new ways o f b r e a k i n g
t h e deadlock o f NIEO n e g o t i a t i o n s must be d i s c u s s e d and c o n s i d e r e d s e r i o u s l y .
I n t h i s f i n a l c h a p t e r , we w i l l p o i n t t o some p o s s i b l e ways i n t h a t r e s p e c t .
As we n o t e d above, i t has been a key p r i n c i p l e i n t h e p o l i c y o f the Scandinav i a n s and o f t h e l i k e m i n d e d group t o s t i c k t o m u l t i l a t e r a l s o l u t i o n s i n i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e NIEO. The caucusing t h a t has t a k e n p l a c e e . g . w i t h i n t h e Group B
and OECD, has o n l y o c c u r r e d - and d e l i b e r a t e l y so - a t t h e l e v e l o f d i s c u s s i o n s
o f p r i n c i p l e s and v o t i n g a t t h i s l e v e l . I n some c i r c l e s , t h e i d e a o f implement i n g p a r t s o f t h e NIEO package on a s e l e c t i v e b a s i s has been discussed. A few
h i g h - r a n k i n g Scandinavian p o l i t i c i a n s have taken p a r t i n these c i r c l e s i n f o r z:ch :
: t!?2 I n t e p n ? t i ~ n a l F n ~ ~ n r l a t i nfno r n ~ v ~ l n p m e n t
m a l l y . Through ;~;:h;:c?:
A l t e r n a t i v e s (IFDA) and e s t a b l i s h e d ones such as t h e Dag HammarskJold Foundation,
t h e y have met w i t h o f f i c i a l and s e m i - o f f i c i a1 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f T h i r d World
countries.
B u i l d i n g on these d e l i b e r a t i o n s and on o u r own p r e l i m i n a r y ideas (Hveem, 1977)
we may suggest t h r e e d i f f e r e n t schemes, each o f which c o u l d be implemented on
a one-sector o r a m u l t i - s e c t o r b a s i s :
1.
2.
a s t i c t l y b i l a t e r a l arrangement between one Scandinavian c o u n t r y and one o r
a few T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .
an arrangement between one Scandinavian c o u n t r y and a1 1 T h i r d World count:
r i e s , and
-
3.
an arrangement t h a t i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l Scandinavian and/or l i k e m i n d e d countr i e s and s e v e r a l o r a1 1 T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .
The purpose o f a l t e r n a t i v e 1 would be t o p r e s e n t a model o r an i n i t i a t i v e t h a t
m i g h t a c t as a t r i g g e r t o o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . The a l t e r n a t i v e obv i o u s l y p r e s e n t s a number o f p o l i t i c a l and o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s : i t may smack o f
p a t e r n a l i s m , i t i s u n a c c e p t a b l y s e l e c t i v e t o o t h e r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s and i t
may break t o o much w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y accepted n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p r i c i p l e s .
'
International
erpted from a
Establishment
Cedsl, Eurooe
Peace Research I n s t i t u t e , Oslo. The f o l l o w i n g pages a r e expaper prepared f o r the UNITAR/CEESTM p r o j e c t "Progress i n t h e
o f a NIEO", t o be p u b l i s h e d i n E r r i n L a s z l o & J o e l Kurtman
and t h e NIEO ( O x f o r d : Perqarnan Press, 1979)
A l t e r n a t i v e 2 would be l e s s s u b j e c t t o such c r i t i c i s m , b u t o n l y f r o m t h e p o i n t
o f view o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . To t h e e x t e n t i t c o n t a i n s concessionary
elements which a f f e c t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n o f i n d u s t r y i n t h e Scandinav i a n c o u n t r y n e g a t i v e l y , i n d u s t r y would oppose the scheme f o r reasons g i v e n
above. I f i t c o n t a i n s elements which f a v o u r t h e c o u n t r y v i s - a - v i s o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , these c o u n t r i e s w i l l oppose i t w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e nond i s c r i m i n a t i o n clause.
Both these a l t e r n a t i v e s n e v e r t h e l e s s f i n d precedents i n e.g. t h e f i e l d o f development a i d , t h e Lome c o n v e n t i o n , t h e GSP system e t c . One m i g h t , f o r i n s t a n c e ,
e x t e n d t h e p r e s e n t ODA programme t o c o v e r f i e l d s o t h e r t h a n t e c h n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e . To t h e e x t e n t ODA i s l i n k e d t o t r a d e , i n v e s t m e n t and o t h e r
i s s u e s , t h i s i s de f a c t o t a k i n g p l a c e . I t seems q u i t e p o s s i b l e t o f i n a n c e h i g h e r p r i c e s f o r raw m a t e r i a l s i m p o r t s by a p p r o p r i a t i n g a s h a r e o f funds w h i c h
would o t h e r w i s e go t o ODA, f o r t h a t purpose. I n o t h e r words, t h e d i f f e r e n c e
between c a p i t a l ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r f a i r p r o f i t a b i l i t y c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s i n comp a r i s o n w i t h f o r e i g n c o m p e t i t o r s and T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
p r i c e and o t h e r concessions c o u l d be covered by s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n .
T h i s s u g g e s t i o n , which i s n o news t o e i t h e r c a p i t a l o r government, i n v i t e s a
number o f q u e s t i o n s on c r i t e r i a f o r what s o r t o f agreement i s j u s t t o t h e T h i r d
World c o u n t r y and r e m u n e r a t i v e t o t h e I n d u s t r i a l i z e d one o r i t s agent. Such
q u e s t i o n s - would have t o be answered t h r o u g h n e g o t i a t i o n s . Even t e n t a t i v e answers t o them would be beyond t h e scope o f t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n , b u t we would l i k e
t o i n s i s t t h a t they
be s o l v e d i f t h e necessary p o l i t i c a l w i l l i s t h e r e .
The t h i r d a l t e r n a t i v e i s t h e p r e f e r r e d one among t h e t h r e e .
I t comes c l o s e r
t h a n t h e o t h e r i n m e e t i n g - t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i v e r s a l i s m . I t b u i l d s o n t h e premise,
q u e s t i o n a b l e though as i t i s , t h a t a g r o u p i n g l i k e t h e l i k e m i n d e d c o u n t r i e s posses g r e a t e r p o l i t i c a l w i l l t o move t o t h e s t a g e o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n t h a n do o t h e r
i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . I t a l s o reduces somewhat t h e f e a r o f c a p i t a l and 1abour t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y f r o m which t h e y o p e r a t e w i l l have t o s h o u l d e r
new burdens t h a t p u t them i n a disadvantageous p o s i t i o n . To T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , f i n a l l y , i t i s t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g a1 t e r n a t i v e s i n c e i t i n v o l v e s s e v e r a l
I n d u s t r i a1 ized c o u n t r i e s .
NIEO has g o t a f i r m b a c k i n g f o r m a l l y and l e g a l l y . The Lome c o n v e n t i o n a l s o i s
a p r e c e d e n t f o r a scheme o f t h e t y p e envisaged h e r e . The b a r r i e r s t o a m i n i NIEO a l o n g t h e l i n e s suggested i n a l t e r n a t i v e 3 t h e r e f o r e s h o u l d by no means
be i n s u r m o u n t a b l e . I n o t h e r words, t h e y a r e m o s t l y o f a p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e which i n f a c t does n o t make them easy t o pass.
The p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e scheme and i t s c o n c r e t e c o n t e n t would be a
m a t t e r o f n e g o t i a t i o n . We suggest, however, t h a t an i m p o r t a n t means t o break
t h e p r e s e n t dead-lock o v e r NIEO would be f o r t h e Scandinavian c o u n t r i e s t o i n i t i a t e d i s c u s s i o n s o f such a scheme. Ifi t were t o be s e l e c t i v e i n t h e sense
t h a t o n l y a few o f t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s were t o t a k e p a r t , i t m i g h t be polit i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o make t h e s e l e c t i o n . The c o u n t r i e s w i t h which t h e Scand i n a v i a n governments m o s t l y d e a l t h r o u g h t h e i r ODA programmes would p r o b a b l y be
a n a t u r a l f i r s t c h o i c e . Many o f them meet t h e two p r i n c i p l e s o f s e l e c t i o n which
b o t h Norway and Sweden employ - t h a t t h e r e c i p i e n t i s among t h e ( l e a s t developed
o r ) p o o r e s t c o u n t r i e s , and t h a t t h e r e i s a p o l i t i c a l w i l l t o c a r r y o u t a s o c i a l l y
r e s p o n s i b l e development p o l i c y a t home. Given the 1 i m i t e d s i z e and resources
o f t h e Scandinavain c o u n t r i e s , o r o f t h e c o r e o f 6-7 l i k e m i n d e d c o u n t r i e s i f
some non-Scandinavian c o u n t r i e s c o u l d be added t o t h e scheme, a s e l e c t i v e , n o t
a u n i v e r s a l approach seems warranted.
I t would n o t mean a d e c i s i v e s t e p f o r ward i n i t s p r a c t i c a l , c o n c r e t e r e s u l t s i n t h e s h o r t term. It may however,
s e t t h e pace i n making i t p o l i t i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t f o r o t h e r OECD c o u n t r i e s n o t
t o follow suit.
As i t was p u t as l a t e as e a r l y 1978:
The c h a l l e n g e i n f r o n t o f us now i s t o t r a n s l a t e t h i s
u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( o f t h e mutua 1 dependence o f developed
and d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s ) i n t o a framework o f mutual
commitments and o b l i g a t i o n s . ( S t o l t e n b e r g , 1979).
We suggest t h a t Sweden and Norway t a k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e t o d i s c u s s and l a t e r implement a s e l e c t i v e scheme w i t h f o u r t o f i v e o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , Denmark and Belgium f r o m EC and F i n l a n d and p o s s i b l y A u s t r i a
f r o m o u t s i d e . No f i n a l l i s t o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s t o be i n v i t e d t o j o i n
can be made a t t h i s p o i n t . B u t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c r i t e r i a t h a t were s e t o u t
above, we would suggest t h a t Tanzania, A l g e r i a , S r i Lanka, Jamaica and N i c a r a gua were among t h e i n v i t e d c o u n t r i e s .
As a s t a r t i n g b a s i s , r e s t r u c t u r i n g and ODA c o u l d be chosen. These are areas
were some i n i t i a t i v e s have a l r e a d y been t a k e n , where o t h e r groupings ( E C ) do
n o t y e t pose a s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e t o a c t i o n and where some minimum u n i t y o f pol i c y has been achieved. C l e a r l y , t h e B e l g i a n a d j u s t m e n t p o l i c y i s n o t t h e same
as t h a t contemplated by Norway; on t h e o t h e r hand, i t i s n o t f a r f r o m t h e Dutch
(Tharakan and o t h e r s , 1978). On t h e b a s i s o f experiences i n these areas, some
scheme f o r
- c o o r d i n a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n p o l i c y , p o l i c y on development a i d
and on t e c h n o l o g y ( s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y f o r development) c o u l d be
worked o u t ( p a r a l l e l l e g i s l a t i o n ) .
Assuming t h a t t h i s c o u l d be done among t h e s i x - s e v e n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s
i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e and then m o d i f i e d b y t h e i n v i t e d T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ,
a scheme f o r a p p l y i n g t h e agreed p r i n c i p l e s , a l o n g t h e l i n e s s e t down i n t h e
m u l t i l a t e r a l NIEO n e g o t i a t i o n s t h a t have t a k e n p l a c e , w i l l be worked o u t .
T h i s would t a k e the f o r m o f a
-
comprehensive development c o o p e r a t i o n programme.
Such a programme c o u l d be implemented on a m u l t i - b i o r a b i l a t e r a l b a s i s , the
f o r m e r i m p l y i n g t h a t s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s ( o r a l l ) on b o t h " s i d e s " j o i n t l y a p p l i e d
i t , t h e l a t t e r i m p l y i n g t h a t i t was a p p l i e d i n c o u n t r y - t o - c o u n t r y p r o j e c t s
where o n l y two c o u n t r i e s t a k e p a r t . N o r d i c governments a l r e a d y c a r r y o u t j o i n t
p r o j e c t s o f t e c h n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .
Hence, t h e former a l t e r n a t i v e i s n o t u n t h i n k a b l e , a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r normal l y w i l l be p r e f e r r e d .
I n such a programme, n o t o n l y new development concepts and t h i n k i n g b u t even
new channels and ways o f c o o p e r a t i o n s h o u l d be e x p l o r e d . One example i s t h e
t e c h n o l o g y f i e l d . E x i s t i n g R&D as w e l l as p r o d u c t i v e f a c i l i t i e s s h o u l d be exp l o r e d w i t h a view t o t a p t h e i r development a s s i s t a n c e p o t e n t i a l . The i d e a
would be t o e n t e r i n t o work t h a t secures employment i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d
c o u n t r i e s w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e - and t h i s i s t h e p r i m a r y goal - i t c r e a t e s
new c r e a t i v e and p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t i e s i n T h i r d H o r l d c o u n t r i e s . By p l a y i n g
d e l i b e r a t e l y on s m a l l andmedium-size f i r m s which a r e n o t i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z e d b u t
which have a p o t e n t i a l f o r development a s s i s t a n c e t h a t i s so f a r untapped
(because m a i n l y i t has n o t been marketed), such a programme m i g h t a l s o h e l p
r e d u c i n g t h e s t r o n g p o s i t i o n o f TNCs i n t h e North-South system.
I n t h e o t h e r i s s u e areas t h a t were s e l e c t e d f o r s p e c i a l a n a l y s i s , c o o r d i n a t i o n
would seem t o be more d i f f i c u l t . K a r k e t access and n a t u r a l resources are comm u n i t y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e case o f t h e EC c o u n t r i e s . And w h i l e i t may be
p o s s i b l e t o agree on t r y i n g o u t s m a l l and medium-sized f i r m s i n t r a n s f e r o f
resources schemes, i t wi 11 be d i f f i c u l t t o g e t t h e Netherlands and Sweden t o
reduce s i z e a b l y t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i r b i g TNCs n o t t o speak o f r e g u l a t i n g them.
They a r e bound t o c o n t i n u e t o p l a y a dominant r o l e i n Nort-South r e l a t i o n s ,
g i v e n t h e p r e s e n t c h a r a c t e r o f t h e N o r t h e r n economies and o f these r e l a t i o n s .
The q u e s t i o n i s whether t h e l i k e m i n d e d c o u n t r i e s may be a b l e t o i n i t i a t e new
forms o f TNC presence i n t h e South t h a t t a p t h e b e s t o u t o f t h e i r performance,
c o n t r o l t h e i r p r o f i t and market s t r a t e g i e s s o as t o balance these s t r a t e g i e s
a g a i n s t t h e needs o f t h e people o f t h e South f o r b a s i c needs s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
s e l f - r e l i a n c e and thus development.
One may i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t h i n k o f r e o r g a n i z i n g d i r e c t investments by l i k e minded c o u n t r y TNCs i n t o "fade o u t " j o i n t e n t e r p r i s e s , an i d e a t h a t has been
t a k e n up i n t h e Andean Pact. A l s o , l i k e m i n d e d c o u n t r y TNCs s h o u l d be asked t o
e n t e r i n t o s o c i a l c o n t r a c t s w i t h workers i n T h i r d orl la countries on t h e l i n e s
suggested i n t e r a l i a by Swedish l a b o u r ( s o c i a l c l a u s e ) . T h i s m i g h t t a k e t h e
f o r m o f t h e l i k e m i n d e d governments a g r e e i n g on a "code o f conduct" f o r t h e oper a t i o n s o f t h e i r p r i v a t e s e c t o r s i n t h e South. With no economic i n c e n t i v e s
a t t a c h e d . such a code c o u l d h a r d l y become more b i n d i n g and hence o p e r a t i v e
t h a n t h e one i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e OECD. B u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y c o u l d and s h o u l d
be e x p l o r e d .
Besides secure j o b s , l a b o u r i n t h e N o r t h wants secure s u p p l i e s o f v i t a l i n p u t
t o p r o d u c t i o n - a concern t h e y share w i t h c a p i t a l - and as consumers t h e y
want secure s u p p l i e s o f v i t a l consumer goods. One p o s s i b l e way o f implementing
t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e IPC, e s p e c i a l l y as i t was s e t o u t b e f o r e and d u r i n g UNCTAD
I V , i s t o e n t e r i n t o l o n g - t e r m s u p p l y and p r i c e agreements f o r raw m a t e r i a l s
and f o o d commodities. By t y i n g such agreements e x p l i c i t l y t o t h e Second Window c o n t e n t o f t h e IPC and p r o v i d i n g f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e t o d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n and i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n p r o j e c t s i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , t h e y
w o u l d g e t a c l e a r e r o r i e n t a t i o n t o development goals and t h e NIEO.
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o s t r e s s t h a t t h e t o t a l i m p a c t o f such a programme s h o u l d be
f i r s t o f a l l b e n e f i c i a l t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , b u t t h a t i t would a l s o i n a11
p r o b a b i l i t y n o t c a r r y a s t r o n g n e g a t i v e i m p a c t on t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries.
I n economic terms, such a programme would most p r o b a b l y mean
by any comparison as much t o t h e economic v i a b i l i t y o f t h e N o r t h e r n economies
as would t h e process o f automation ( m i c r o - p r o c e s s o r s ) and a d j u s t m e n t due t o
inter-OECD c o m p e t i t i o n .
The i s s u e , i n f i n a l a n a l y s i s , i s a p o l i t i c a l one and one o f g e t t i n g t h e i n f o r mation through. So f a r , t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l l t o implement NIEO i s n o t s t r o n g
enough. And t h e i n f o r m a t i o n about i t s e f f e c t s - n e g a t i v e as w e l l as p o s i t i v e
- i s n o t p e n e t r a t i n g t h e community o f workers and consumers. The s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l processes a t work i n t h e I n d u s t r i a l i z e d s o c i e t i e s must t a k e new
d i r e c t i o n s b e f o r e t h e w i l l , and presumably b e f o r e t h e w i l l i s c r e a t e d - t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n - i s p r e s e n t and accepted. The success o r f a i l u r e o f t h e NIEO i f one may speak i n such terms - may e v e n t u a l l y depend on whether t h i s v i c i o u s
c i r c l e i s broken o r n o t .
GENERAL REMARKS ON INTERNATIONAL F I N A N C I A L COOPERATION AND
RESOURCE TRANSFERS
by Moinuddin Baqai *I
F o r e i g n a s s i s t a n c e dominated t h e d i s c u s s i o n on i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic cooperat i o n f o r a l o n g p e r i o d . With t h e advantage o f h i n d s i g h t one can e a s i l y see t h e
f a l l a c y i n t h e approach. Development was n o t p e r c e i v e d as a t o t a l m u l t i - f r o n t
advance o f a s o c i e t y - b u t more n a r r o w l y conceived as economic p r o g r e s s i n
terms o f a broadening p e r c a p i t a use o f c a p i t a l r e s u l t i n g i n improved product i v i t y . With t h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e development process, f o r e i g n a s s i s t a n c e was
t h e easy s o l u t i o n f o r those i n v o l v e d i n t h e mechanics o f growth i n t h e T h i r d
World c o u n t r i e s . The T h i r d World e l i t e s were so d a z z l e d by t h e g l i t t e r o f Weste r n l i f e - s t y l e t h a t t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n d i d n o t go f a r beyond a c q u i r i n g t h r o u g h
economic growth t h e means t o " i m i t a t e " these 1 i f e s t y l e s .
The i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s on t h e o t h e r hand, f a i l e d t o p e r c e i v e t h a t even
n a r r o w l y conceived economic growth shared by a l a r g e number o f T h i r d World count r i e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , would r e q u i r e a major change i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d i n g and
f i n a n c i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n a w i d e r sense, a world-wide movement towards s t a n dards o f l i v i n g and l i f e s t y l e s p r e v i o u s l y shared by a s e l e c t m i n o r i t y o r w o r l d ' s
p o p u l a t i o n would c r e a t e tremendous p r e s s u r e on w o r l d ' s resources.
Concessional o f f i c i a l loans supplemented o r s u p p l a n t e d by t h e d i r e c t i n v o l v e m e n t
o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l s c r e a t e d a framework f o r economic r e l a t i o n s between t h e N o r t h
and t h e South s i n g u l a r l y u n s u i t e d t o accommodate (even t o grasp i t s magnitude)
t h e r e q u i r e d change. When most s u c c e s s f u l , i t gave r i s e t o s i t u a t i o n s o f maldevelopment and dependency syndrome. Concessional a s s i s t a n c e f o r l a r g e donors
w i t h g l o b a l p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s remain an i n s t r u m e n t o f w i d e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l i m i t e d f o r e i g n a s s i s t a n c e funds among r e c i p i e n t s had t o
be c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h f o r e i g n p o l i c y and m i l i t a r y i n t e r e s t s . Changes i n c o u n t r y
programmes f o l l o w e d v a r i a t i o n s i n g l o b a l i n t e r e s t s , g i v i n g r i s e t o d e s t a b i l i z i n g
f a c t o r s i n t h e r e c i p i e n t c o u n t r i e s - d i s t r a c t i n g a t t e n t i o n from m a j o r domestic
p o l i c y i s s u e s . A l a r g e r p a r t o f c o n c e s s i o n a l i t y i n v o l v e d i n t h e assumed g r a n t
Chi'ef Economist, P l a n n i n g Commission o f P a k i s t a n . T h i s paper was prepared
f o r t h e Schevenigen Symposium ( c f IFDA D o s s i e r 11,13 & 1 4 )
elements, i n v o l v e d a s u b s i d y t o t r a n s n a t i o n a l s u p p l i e r s o f commodities p u r chased under a i d programmes. N e t b e n e f i t o f a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e r e c i p i e n t s dec l i n e s much f a s t e r than t h e n e t n a t i o n a l t r a n s f e r , m a i n l y because gross f l o w
o f a s s i s t a n c e and d e b t s e r v i c e payments a g a i n s t p a s t a s s i s t a n c e a r e q u a l i t a t i v e l y o f h i g h l y d i f f e r e n t character.
I n t h e case o f b o t h a s s i s t a n c e t i e d t o p h y s i c a l s u r p l u s e s o f goods and s e r v i c e s
i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s and development based on c o o p e r a t i o n t h r o u g h t r a n s n a t i o n a l s p r e s s u r e s a r e b u i l t t o i m p o r t and produce goods which a r e regarded
as mass consumption i t e m s i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d n a t i o n s and s t a n d a r d s a r e s e t
f o r i n v e s t m e n t , consumption and p u b l i c s e r v i c e s which cannot be s u s t a i n e d w i t h
t h e p r o d u c t i o n p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . The waste o f i n t e r n a l r e s o u r c e b u i l t i n t o t h e development p a t t e r n o f i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s i s attempt e d t o be u n i v e r s a l i z e d , c r e a t i n g s t r a i n s which have l e d t h e i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s
t o seek s o l u t i o n s o f t h e i r problems i n i s o l a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t on t h e w o r l d economic system.
A b r o a d e r view o f development s t r a t e g y f o r t h e e i g h t i e s and beyond w o u l d r e q u i r e
a change i n t h e frame o f t h o u g h t processes which has d e t e r m i n e d a c t i o n i n t h e
p r e c e d i n g t h r e e decades. F i r s t a b o l d e r a t t e m p t a t i n t e g r a t i n g t h e T h i r d World
c o u n t r i e s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic system would be a t i m e l y move. T h i s
has t o b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e t r a d i t i o n a l view o f interdependence which has been
based on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l v e r s i o n o f t h e t r i c k l e - d o w n t h e o r y ( f o u n d t o be a
Interdependence has t o be mubaseless t h e o r y w i t h i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s ) .
t u a l and on e q u a l b a s i s and s h o u l d move towards p r o p e r i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e cons t i t u e n t s i n a system. T h i s r e q u i r e s a move f r o m d e c i s i o n s based on p u r e l y nat i o n a l i n t e r e s t towards g r e a t e r r e a l i z a t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l o b l i g a t i o n s .
Secondly i t would be necessary t o f i n d ways o f i n c o r p o r a t i n g l o n g e r - t e r m view
i n t h e p r e s e n t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g which focusses a t t e n t i o n on measures t h e r e s u l t s
o f which can be o b t a i n e d b e f o r e t h e n e x t e l e c t i o n .
The T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s on t h e i r p a r t , need t o a c q u i r e a t t i t u d e s which would
correspond more c l o s e l y t o t h e r o l e t h e y a r e demanding as equal members o f t h e
w o r l d community. T h i s may need g r e a t e r e f f o r t a t s e l f - r e l i a n c e and s e e k i n g t o
e v o l v e development s t r a t e g i e s more d i r e c t l y , c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i n t e g r a t e d and
broad-based n a t i o n a l p r o g r e s s . They need n o t appear t o be demanding u n i l a t e r a l
concessions, b u t s e e k i n g changes which demonstrably advance t h e u n i v e r s a l l y accepted o b j e c t i v e s i n a balanced manner.
The i s s u e s r e l a t i n g t o m o b i l i z a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s , f i n a n c i n g o f development e f f o r t s i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s and i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n have
t o be seen i n t h e New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development S t r a t e g y i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e
parameters d e f i n e d above. F i nanci a1 arrangments a r e a shadow o f t h e r e a l i t y .
The p r e s e n t f i n a n c i a l arrangements i n t h e w o r l d r e f l e c t a r e a l i t y which has
been changing t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t i n t h e r e c e n t y e a r s . New f i n a n c i a l a r rangements f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n s h o u l d r e f l e c t t h e change t h a t has
a l r e a d y taken p l a c e and t h e d e l i b e r a t e change i n r e a l economic r e l a t i o n s h i p s
which can r e a l i s t i c a l l y be e x p e c t e d t o be accommodated i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f
heal t h y global progress.
A v a i l a b i l i t y of finance i s not the real c o n s t r a i n t on development i n the world
a t t h i s s t a g e . The r i s e in energy p r i c e s , r e f l e c t i n g the growing shortage of
energy resources in the world, has provided q u a s i - r e n t t o O P E C c o u n t r i e s and
has imposed forced savings on t h e world communi t y . The e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n a l
b i a s i s in favour of recycling these resources back t o the countries where the
a v a i l a b i l i t y of financing had the e f f e c t o f delaying required adjustment t o
energy p o l i c i e s . Some of the i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n s , notably Japan, a l s o continue
t o have a surplus of savings ( f o r d i f f e r e n t reasons) r e f l e c t e d in the balance
of payment s u r p l u s e s . From the point of view of savers and holders of surplus
funds, the p r e s e n t i n s t i t u t i o n a l framework provides limited o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
investment - a t extremely low i f not a c t u a l l y negative i n t e r e s t r a t e s . On the
o t h e r hand, Third World countries who can use the c a p i t a l p r o d u c t i v i t y a r e not
able t o p a r t i c i p a t e in the market because t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l money and c a p i t a l
markets g e n e r a l l y behave in r e l a t i o n t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l lending on t h e p a t t e r n
s e t by money-lenders i n primitive economies. Excess of caution on t h e i r p a r t ,
d i c t a t e d no doubt by the p r e v a i l i n g s i t u a t i o n , can only be corrected by an i n s t i t u t i o n a l advance of the type which has turned domestic money and c a p i t a l
markets i n t o guided instruments of soci a1 l y responsible economic p o l i c i e s .
Concessionali t y in the terms of lending r e s u l t i n g from i n s t i t u t i o n a l progress
(lending by the World Bank and Regional Development Banks), though apparently
l e s s than in t h e case of most concessional b i l a t e r a l ODA, i s l i k e l y t o prove
more r e l i a b l e , a s i t would be independent of individual country d e c i s i o n s .
The l i m i t s would be s e t by normal prudence in the management of development
c r e d i t and finance, and the c o l l e c t i v e credi t-worthiness of the Third b'orld
countries.
To allow the i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s t o play an a c t i v e and expanding r o l e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l a t i o n t o low-income c o u n t r i e s , i t would be necessary t o provide adequate flow of concessi onal funds 1i ke IDA replenishment
o r Special Funds in the Asian Development Bank. Some elements of v o l u n t a r i l y
accepted i n t e r n a t i o n a l taxation (probably a c o n t r a d i c t i o n in terms) has already
s t a r t e d taking p l a c e . Further resources have t o be b u i l t around t h i s experience.
There would be a number of questions regarding whether and how much t o provide
f o r the expansion of e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a g a i n s t s e t t i n g up of new s p e c i a l i z e d
financing i n s t i t u t i o n changing p a t t e r n s of policy management control r e f l e c t i n g
new i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l re1 a t i o n s , and more innovative approaches t o be adopted by the e x i s t i n g o r new i n s t i t u t i o n s i n r e s p e c t of co-financing, guarantees
and non p r o j e c t lending. These can be resolved through the normal process of
negotiation and measured adjustment, once the b a s i c o b j e c t i v e of moving from
a mixture of money market and a i d financing t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l financing of development has been f u l l y defined.
This i n s t i t u t i o n a l progress needs t o be linked with ( a ) a more e x p l i c i t system
of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e x a t i o n and g r a n t s , ( b ) a reform of the world monetary system
which seeks t o use the world c r e d i t resources (generated in the process of meet i n g the growing requirements of foreign exchange resources f o r expanding world
t r a d e ) t o augment the supply of f i n a n c i a l resources f o r Third World c o u n t r i e s .
Both points have proved s t i c k y i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s . However, i n princ i p l e , t o a limited e x t e n t both a r e conceded. Foreign a s s i s t a n c e as a
p r o p o r t i o n o f GNP i s accepted as an o b l i g a t i o n by a number o f c o u n t r i e s , though
n o t by a l l . I t has been urged upon OPEC c o u n t r i e s - n o t i n r e l a t i o n t o GNP b u t i n r e l a t i o n t o f o r e i g n exchange s u r p l u s e s . P o s s i b l y a combination o f GNP
and f o r e i g n exchange h o l d i n g s as a b a s i s c o u l d h e l p combine t h e d i v e r g e n t i n t e r e s t s o f v a r i o u s I n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , t o l a y down t h e b a s i s f o r an i n t e r n a t i o n a l f u n d which c o u l d be used f o r o u t r i g h t g r a n t s t o c o u n t r i e s f o r supp o r t i n g t h e i r programnes seeking t o implement g l o b a l l y accepted p r i o r i t i e s .
Such funds c o u l d a l s o be used t o f i n a n c e r e g i o n a l m u l t i - n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s f o r
area development, encouraging g r e a t e r c o o p e r a t i o n among t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e
South.
T a x a t i o n a t v e r y low r a t e s c o u l d move on whatever i s considered l e s s d e s i r a b l e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y - armaments e x p e n d i t u r e , p o l l u t i o n - c r e a t i n g i n d u s t r i e s ,
d e s t a b i l i z i n g l a r g e f o r e i g n exchange reserves - as a l s o on g l o b a l commons t o
f i n a n c e g l o b a l l y h i g h - p r i o r i t y a c t i v i t i e s . T h i s may sound a m b i t i o u s and unr e a l i s t i c . However, some movement a l o n g these l i n e s would be necessary t o r e a l i z e t h e o b j e c t i v e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e a t t i t u d e f o r n a t i o n a l development p o l i c i e s b o t h i n the N o r t h and South.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l monetary r e f o r m needs t o be r e v i v e d as a ~ l o b a ltheme from t h e l i m b o
where i t was p l a c e d a f t e r t h e compromise a t Kingston, Jamaica. Formal l i n k s
between development, f i n a n c e , i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e r v e c r e a t i o n , may s t i l l be r e s i s t e d , b u t some progress i s p o s s i b l e b u i l d i n g on t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e T r u s t
Fund based on t h e s a l e o f IHF g o l d . I t was p r o b a b l y a mistake f r o m t h e p o i n t
o f view o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s t o p l a c e t h i s s o f t money i n t h e hands of t h e
IMF f o r use o n l y as c o n d i t i o n a l balance o f payments s u p p o r t f o r t h e medium
period.
The m a j o r t h r u s t o f t h e argument i n t h i s n o t e i s t o r e p l a c e t h e demand f o r acceptance o f q u a l i f i e d a s s i s t a n c e t a r g e t s w i t h a move towards g r e a t e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e r e s o u r c e t r a n s f e r mechanism. T h i s would r e q u i r e a meaningf u l r e f o r m o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l monetary system, s t r e n g h t e n i n g and expansion o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l development f i n a n c i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , and some move towards e x p l i c i t
i n t e r n a t i o n a l t a x a t i o n . I n t h i s system, each T h i r d l-!orld c o u n t r y would l e a r n
t o use commercial f i n a n c e and market b o r r o w i n g i n combination w i t h i n s t i t u t i o n a l loans as p a r t o f i t s own d e b t management p o l i c y . To make t h i s a p r a c t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n , i t may be necessary t o have an o r d e r l y p h a s i n g o u t of r e payments due on p a s t concessional loans.
LES RESSOURCES, L I A L I M E N T A T I O N PATRIPIOINE COMVUII, L 1 1NDUSTRIAL I S A T I O N ET L A TECHNIQUE
Ben Sal iah Kouyate
:'
La s t r a t e g i c i n t e r n a t i o n a l e de dCveloppement pour l e s annees 70, r e t e n a i t u n taux
de croissance annuelle de 4% pour l ' a g r i c u l t u r e e t de 3% pour l ' i n d u s t r i e .
Malgre t o u t , nous nous trouvons aujourd'hui 2 l a f i n de c e t t e 2e S t r a t e g i e avec
un taux moyen de croissance du P N B de 5,6% dans l e s pays du Tiers-Monde OCI 1e
revenu annuel par h a b i t a n t n ' a meme pas exed6 l e s e u i l de croissance f a t i d i q u e
de 3%. Ainsi, en considerant que l a NSID a pour o b j e c t i f , e n t r e a u t r e s , de
promouvoi r un developpement e t une croi ssance economique autonomes au ni veau nat i o n a l e t i n t e r n a t i o n a l il l ' i n t e r i e u r de chaque region geographique du monde en
g e n e r a l , de chaque region des pays du Tiers-Monde en p a r t i c u l i e r , en tenant compte de ces o b j e c t i f s de l a NSID, i l y a l i e u de mettre accent s u r l e s l i a i s o n s
i n t e r s e c t o r i e l l e s d'une p a r t , s u r l e s r e l a t i o n s e n t r e l ' a g r i c u l t u r e e t l ' i n d u s t r i e d ' a u t r e p a r t . En e f f e t , l'experience prouve par exemple q u ' i l e x i s t e un
l i e n e t r o i t e n t r e l e s taux de croissance dans l ' a g r i c u l t u r e e t dans l ' i n d u s t r i e .
Ce s u r quoi j e voudrais i n s i s t e r i c i e s t que :
1 ) L ' a g r i c u l t u r e e t l a production a l i m e n t a i r e doivent occuper l a premiere place
parmi 1es divers elements s e c t o r i e l s e t fonctionnels de l a NSID; l a famine e t la
malnutrition menacent de vastes regions du monde.
P a r t a n t des f a i t s , je me bornerai a rappeler dans ce contexte qu'au cours de l a
periode 1960-1975, l a production a g r i c o l e mondiale s ' e t a i t $levee a un taux annuel de 1,8% a l o r s que, pour l a meme periode, l e s pays du Tiers-Monde ont r e a l i s 6
un taux de croissance de 2,8%. P i r e , au cours de l a 2e S t r a t e g i e , ce taux de
croissance e t a i t 2 peu pres de 2,2%, c ' e s t - 2 - d i r e bien i n f e r i e u r au taux de
croissance de 4% prevu. Ainsi en f a i t , pour 4 seulement des pays du Tiers-Monde,
l e taux de croissance a @tesuperieur 2 4 % , pour un a u t r e q u a r t , par c e n t r e , i1
a decru en valeur absolue, e t pour l a majorite des a u t r e s pays, i1 a o s c i l l 6
e n t r e 0 e t 2%. Dans ce groupe s e trouve f o r t malheureusement 1 'Afrique q u i ,
bien que representant 10,1% de l a population mondiale e n r e g i s t r e il peine l e taux
de 2,7%. C ' e s t 1.3 une perspective catastrophique pour l l A f r i q u e .
2) Pendant que l a demande alimentaire dans l e monde i r a c r o i s s a n t dans 1es dix
prochaines annees, nous devrions accorder l ' a t t e n t i o n voulue aux s t r u c t u r e s de
l a consommation. Car, pendant que l e s niveaux de revenu s ' e l e v e r o n t , 1e pauvre
du Tiers-Monde depensera presque t o u t revenu additionnel en alimentation a l o r s
que l e pourcentage d'accroissernent du revenu consacre a l ' a l i m e n t a t i o n par l e s
pays qui s e s u f f i s e n t en matiere a l i m e n t a i r e s e r a plus bas encore q u ' i l ne 1 '
e s t aujourd'hui. Autrement d i t , l a demande a l i m e n t a i r e augmentera beaucoup plus
rapidement que l e revenu moyen general par t e t e d ' h a b i t a n t . E t meme en l ' a b sence d'une augmentation de ce revenu, l a demande a l i m e n t a i r e s ' a c c r o i t r a avec
--
Â¥ Delegation permanente de l a Guinee aupres des Nations Unies, New York, vicep r e s i d e n t du Comite p r e p a r a t o i r e pour l a Nouvelle S t r a t e g i e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e de
d5veloppement (1e t e x t e reproduit i c i c o n s t i t u e l ' u n e des interventions de M.
Kouyate au seminaire de Scheveningen ( c f Dossier 11,
13 e t 1 4 ) .
une r e d i s t r i b u t i o n du revenu du r i c h e au pauvre. D'oii, mSme dans l e cas du
manque d ' a c c r o i s s e m e n t demographique, 1es besoins a l i m e n t a i r e s i r o n t c r o i s s a n t p l u s rapidement. 11 i m p o r t e done d ' e l a r g i r l a base a l i m e n t a l r e du monde,
t o u t en g a r d a n t a l ' e s p r i t que l a c r o i s s a n c e demographique a t o u t de mSme un
i m p a c t d i r e c t s u r l e s besoins a l i m e n t a i r e s e t que 1 ' o n observe avec preoccup a t i o n l a r e d u c t i o n r e l a t i v e du nombre de pays e x p o r t a t e u r s de b i e n s a l i m e n t a i r e s . Mais l ' i m p o r t a n t dans l a NSID e s t d ' e n v i s a g e r des mesures v i s a n t 2 l a
m o d e r n i s a t i o n du s e c t e u r a g r o - p a s t o r a l dans 1e Tiers-Monde, chose sans l a q u e l l e
l a p r a t i q u e de 1 'autonomic i n d i v i d u e l l e e t c o l l e c t i v e s e r a i t un j e u ill u s o i r e
pour l e Sud. C ' e s t i c i q u ' a p p a r a i t a mes yeux l a p e r t i n e n c e de l a n o t i o n de
l a responsabi lit e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e p o u r l e developpement n a t i o n a l .
3 ) La s o l u t i o n 8 l o n g t e m e aux problemes a l i m e n t a i r e s dans l e Sud e s t a i n s i
l i e e a l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n de l a p r o d u c t i o n a g r i c o l e p a r l e b i a i s de techniques de
productionsmodernes comportant 3 l a f o i s des a p p o r t s i n d u s t r i e l s , une i n f r a s t r u c t u r e moderne e t de m i l leuies i n s t a l l a t i o n s pour l a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n d u s t r i e l l e e t l a d i s t r i b u t i o n des p r o d u i t s a g r i c o l e s . T o u t c e c i a p p e l l e done une
i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n r a p i d e du Sud en g e n e r a l , de 1 ' A f r i q u e s i g u l i e r e m e n t d o n t 1es
performances dans ce domaine s o n t t r e s en-deca de t o u t e s 1es p r e v i s i o n s . L '
i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n d o i t e t r e consider6e donc comme un i n s t r u m e n t dynamique de
c r o i s s a n c e , e n t r a l n a n t un developpement economique e t s o c i a l r a p i d e . D'oG l a
n6cessi t e d ' u n e approche i n t e g r e e . Car s i 1 'augmentation de l a p r o d u c t i o n a1 im e n t a i r e e s t n e c e s s a i r e e t u r g e n t e , e11e s e r a i t cependant i n c o m p l e t e sans un
developpement concomi t a n t des t r a n s p o r t s , de 1 ' i n f r a s t r u c t u r e admini s t r a t i ve
e t i n s t i t u t i o n n e l l e e t sans une l i a i s o n de l ' e c o l e a l a v i e des peuples de nos
pays.
Pour a i n s i d i r e , a l o r s que 1 ' i n d u s t r i e l o u r d e f o u r n i r a i t a 1 ' a g r i c u l t u r e ses
b i e n s d'equipement modernes p o u r une augmentation de 1 a p r o d u c t i o n a g r i c o l e ,
1 ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n adequate des zones r u r a l e s c o r r e s p o n d r a i t mieux aux p o l i t i q u e s de developpement i n t e g r e , p u i s q u ' e l l e c r e e r a i t de nouveaux emplois e t
r e p o n d r a i t aux besoins e s s e n t i e l s de l a masse r u r a l e .
4 ) Pendant que l ' o n semble s ' a c h e m i n e r v e r s u n consensus au n i v e a u i n t e r n a t i onal q u i v o u d r a i t que l ' i n t e r d e p e n d a n c e dans l a r e c i p r o c i t e s e r a i t I e concept
v i a b l e pour l a NSID, nous remarquerons cependant q u ' e n 1973, l e s pays du T i e r s Monde o n t dG f a i r e des emprunts i m p o r t a n t s s u r l e marche des c a p i t a u x a f i n de
s o u t e n i r l e u r t a u x de c r o i s s a n c e i n d u s t r i e l l e . A i n s i , l e montant des c r e d i t s
a l l o u e s i des c o n d i t i o n s comnerciales a depasse de maniere s i g n i f i c a t i v e e n
1975 ce1 u i des t r a n s f e r t s o f f i c i e l s , e t 1 ' @ c a r t c o n t i n u e depuis de s ' e l a r g i r
sans cesse. C ' e s t a i n s i que l a d e t t e des pays du Tiers-Monde s ' e s t accrue de
120 m i l l i a r d s de d o l l a r s US au coursdes q u a t r e d e r n i e r e s annees p o u r ce c h i f f r e
de nos j o u r s a p l u s de 200 m i l l i a r d s de d o l l a r s US. Quand on a j o u t e a c e l a l e
coi7teux s e r v i c e des i n v e s t i s s e m e n t s e t r a n g e r s d i r e c t e m e n t r e a l i s e s dans l ' i n d u s t r i e , i 1 a p p a r a i t c l a i r e m e n t l a n e c e s s i t e de suggerer, dans l e cadre de l a
NSID, un a u t r e moyen de financement q u i i g n o r e r a i t l e s p r a t i q u e s e t c o n d i t i o n s
a c t u e l l e s . C ' e s t 12 en t o u t cas une tache commune au Nord e t au Sud e t q u i
e s t d ' u n i n t e r e t commun aux deux dans l a mesure oii p o u r l a p e r i o d e 1980-2000,
l e s pays du Tiers-blonde r e p r e s e n t e r o n t pres du 1/3 des n o u v e l l e s c a p a c i t e s de
p r o d u c t i o n i n d u s t r i e l l e e t l e u r f a i s a n t j o u e r a i n s i un r o l e non n e g l i g e a b l e
dans l ' @ c o n o m i e mondiale.
Dans ce cadre, l'augmentation de 1'Aide Publique au Developpement e s t une recommandation f o r t u t i l e , de tneme q u ' i l s e r a i t s o u h a i t a b l e , pour l a formulat i o n de l a f u t u r e S t r a t e g i c , de disposer I e plus t o t possible des conclusions
du "Lima I n d u s t r i a l Development Objective" (ou LIDO) p o r t a n t s u r des s c e n a r i o s
macro-economiques pl u r i s e c t o r i e l s e t p l u r i regionaux decri vant l e s changements
fondamentaux que devront s u b i r l e s s t r u c t u r e s economiques mondiales s i l ' o n
veut a t t e i n d r e l ' o b j e c t i f de Lima.
Peut-etre aussi que notre symposium en f a i s a n t toute suggestion dans ce domaine de l ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n n'omettra pas l e f a i t q u ' i l va f a l l o i r l i e r nos demarches e t previsions avec l e s r e s u l t a t s qui nous viendront des a s s i s e s de l a
Conference de revision de l a Convention de P a r i s s u r l a p r o p r i e t e i n d u s t r i e l l e
organisee par 1 'OMPI.
Ce s o n t l a , Messieurs, quelques remarques e t suggestions que j ' a i tenu 2 vous
soumettre pour qu'a l ' i s s u e de ce Symposium nouspuissions e t r e a meme, au regard de l a Resolution p e r t i n e n t e 33/193 e t grace a un t r a v a i l de s y n t h s s e , de
repondre en t o u t e connaissance de cause 2 l a question posee par l a FIPAD, a
s a v o i r "quelle strategic voulons-nous?"
EXPERIENCES
Un c e r t a i n nombre d ' a c t i v i t e s e n t r e p r i s e s dans l e cadre du p r o j e t Tiers Systeme
de l a FIPAD ont e t e l i e e s , directement ou indirectement, 2i des groupes engages,
s u r 1e t e r r a i n , dans l a recherche concrete d'un a u t r e developpement e t d ' a u t r e s
s t y l e s de v i e dans des domaines d i v e r s e t dans des pays i n d u s t r i a l i s e s aussi
bien que dans l e Tiers Monde. Faisant s u i t e a l ' a r t i c l e de Michel Schirad
(Dossier 14) qui envisageait l a problematique de ces experiences, nous ouvrons
dans ce numero une rubrique "experiences" qui s ' e f f o r c e r a de p r e s e n t e r , somrnairement, quelques experiences en cours dans des pays i n d u s t r i a l i s 6 s . ( 1 )
11 ne s ' a g i t pas de pretendre, dans c e t t e s e r i e d r e s s e r un i n v e n t a i r e des experimentations s o c i a l e s , qui sont a l a f o i s t r o p nombreuses e t ma1 connues.
On s ' a t t a c h e r a s u r t o u t a proceder 2 une i l l u s t r a t i o n a l ' a i d e de quelques exempies en 1es ordonnant en fonction de l a p r i s e en charge de d i f f e r e n t s domaines
touchant aux s t y l e s de v i e e t de developpement, pour montrer l e champ, non des
p o s s i b l e s , mais des r e e l s .
Attaches a ne r e t e n i r que des cas qui p a r a i s s e n t 1es plus porteurs d ' a v e n i r ,
on a deliberement l a i s s e de cote l e s experiences qui cedent au mirage de
( 1 ) Ces experiences ont f a i t l ' o b j e t d ' u n e presentation d'ensemble dans l e docbt~jentprepare par Jgnacy Lachs e t Plichei hchiray, d u LIKED, ">tyles cle
v i e e t de developpement dans l e monde occidental: experiences e t experimentations" pour l e Seminaire Regional organise par l a Commission Economique pour 1'Afrique e t l e Programme des Nations Unies pour llEnvironnenient
s u r "Les d i f f e r e n t s modes de developpernent e t s t y l e s de v i e possibles pour
l a region a f r i c a i n e " qui s ' e s t tenu a Addis Abeba, en Ethiopie, du 5 au 9
mars 1979 (ECA/SAP/l979/6).
l'eclatement de la societe industrielle complexe en un archipel de communaut@s
autosuffisantes, renfermees sur elles-memes. Les mouvements de contre-culture
et les experiences de repli communautaire restent cependant un phenomene important de notre temps. Les societes pluralistes se doivent de leur laisser une
place. Mais ceci ne signifie nullement qu'ils offrent des solutions generalisables, sans mesestimer toutefois, leur influence ne serait-ce que sur le
plan ideologique, sur l'ensemble de la societe.
11 nous semble, en effet, qu'un changement durable passe par l'instauration
d'une dynamique institutionnelle nouvelle qui change 1es rapports de pouvoir
entre 1es forces du Marche, l'Etat, au profit de la Societe civile.
Ainsi, dans chaque cas decrit, l'experience est a l'initiative de la societe
civile et l'on assiste i un nouvel equilibre dans ses rapports de force avec
le Marche ou 1'Etat.
Les classifications sont forcement tres arbitraires et dependent des objectifs
vises. I1 aurait ete possible de distinguer 1es cas selon des categories d'
acteurs intervenant, les domaines initiaux d'intervention, des types de processus mis en oeuvre ou desinstitutionscre@es. Nous nous contenterons d'ordonner
les experiences selon les domaines qui nous apparaissent privilegies dans le
deroulement de l'experience:
- les techniques appropriees presentees dans ce numero, puis success i vement ,
- l'habitat et l'amenagement urbain et regional,
- la qualite de la vie au travail,
- la consommation, la sante, l'education et la formation.
11 est pourtant evident que beaucoupde ces themes se recoupent 2 travers les
diverses experiences, a des niveaux divers. De meme, la plupart ont en commun
d'autres domainesaussi importants que l'emploi, l'amelioration de la qualite
de la vie ou une meilleure gestion des ressources et du milieu, par exemple.
Ce qu'il iniporte surtout de noter, c'est qu'a partir de la prise en charge d'
un champ de la vie aussi varie qiie l'habitat, l'emploi, la formation, la consommation, la sante, les conditions de travail, etc ..., se developpe un processus social qui, 2 travers une dynamique fondee sur la participation des populations concernees, tend a s'etendre sur des champs nouveaux d'intervention.
Le premier domaine aborde porte sur le developpement de techniques appropriees,
qu'il s'agisse de techniques non polluantes, moins intensives en energie et matieres premieres et valorisant les ressources abondantes, ou plus generalement
des techniques generatrices d'emplois, amelforant la qualite de la vie au travail, maitrisables a un niveau decentralise et correspondant mieux aux besoins
sociaux.
Dans tous 1es cas, ces techniques ont ete identifiees ou developpees a travers
des actions collectives a l'initiative de la societe civile, qu'il s'agisse de
syndicats et de travailleurs ou de groupes de personnes reunies autour d'un
projet. Les processus et les biais par lesquels ils se sont engages sont totalement differents: dans un cas, i l s'agit d'abord de la defense de l'emploi;
dans un deuxieme, d'une recherche de nouvelles formes d'education liees a de
nouveaux styles de vie; dans un troisieme, plus simplement, la recherche d'economi es .
a) Lucas Aerospace, En Grande-Bretagne
L'experience recente des travailleurs de l'entreprise Lucas Aerospace noussemble tout i fait favorable pour introduire notre propos (1); une des plus grandes firmes britanniques de l'aeronautique, appartenant au groupe multinational
Lucas Industries, c'est-i-dire dans unsysteme complexe 09 les rapports de pouvoir sont particulierement solides.
La lutte centre 1es licenciements constitue le point de depart de l'action.
Les treize syndicats de l'entreprise commencent par se regrouper au sein d'un
comite, le "Combine Shop Steward Committee", pour renforcer leur pouvoir 2 1'
egard de la direction. L'action defensive s'avere inefficace face i la liquidation en cours de secteurs entiers d'activite. Le comite engage alors un processus offensif, d'elaboration d'un plan pour definir de nouvelles activites
a l'entreprise. le "Corporate Plan", public en janvier 1976.
Apres une phase de consultations aupres d'organismes exterieurs specialises
qui se reconnaissent finalementincapables de definir une reconversion globale
de l'entreprise, l'initiative est prise d'engager le travail i l'interieur de
l'entreprise. Une vaste enquste aupres de 14000 travailleurs repartis dans
les dix-sept unites de production, pour connaitre et maitriser l'appareil de
production et son aptitude i fabriquer de nouveaux produits. Un debat interne
est instaure. A l'issue de dix-huit mois, le plan est @labore. 11 retient en
particulier une douzaine des 150 suggestions de produits nouveaux, concernant
des domaines aussi varies que des techniques de valorisation des ressources de
l'ocean, pour l'agriculture marine en particulier, des systemes economiques et
alternatifs de transport, les energies renouvelables, comrne 1e solaire,, et
leur application i des secteurs nouveaux comme les transports.
D'emblee, a 6te pose l'objectif de definir des produits "socialement utiles".
Les criteres privilegies concernaient, en particulier, l'economie d'energie,
les technologies non polluantes, une durabilite accrue des biens et, si possible, l'aptitude a etre maitrise par les utilisateurs, en particulier pour
en faciliter l'entretien.
En meme temps, au cours de l'elaboration du plan, pour lechoix de produits, de
techniques et d'organisation de la production, etaient pris en compte, non seulement la creation d'emplois, objectif initial, mais aussi l'ensemble des aspects de la qualit6 de la vie au travail. De nouvelles formes d'organisation
(1)
Voir Dave Elliot, The Lucas aerospace workers campaign, Fabian Society,
Londres, 1978; Institute for worker's control: L i c a F a n Alternative
Plan, Nottingham, 1978. Voir aussi "Alternatives to Military Production
=to
Unemployment", Development Dia(1977:l).
du travail sont proposees, a commencer par l'eclatement des systemes de production existants en unites plus decentralisees et plus autogerees.
Quelle a 6te l'issue du plan?
A premiere vue, relativement a l'ampleur de l'enjeu d'une transformation profonde 2 la fois des rapports de pouvoirs internes 2 l'entreprise avec une participation active des travailleurs a l'elaboration de la politique generate de
l'entreprise et a la fois de la logique meme de l'entreprise en privilegiant
l'emploi, la qualite de la vie au travail et l'utilite sociale de la production a la recherche de profits maximaux a court terme, le bilan de ce mouvement peut s'averer modeste. I1 n'a abouti qu'a permettre le redemarrage de
deux unites de production a partir de certaines des propositions du plan.
La forcede cette experimentation sociale ne peut etre mesuree seulement ainsi.
En demontrant la capacite d'intervention des travailleurs, elle a entrain6 une
dynamique nouvelle au deli meme de l'entreprise. Des experiences semblables se
sont amorcees recemment, dans d'autres firmes, chez Rolls Royce, BAC (2 Preston), Chrysler, Clarke Chapman Vickers et d'autres.
A l'initiativedu Comite de travailleurs de la Lucas Aerospace et a l'aide d'un
don d'une institution charitable, a ete constitue, en fevrier 1978, un Centre
de recherche (1) pour promouvoir le developpement et l'application de produits
"socialement utiles", et l'assistance pour la formation d'industries cooperatives. Ce Centre beneficie evidemment de l'appui des syndicats, mais aussi d'
autres groupes, et meme du Parlement.
b) Tvind, au Danemark
A une autre echelle, n'est-il pas etonnant qu'a l'epoque de la "crise de 1'
energie" et de la crise de l'environnement, oG des moyens considerables sont
mis en oeuvre par 1es Etats et 1es plus grandes firmes transnationales, pour
le developpement de sources d'energie alternatives au petrole, que ce soit a
Tvind, petite localite du Danemark, 00 est tentee une experience inedite d'
enseignement, qu'a et6 realise un des plus grands moulins a vent du monde (2)
Les responsables de l'experience demontraient en outre que 20% de l'energie
necessaire au payx pouvaient etre produits par un millier d'eoliennes de ce
type, ce qui constitue un veritable defi aux chox energetiques du gouvernement.
(1)
Voir la presentation du Center for Alternative Technological and Industrial Systems dans Science for People, no.39, Spring 1978.
(2)
Voir notamnient Don Hinrichsen: Spin-off from the world's biggest windmill
could change Denmark's energy program - New Scientist, London, vol.77, no.
1086 - 19 January 1978. Environment, St. Louis, Missouri, March-April 1978.
Le Nouvel Observateur, no.702, Paris, avril 1978.
La p o r t e e de c e t t e e x p e r i e n c e d o i t e t r e cependant mesuree p a r r a p p o r t
c o n t e x t e que l ' o n p e u t r a p p e l e r rapidement.
a
son
C ' e s t en 1970 q u ' u n i n s t i t u t e u r en ch6mage e t c i n q professeurs se rassemblent
pour f o n d e r une Ecole p o p u l a i r e i t i n e r a n t e e t ronipre avec unsysteme d ' e n s e i gnement c l o s en developpant une f o r m a t i o n o u v e r t e a l a v i e e t au monde e x t e r i e u r . L ' o b j e c t i f e s t de developper une v i e c o l l e c t i v e oQ t o u t e s l e s taches
s e n t r e a l i s e e s p a r l ' e n s e m b l e des p r o f e s s e u r s e t e t u d i a n t s , a l a f o i s macons,
i n g e n i e u r s , a g r i c u l t e u r s , marins, o u v r i e r s , mecaniciens ou c u i s i n i e r s . Le t r a v a i l manuel y occupe une p l a c e a u s s i i m p o r t a n t e que 1e t r a v a i l i n t e l l e c t u e l .
Debute avec q u a r a n t e e t u d i a n t s , l e groupe s ' e s t e l a r g i en c r e a n t ur,e e c o l e n o r male d ' i n s t i t u t e u r s e t un cours complementaire pour des jeunes e x c l u s du systeme d'enseignement t r a d i t i o n n e l , e t comprend a u j o u r d ' h u i 800 6 t u d i a n t s .
A l o r s q u ' i l n ' y a v a i t au debut qu'une v i e i l l e ferme, l a t r e n t a i n e de b a t i m e n t s ,
t o u s l e s a t e l i e r s e t equipements o n t e t e c o n s t r u i t s p a r l e s e t u d i a n t s e t p r o fesseurs.
La c o n s t r u c t i o n de c a p t e u r s s o l a i r e s e t l e s deux m o u l i n s a v e n t d e v r a i e n t p e r m e t t r e , non seulement de c o u v r i r l ' e n s e m b l e de l a consommation e n e r g e t i q u e du
groupe, mais meme de degager un s u r p l u s p o u r I e vendre au reseau r e g i o n a l d '
electricite.
11 n ' e s t , p a r a i l l e u r s , pas i n d i f f e r e n t de r a p p e l e r que l ' e c o l e p r e p a r e en m6me
temps aux examens o f f i c i e l s e t que ses r e s u l t a t s s o n t t r e s bons. C ' e s t pourQUO! l e Parlement danois a p p o r t e un s o u t i e n f i n a n c i e r au Centre, a concurrence
d ' u n e p a r t i e seulement des coUts de fonctionnement.
L ' E c o l e p o p u l a i r e i t i n e r a n t e e s t t r e s o u v e r t e . E l l e a c c u e i l l e des e t u d i a n t s
~ t r a n g e r se t o r g a n i s e , pour une p a r t i m p o r t a n t e de I'enseignernent, des voyages
d ' e t u d e s a l ' e t r a n g e r , a l ' a i d e de v i e u x autobus amenages, en Europe e t rneme
en A s i e , en A f r i q u e e t en Amerique l a t i n e .
c ) Cedar County, du Nebraska, aux E t a t s - U n i s .
C ' e s t a u s s i a t r a v e r s des processus beaucoupmoinsexceptionnels que des groupes
de p o p u l a t i o n p r e n n e n t l ' i n i t i a t i v e de developper des t e c h n i q u e s n o u v e l l e s , 1 i ees en p a r t i c u l i e r a une m e i l l e u r e g e s t i o n de l ' e n v i r o n n e m e n t o u mieux m a U r i s a b l e s , comme c e l l e s concernant l e s e n e r g i e s renouve1ab1;-s, pour l a q u e l l e nous
ne c i t e r o n s q u ' u n cas parmi l e s innombrables q u i se s o n t r e a l i s e s dans p r a t i quement t o u s l e s pays.
Dans 1e pays de CEDAR (CEDAR c o u n t y ) , une des r e g i o n s 1es p l u s pauvres du Nebraska, c ' e s t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t pour des r a i s o n s d'economie s u r l e s touts q u ' u n
groupe l o c a l a m i s au p o i n t , a p a r t i r de l ' e n e r g i e s o l a i r e e t e o l i e n n e , des
systemes p e r m e t t a n t aux p e t i t e s fermes d ' a c c r o i t r e l e u r autonomic e n e r g e t i q u e .
(1)
J . Belden, " C u t t i n g energy c o s t s i n Nebraska".
S o c i e t y , F a l l , Sept-Oct.
1978.
Working Papers f o r a New
C e t t e i n i t i a t i v e , q u i a provoque un i n t e r s t c e r t a i n au n i v e a u l o c a l , mais s '
e s t h e u r t e e a l ' h o s t i l i t e de c e r t a i n e s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , comme l e M i n i s t e r s de
l l A g r i c u l t u r e , peu i n t e r e s s e p a r 1es p e t i t e s e x p l o i t a t i o n s a g r i c o l e s , a f i n a lement obtenu un s o u t i e n d ' u n organisme f e d e r a l (Community S e r v i c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) pour e n t r e p r e n d r e , a t r a v e r s l e " P r o j e t s u r I' e n e r g i e pour p e t i t e s f e r mes" (Small Farm Energy P r o j e c t ) , une a c t i o n de d i f f u s i o n des techniques mises
au p o i n t . Le groupe p u b l i e a u j o u r d ' h u i un manuel d ' i n i t i a t i o n largement r e pandu.
11 e x i s t e a i n s i dans l a s o c i e t e c i v i l e un movement c r o i s s a n t d ' i n i t i a t i v e s 10c a l e s pour developper des systemes de p r o d u c t i o n a p e t i t e e c h e l l e , d e c e n t r a l i see, moins i n t e n s i v e en c a p i t a l e t demandant p l u s de t r a v a i l , mais un t r a v a i l
q u i s ' e f f e c t u e certainement dans des c o n d i t i o n s qua1 i t a t i v e m e n t m e i l l e u r e s ( 1 ) .
A un n i v e a u beaucoup p l u s i m p o r t a n t , r a p p e l l o n s l ' e x p e r i e n c e i n i t i c e p a r I e
p r o j e t Sudbury 2001, au Canada, q u i v i s e a promouvoir une d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n du
developpement economique d ' u n e communaut~ groupant 170 000 h a b i t a n t s a t r a v e r s
1es t e c h n o l o g i e s a p p r o p r i e e s ( 2 ) .
BREAST
IS BEST
by V i c S u t t o n -*/
The p r o m o t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l baby foods, l o n g suspected by e x p e r t s t o be an imp o r t a n t f a c t o r i n persuading mothers n o t t o b r e a s t f e e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n , i s t o
be banned.
The d e c i s i o n , t a k e n i n Geneva i n October b y I n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of
m e d i c a l e x p e r t s , governments, t h e i n d u s t r y and non-governmental o r g a n i s a t i o n s ,
forms p a r t o f a s e r i e s o f recommendations on i n f a n t and young c h i l d f e e d i n g
which i n c l u d e t h e proposal f o r a "code o f conduct" on t h e p r o m o t i o n and mark e t i n g o f baby foods.
T h i s was t h e m a j o r r e s u l t o f an e x p e r t s m e e t i n q o r g a n i s e d by t h e World H e a l t h
b r g a n i z a t i o n ( K t i G ) and UNICEF. I t s b a s i c goal was t o produce g u i d e l i n e s f o r
V o i r , p a r exemple, pour ce mouvement aux E t a t s - U n i s :
Hazel Henderson,
"The b i g new s m a l l i s b e a u t i f u l movement", Business and S o c i e t y Review,
F a l l . 1977.
En c e q u i concerne une s t r a t e g i c g l o b a l e de l ' e m p l o i p r i v i l e g i a n t en p a r t i c u l i e r l e s t e c h n i q u e s moins i n t e n s i v e s en c a p i t a l , v o i r : W. B i e r t e r e t E.
Von Weizsacker, S t r a t e g i e s c o n t r e l e chomage: E s p r i t , no.lO, Oct. 1977,
Paris.
V o i r Cathy S t a r r s , "Development a l t e r n a t i v e s - Some Canadian s i g n p o s t s "
e t Narasim Katary, "Economic Development o f Sudbury, The " T r i p l e S"
Strategy",
IFDA D o s s i e r 12.
I n t e r Press S e r v i c e , T h i r d World News Agency.
governments on t h e a c t i o n needed t o improve n u t r i t i o n p r a c t i c e s . WHO, which
hosted t h e meeting, presented i t as p a r t o f i t s d r i v e t o p r o v i d e b a s i c h e a l t h
c a r e f o r a l l b y t h e y e a r 2000. T h e i r t h e s i s i s s i m p l e : b r e a s t f e e d i n q i s b e s t
f o r b a b i e s i n terms o f nourishment, h e a l t h r i s k s and l o v e .
The c h i e f n u t r i t i o n a l and p r a c t i c a l reason a r e a l r e a d y p r i n t e d on e v e r y can o f
"dawn" powderedmilk s o l d i n Zambia. The l a b e l , " b r e a s t f e e d y o u r c h i l d . The
best food f o r y o u r c h i l d i s the mother's m i l k " .
D o n o t f e e d y o u r c h i l d a r t i f i c i a l l y u n l e s s you a r e s u r e t h a t you have t h e money t o buy enough m i l k . By t h e t i m e t h a t y o u r c h i l d i s f o u r months o l d , he
w i l l want f i v e pounds o f m i l k powder each month. Are y o u s u r e t h a t you have
enough money t o buy t h i s ?
Feed y o u r c h i l d w i t h a cup and spoon and n o t w i t h a f e e d i n g b o t t l e . Ask i n
t h e shop where y o u bought t h i s t i n f o r a paper t e l l i n g you how t o f e e d y o u r
child".
Even w i t h such warnings, t h e r e a r e t h o s e e x p e r t s who c a l l f o r more d r a s t i c act i n n . D r . John B i d d u l p h , p r o f e s s o r o f c h i l d h e a l t h a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Papua
New Guinea, c l a i m s t h a t a feeding b o t t l e "can be r o r e dangerous t h a n a gun". Exp l a i n i n g why, he ccrments t h a t n'ost mothers i n T h i r d k r l d c o u n t r i e s have
n e i t h e r t h e knowledge, money, t i m e , s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s n o r b a s i c f a c i l i t i e s
t o b o t t l e f e e d t h e i r babies s a f e l y " .
Papua New Guinea i s one o f s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s w h i c h have a c t e d d e c i s i v e l y t o
h a l t a t r e n d away f r o m b r e a s t f e e d i n g . The causes f o r concern were two t r e n d s :
a marked decrease i n b r e a s t f e e d i n q , and a w o r r y i n g i n c r e a s e i n d i a r r h o e a 1 d i seases among i n f a n t s .
Dr. B i d d u l p h a d m i t s t h a t t h e r e i s no way o f p r o v i n g t h e connection, b u t p o i n t s
t o a c y c l e i n which f e e d i n g b o t t l e s become h e a v i l y contaminated w i t h b a c t e r i a ,
w h i l e t h e expense o f a r t i f i c i a l p r e p a r a t i o n s l e a d s mothers t o o v e r - d i l u t e t h e
m i l k . The r e s u l t , a c c o r d i n g t o Dr. B i d d u l p h , i s a " l e t h a l c o n c o c t i o n o f d i l u t e d m i l k w i t h concentrated b a c t e r i a l content".
Government a c t i o n i n Papua New Guinea, s i n c e independence i n 1975, has r e s u l t e d b o t h i n an e x t e n s i v e e d u c a t i o n a l campaign and i n l e g i s l a t i o n . B r e a s t f e e d i n g i s w i d e l y promoted, t h r o u g h t h e h o s p i t a l and h e a l t h s e r v i c e s t r u c t u r e and
t h r o u g h t e a c h i n g packages and media p u b l i c i t y .
I n addition, r a d i o advertisements f o r feeding b o t t l e s , teats, s p e c i f i c breastm i l k s u b s t i t u t e s and i n f a n t f o r m u l a s a r e banned. The m i l k companies v o l u n t a r i l y agreed n o t t o a d v e r t i s e t h e i r p r o d u c t s . Thus t h e o n l y m i l d a d v e r t i s e d
f o r babies i s b r e a s t m i l k .
More r e c e n t l y s t i l l , i n 1977, t h e s u p p l y o f f e e d i n g b o t t l e s was made i l l e g a l
e x c e p t on p r e s c r i p t i o n . The r e s u l t , 20 months l a t e r , was t h a t t h e number o f
a r t i f i c i a l l y f e d b a b i e s i n Papua New Guinea c a p i t a l P o r t Moresby had plummeted
f r o m o n e - t h i r d t o one i n e i g h t .
The WHO/UNICEF meeting c a l l e d f o r a code o f conduct t o be f o r m u l a t e d which
would r e g u l a t e t h e p r o m o t i o n and m a r k e t i n g o f baby foods and f e e d i n g b o t t l e s .
It i s l i k e l y , however, t h a t t h i s w i l l be o n l y a f i r s t s t e p , and t h a t government
l e g i s l a t i o n w i l l be i n t r o d u c e d i n most c o u n t r i e s t o back up a v o l u n t a r y code.
The h e a l t h and commonsense reasons ought t o s u f f i c e t o convince governments o f
t h e widom o f such r e g u l a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , i n f o r m a l e s t i m a t e s have been made
t h a t by 1980 t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s c o u l d be spending a b i l l i o n US d o l l a r s
a y e a r on powdered baby m i l k . T h i s r e p r e s e n t s an enormous p o t e n t i a l d r a i n on
n a t i o n a l resources, and on s c a r c e r e s e r v e s o f f o r e i g n exchange.
Papua New Guinea a g a i n p r o v i d e s an example. The l a w banning t h e s u p p l y o f f e e d i n g b o t t l e s e x c e p t on p r e s c r i p t i o n was passed b y p r i v a t e member's b i l l , i n
response t o community p r e s s u r e . I t o b t a i n e d government s u p p o r t a f t e r t h e Heal t h Department had c a l c u l a t e d some o f t h e c o s t s i n v o l v e d i n a r t i f i c i a l f e e d i n g .
The government worked o u t t h a t i f e v e r y c h i l d i n Papua New Guinea were a r t i f i c i a l l y f e d i t would c o s t t h e c o u n t r y some 20 m i l l i o n US d o l l a r s a y e a r i n imp o r t s , o r more t h a n h a l f t h e amount o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s t o t a l h e a l t h budget. I n
terms o f each f a m i l y , t o o , t h e c o s t s a r e h i g h . Feeding a baby a r t i f i c i a l l y
w i t h even t h e cheapest f o r m u l a c o u l d be c o s t e d nowadays a t around 4 US d o l l a r s
a week i n f e e d s and equipment.
Guinea Bissau, N i g e r i a , Jamaica, Guyana, Kenya, N i g e r , Barbados, A l g e r i a and
Zambia a r e among t h e c o u n t r i e s which a11 now have a mesure o f s t a t e c o n t r o l
o v e r baby m i l k s a l e s . Venezuela and Gambia a r e c o n s i d e r i n g l e g i s l a t i o n , and
many more c o u n t r i e s a r e t a k i n g s t e p s t o promote b r e a s t - f e e d i n g .
Yet, i n t h e course o f t h e m e e t i n g i t s e l f , a s u b s t a n t i a l campaign was launched
b y t h e Baby Foods I n d u s t r y t o c o n v i n c e e x p e r t s and p u b l i c t h a t , whatever t h e
dubiousness o f p a s t m a r k e t i n g p r a c t i c e s , a r t i f i c i a l m i l k and weaning p r o d u c t s
have an e s s e n t i a l r o l e t o p l a y i n i n f a n t n u t r i t i o n .
I n f a n t foods a r e p a r t o f a m u l t i - m i l l i o n d o l l a r i n d u s t r y . A c c o r d i n g t o Dr.
P i e r r e Borgholtz, a consultant w i t h the United Nations Centre f o r Transnation a l C o r p o r a t i o n s i n New York, t h e t o t a l volume o f i n f a n t f o r m u l a s a l e s i n 1978
was an e s t i m a t e d 1,850 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s b y Western and Japanese companies.
Sales i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s made up a t h i r d t o a h a l f o f t h i s t u r n o v e r .
The b u l k o f t h e s e s a l e s a r e made by m a j o r t r a n s n a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e s w i t h wide
i n t e r e s t s i n t h e f o o d o r d r u g i n d u s t r i e s . The p r o d u c t s a r e manufactured, by
and l a r g e , i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s w i t h a w e l l - d e v e l o p e d d a i r y s e c t o r .
A s m a l l number o f companies, most o f them o p e r a t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , c o n t r o l
95% o f t h e t o t a l s a l e s o f i n f a n t f o r m u l a i n market economies.
There i s moreover l i t t l e c o m p e t i t i o n between companies. I n s i x i n d u s t r i a l i s e d
c o u n t r i e s s t u d i e d by Dr. B o r g h o l t z o v e r n i n e t y p e r c e n t o f s a l e s a r e made by o n l y
two companies ( i n Denmark, France and t h e U.S.A.) o r b y t h r e e companies ( i n
B r i t a i n , Japan and West Germany). I n a dozen T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s f o r which
he has been a b l e t o f i n d f i g u r e s , t h e p i c t u r e i s t h e same. I n Venezuela i n
1978, t h e Swiss based g i a n t N e s t l e and t h e American Wyeth l a b o r a t o r i e s c o n t r o l l e d 95 p e r c e n t o f t h e market. I n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t h e same two companies, p l u s
t h e American B r i s t o l - M y e r s ,
c o n t r o l l e d 99 p e r c e n t o f t h e market, i n 1975.
B o r g h o l t z f u r t h e r suggests t h a t , w i t h I n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r y markets saturated,
overseas s a l e s have beconiean i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e growth s t r a t e g i e s o f t h e i n f a n t f o r m u l a companies. Both widespread p u b l i c a d v e r t i s i n g , and p r o m o t i o n t o
t h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n so as t o t r y and g e t p r o d u c t s endorsed o r even recommended d i r e c t t o mothers by h o s p i t a l and c l i n i c s t a f f , can be seen as p a r t of
a normal b u s i n e s s approach t o t h e need f o r growth i n s a l e s . A t s t a k e a r e p r o f i t l e v e l s which B o r g h o l t z i n f o r m a l l y e s t i m a t e s t o approcah an annual l e v e l of
45-50 p e r c e n t o f a s s e t s .
Mr. I a n B a r t e r o f t h e B r i t i s h f i r m "Cow and Gate", who i s p r e s i d e n t o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n c o u n c i l o f i n f a n t f o o d i n d u s t r i e s ( I C I F I ) , pledged a f t e r t h e m e e t i n g
t h a t I C I F I members would c a r e f u l l y r e s p e c t t h e s p i r i t o f t h e agreement reached
a t t h e meeting, and n o t j u s t t h e l e t t e r . T h i s w i l l t h e r e f o r e be b i n d i n g on
such I C I F I members as N e s t l 6 , Wyeth, t h e French "Bon-Gervais Danone", Cow and
Gate i t s e l f , t h e Danish Dumex, and seven o t h e r European and Japanese companies.
Non-governmental o r g a n i s a t i o n s , which were v e r y a c t i v e a t t h e meeting, decided,
as a f o l l o w up t o s e t up an INTERNATIONAL BABY FOODS COALITION i n o r d e r t o cont i n u e p r e s s u r e on i n d u s t r y t o end u n e t h i c a l m a r k e t i n g p r a c t i c e s and c o o r d i n a t e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o n i t o r i n g . W h i l e t h e recommendations f o r m u l a t e d a t t h e WHO/
UNICEF m e e t i n g a r e encouraging, i m p l e m e n t a t i o n seems p o s s i b l e o n l y i f groups
and i n d i v i d u a l s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d cooperate.
L U I S ECHEVERR184: FORklARDS AND UP!iARDS
b y F r a n c i s c o Fernandez Mora-*/
"We must go f o r w a r d s and upwards": t h i s s l o g a n , f o r m u l a t e d by f o r m e r Mexican
P r e s i d e n t , L u i s E c h e v e r r i a (1970-61, provoked a g r e a t d e a l o f comment when
i t was made. It was t h e n t h a t Mexico f i r s t gave a h i n t o f i t s imminent emergence as a power on t h e w o r l d s t a g e and a l e a d e r o f t h e T h i r d World n a t i o n s .
E c h e v e r r i a e x p l a i n s h i s v i e w o f the w o r l d and M e x i c o ' s p o s i t i o n i n i t , i n a
book t o be p u b l i s h e d i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . The book has been compiled by j o u r n a l i s t L u i s Suarez, and e x t r a c t s were r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d by t h e plexican magaz i n e "Siempre".
I n i t , E c h e v e r r i a e x p l a i n s t h a t a whole p h i l o s o p h y i s b e h i n d t h e phrase, and
t h a t t h i s p h i l o s o p h y i s t h e p r o d u c t of Mexican h i s t o r y and geography, and o f
t h e c o u n t r y ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p and p r o x i m i t y t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
:'
I n t e r Press S e r v i c e , T h i r d World News Agency.
w m b e r o f t h e IFDA c o u n c i l .
Luis Echeverria i s a
Mexico i s t h e o n l y L a t i n American c o u n t r y t o have a common b o r d e r w i t h a
Superpower. "The f a c t t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s o u r neighbour means t h a t i n
L a t i n America t h e s i t u a t i o n i s n o t p r o p i t i o u s f o r t h e c a r r y i n g o u t o f p r o g r e s s i v e changes", says E c h e v e r r i a . "They do n o t understand t h a t we a r e c o u n t r i e s
i n f o r m a t i o n , t h a t we a r e s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t an o l d c o l o n i a l o l i g a r c h y , t h a t
as c o u n t r i e s o f t h e T h i r d World we have t o a s s e r t o u r s e l v e s i n e v e r y aspect
o f o u r l i v e s a g a i n s t t h e development models and i n t e r e s t s o f t h e g r e a t Industri a1 i z e d C a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s and t h e S o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s themselves.
"When I s a i d t h a t we must go "forwards and upwards", I was i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
we, as c o u n t r i e s o f t h e T h i r d World, have t o f i n d d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s - n o t
a s t e r i l e c e n t r i s m b u t a p o s i t i o n e q u i d i s t a n t f r o m t h e extremes as we have
i n t h e w o r l d today. We must f i n d an independent and n a t i o n a l i s t p a t h o f s e l f improvement w i t h an e q u i d i s t a n t dynamism n o t a p a s s i v e c e n t r i s m " , says Echeverria.
The former P r e s i d e n t c o n s i d e r s t h a t t h i s i s a r e a l i s t i c p o s s i b i l i t y f o r Mexi c o because o f i t s o i l . The government can i n v e s t i n a g r i c u l t u r e and i n d u s t r y
w i t h o u t h a v i n g e i t h e r t o borrow c a p i t a l o r f o r c e t h e p e o p l e ' s l i v i n g s t a n d ards down i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f c a p i t a l accumulation.
I n t h i s way, s t a t e i n v e s t m e n t can speed economic development and a t t h e same
t i m e d i m i n i s h t h e c o u n t r y ' s dependence on t h e I n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s .
E c h e v e r r i a emphasizes t h e importance o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r a l values i n
Mexico, b o t h Spanish and Indigenous. He c o n t r a s t s t h e consciousness o f nat i o n a l i d e n t i t y w i t h t h e narrow c o l o n i a l a t t i t u d e s o f t h e o l i g a r c h i e s , and
t h e i r model o f economic dependence. He p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e growth o f popul i s t movements i n L a t i n America was a response t o t h e p o l i t i c a l and economic
a t t i t u d e s o f these o l i g a r c h i e s . E c h e v e r r i a sees t h e development o f p o p u l i s m
as a h e a l t h y t r e n d d e s t i n e d t o i n t r o d u c e an independent model o f development
and a n a t i o n a l economy a t t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e people.
"Populism was a l s o t h e p o l i t i c a l consequence o f t h e i n s e r t i o n o f L a t i n Amer i c a i n t o t h e w o r l d m a r k e t b e f o r e t r u e n a t i o n a l r e v o l u t i o n s bad taken p l a c e " ,
a s s e r t s t h e former P r e s i d e n t . As s o c i a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s have become more
acute, t h e worker and peasant movements have o r g a n i s e d o u t s i d e t h e l i m i t s imposed by populism.
E c h e v e r r i a goes on t o r e f e r t o t h e t h r e a t s t o independent n a t i o n a l development
posed by f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s and t h e n a t i o n a l o l i g a r c h y . He r e v e a l s t h e d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n campaign t o which h i s government was s u b j e c t e d towards t h e end o f
h i s p e r i o d i n o f f i c e . A f l i g h t o f c a p i t a l , and a rumour campaign t h a t f o r c e d
t h e d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e peso were t h e weapons used by f o r e i g n and n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s opposed t o h i s p a t h o f economic development. T h i s s o r t o f t h i n g "has
o c c u r r e d more than once i n o t h e r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s e s p e c i a l l y i n L a t i n
America", he says.
E c h e v e r r i a c o n s i d e r s t h a t a l t h o u g h the w o r l d may be i n f o r a l o n g p e r i o d o f
i n s t a b i l i t y , t h e r e a r e some grounds f o r o p t i m i s m i n t h e f a c t t h a t European
s o c i a l democracy and some p r o g r e s s i v e s e c t o r s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a r e d i s posed t o co-operate w i t h T h i r d World on a more equal b a s i s . The case o f
Nicaragua, where Somoza was overthrown w i t h t h e h e l p o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o l i d a r i t y , i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f S o c i a l Democratic governments, i s evidence o f t h i s
t r e n d . I t i s i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e T h i r d World w i l l cont i n u e t h e i r search f o r peace and independence and above a1 1 " t h e i d e a l o f
social justice".
DEVELOPMENT AkD HUPIAN NEEDS
by Soedjatmoko-*/
I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o view w i t h any degree o f equanimity t h e s t a t i s t i c a l i n d i c a t i o n s , r e f l e c t e d i n t h e 1978 World Development Report o f t h e IBRD, t h a t by t h e
y e a r 2000, t h e t o t a l number i n t h e w o r l d o f t h e a b s o l u t e l y poor w i l l be 600
m i l l i o n , o f which 540 m i l l i o n w i l l l i v e i n t h e low income c o u n t r i e s . I f one
t h e n t h i n k s o f i t s human i m p l i c a t i o n s and o f what such a s i t u a t i o n w i l l do
t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e growth o f open s o c i e t i e s i n t h e f u t u r e , t h e prosp e c t s i m p l y becomes t o o a p p a l l i n g t o contemplate. ( . . . )
I t i s a g a i n s t t h e background o f t h e i n c a p a c i t y o f e a r l i e r development s t r a t e g i e s t o deal w i t h t h e problem o f p o v e r t y t h r o u g h t h e t r i c k l e down e f f e c t o f
economic growth, t h a t t h e so c a l l e d " b a s i c needs" approach t o development was
developed as a d i r e c t a t t a c k on p o v e r t y . R e j e c t i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e
T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s o f t h e " L i m i t s t o Growth" r e p o r t t o t h e Club o f Rome,
t h e B a r i l o c h e Foundation i n Argentina, was t h e f i r s t t o develop, on t h e b a s i s
o f c e r t a i n assumptions r e g a r d i n g resource a v a i l a b i l i t y and environmental cons t r a i n t s , a w o r l d model which t r i e d t o show t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f m e e t i n g t h e bas i c needs of people a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d . T h i s approach was subsequently t a k e n
up by t h e ILO i n 1976 i n t h e document "Employment, Growth and B a s i c Needs: A
one w o r l d problem", and has s i n c e become p a r t o f t h e accepted phraseoloqy o f
t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l development community. The b a s i c needs approach t h e n c o n s t i t u t e s an a t t e m p t t o come t o g r i p s d i r e c t l y w i t h w o r l d p o v e r t y by meeti'ng t h e
b a s i c needs o f t h e l o w e s t 40% income group, i n t h e f i e l d s o f food, n u t r i t i o n ,
h e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n and housing, as w e l l as through employment and income gener a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s , coupled w i t h f a m i l y p l a n n i n g . I t i s p r e d i c a t e d on a p o l i c y
package c o n s i s t i n g o f a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h growth r a t e ( 6 - 8 x 1 , r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f income and - up t o a p o i n t - w e a l t h , r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f i n v e s t m e n t , and a
r e v i e w o f consumption and p r o d u c t i o n p a t t e r n s . Subsequently, t h e concept has
been broadened, so as t o i n c l u d e c e r t a i n n o n - m a t e r i a l human needs which t o g e t h e r can be taken as d e t e r m i n i n g , i n a q u a n t i f i a b l e way, t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e
among t h e p o o r .
*/
Soedjatmoko i s an a d v i s e r t o t h e N a t i o n a l Development P l a n n i n g Agency,
J a k a r t a , I n d o n e s i a . The views p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e t h e a u t h o r ' s own and
do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t those o f t h e Agency he i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h .
T h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n i s e x c e r p t e d f r o m t h e second I s h i zaka Memorial L e c t u r e
d e l i v e r e d by Soedjatmoko.
Even though t h e b a s i c needs approach o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e T h i r d World, r e c e n t l y
a s t r o n g t r e n d has development i n t h e T h i r d World r e j e c t i n g the concept o f
b a s i c needs. T h i s r e v e r s a l i n a t t i t u d e has n o t so much t o do w i t h t h e concept
i t s e l f , as w i t h t h e manner i n which t h e concept was p e r c e i v e d and used by i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s i n t h e i r d e a l i n g s w i t h T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . The s u p p l y of
s o c i a l s e r v i c e s t o w e t b a s i c needs does i n f a c t r e q u i r e m a i n l y domestic and
not foreign financing.
The b a s i c needs approach was t h e r e f o r e p e r c e i v e d by many i n t h e T h i r d
World, and n o t w i t h o u t some j u s t i f i c a t i o n , as a means f o r some i n d u s t r i a l
c o u n t r i e s t o reduce t h e i r a i d l e v e l s by t y i n g , and thus l i m i t i n g , f o r e i g n
a i d resources t o b a s i c needs p r o j e c t s . I t a l s o p r o v i d e d them a t t h e same
t i m w i t h an excuse t o do so w h i l e b e i n g a b l e t o sound a h i g h m o r a l i s t i c
n o t e , as i f t h e y had d i s c o v e r e d p o v e r t y i n t h e T h i r d U o r l d , and as i f t h e y
were more concerned about t h e p o o r than t h e e l i t e s i n t h e T h i r d World
c o u n t r i e s themselves. I t a l l o w e d f o r an easy cop-out i n a s e t t i n g t h a t
was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a general d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t among m a j o r donor n a t i o n s
w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f f o r e i g n a i d o v e r t h e p a s t two decades, and by t h e
growing d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e economic s i t u a t i o n i n t h e i r own c o u n t r i e s as
w e l l as i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . This was c r e a t i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s i n m a i n t a i n i n g
s u f f i c i e n t d o w s t i c p o l i t i c a l support f o r e x i s t i n g foreign a i d levels.
The s u s p i c i o n a l s o arose t h a t t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e b a s i c needs approach
i n i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s r e f l e c t e d an unexpressed d e s i r e on t h e i r p a r t t o
keep t h e T h i r d World as non-competi t i v e , l a r g e l y p a s t o r a l s o c i e t i e s ,
a l t h o u g h maybe a l i t t l e b e t t e r f e d , housed and educated.
The Primacy o f A b s o l u t e Poverty E l i m i n a t i o n : I
I r r e s p e c t i v e of whether such p e r c e p t i o n s a r e c o r r e c t o r c o n s t i t u t e t o o
u n f a i r a d i s m i s s a l o f genuine concern w i t h w o r l d p o v e r t y , t h e b a s i c needs
approach has undoubtedly added t o t h e conceptual and o p e r a t i o n a l t o o l s
o f d e v e l o p m n t . B u t even i n terms o f i t s own s t a t e d g o a l , as w e l l as i n
r e l a t i o n t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f freedom, t h e b a s i c needs approach has s e r i o u s
d e f i c i e n c i e s when i t comes t o r e a c h i n g t h e a b s o l u t e l y p o o r . Although c e r t a i n l y
n o t so i n t e n d e d (by i t s a u t h o r s ) b a s i c needs c o u l d be met i n a u t h o r i t a r t a n o r
p a t e r n a l i s t i c ways, which do n o t h i n g t o remove t h e sense o f powerlessness and
dependency o f t h e poor.
A f t e r a l l , a zoo i s a l s o a p l a c e where b a s i c needs a r e b e i n g met. B u t i t
s h o u l d a l s o be p o s s i b l e - and i t c e r t a i n l y i s necessary - t o meet these
needs i n ways t h a t r e l e a s e t h e i r c r e a t i v e enercjies, t h a t b u i l d up t h e i r
s e l f r e l i c a n c e , and t h e i r confidence i n themselves, making them i n t h i s way
f r e e r persons. I t has, f o r t u n a t e l y i n a way, t u r n e d o u t t h a t t h e s i m p l e
p r o v i s i o n o f b a s i c s o c i a l s e r v i c e s does n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y l e a d t o t h e i r
use by t h e poor i n general. Only i f t h e p o o r e r communi t i e s organize
themselves and p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y i n t h e i r p l a n n i n g and u t i l i z a t i o n ,
t h e r e i s a chance t h a t t h e f a c i l i t i e s p r o v i d e d wi 11 a c t u a l l y be used and
assume t h e i r p l a c e i n t h e l i f e o f t h e community. However, even community
c i p a t i o n , experience has shown, does n o t ensure p a r t i c i p a t i o n by t h e
p o o r e s t among them. O f t e n t h e r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a t i o n about new f a c i l i t i e s
o r o p p o r t u n i t i e s does n o t reach them. What i s more d i f f i c u l t t o remedy 9
however, i s t h a t many o f them a r e t i e d up, d u r i n g t h e whole day and p a r t
o f t h e n i g h t , w i t h a l l t h e wmbers o f the f a m i l y who a r e o l d enough t o
work, i n v e r y lowpaying, v e r y u n p r o d u c t i v e work, s i m p l y i n o r d e r t o ensure
t h e i r c o n t i n u e d subsistence. They have n o t t i m e t o spare t o go t o t h e
v i l l a g e h e a l t h p o s t , o r t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n any v o l u n t a r y t y p e o f community
a c t i v i t y , n o r can t h e y a f f o r d t o t a k e t h e r i s k s i n v o l v e d i n any new
o p p o r t u n i t i e s which a r e opened by a v a r i e t y o f government p r o g r a m w s i n
r u r a l development o r f o o d p r o d u c t i o n . Only assured h i q h e r income f r o m
work o r from w e l f a r e s u p p o r t would e n a b l e them t o abandon t h e mere
s u r v i v a l - s t r a t e g y which they have had t o adopt t o s t a y a l i v e . We know
i n f a c t v e r y l i t t l e about t h e dynamics o f t h e s u r v i v a l s t r a t e g y which
enables t h e a b s o l u t e l y poor and t h e i r f a m i l i e s t o s u r v i v e a f t e r a f a s h i o n .
We do know how t o t a l l y dependent t h e y a r e on t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s o f wages
and f o o d p r i c e s . They cannot a f f o r d t o r e j e c t any wages o f f e r e d , however
low, n o r t o postpone purchase o f f o o d s t u f f when p r i c e s a r e h i g h . B u t
we r e a l l y do n o t know enough about t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s and the c u l t u r e s
o f a b s o l u t e p o v e r t y , t o enable us t o b r e a k t h e p a t t e r n o f powerlessness,
o f e x p l o i t a t i o n and permanent indebtedness t h a t keeps them i n a s t a t e o f
dependency b o r d e r i n g on s l a v e r y . S t i l l , t h i s has t o be done, i f t h e
l a r g e r amount o f e x t e r n a l resources made a v a i l a b l e t o them i s n o t t o f l o w
back t o people i n t h e c i t y o r t h e i r r i c h e r f e l l o w v i l l a g e r s .
iJe a l s o do n o t know enough about t h e geography o f p o v e r t y : where t h e
a b s o l u t e l y p o o r a r e e x a c t l y , n o r do we know enough about t h e s p e c i f i c
causes o f each p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . O f t e n t h e a b s o l u t e l y poor a r e t o
be found i n s m a l l i s o l a t e d i s l a n d s , o r i n remote mountain v a l l e y s , where
h i s t o r y has passed them by. B u t sometimes they l i v e c l o s e by i n p l a c e s
n o t t o o f a r removed f r o m more developed areas, b u t i s o l a t e d by t h e p o v e r t y
o f t h e i r n a t u r a l resource endowmnt. They a r e a l s o , g e n e r a l l y i n q u i t e
l a r g e numbers, t o be found among t h e l a n d l e s s i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , many
o f them women. They 1 i v e w i t h t h e i r d e s t i t u t i o n unrecognized, because
o f t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e myths about v i l l a g e l i f e among t h e urban e l i t e ,
i n which s o c i a l harmony, mutual h e l p and s p i r i t o f shared p o v e r t y i s
assumed t o p r e v a i l , w h i l e i n r e a l i t y sharp d i s t i n c t i o n s i n s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n have developed, and t r a d i t i o n a l mutual o b l i g a t i o n s have been
replaced b y c o n t r a c t u a l monetary r e l a t i o n s h i p s . And t h e r e a r e o f course
t h e v e r y poor i n t h e shanty towns and c i t y slums, and those who s l e e p on
t h e sidewalks and under t h e b r i d g e . Each s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r e s d i f f e r e n t ways
o f r e a c h i n g them. I n many cases b r e a k i n g t h e i s o l a t i o n through l i n k a g e
w i t h t h e w i d e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and communication network w i l l be enough t o
a c t i v a t e them. I n o t h e r cases t h e key l i e s i n b r e a k i n g t h e p a t t e r n o f
e x p l o i t a t i o n and dependency, through r e l e a s i n g people f r o m t h e i r i n d e b t e d ness, w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e p r o v i d i n g them w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e , and l e s s
e x p l o i t a t i v e ways o f f i n a n c i n g t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , o r t h r o u g h opening
a1 t e r n a t i ve employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s . B u t q u i t e o f t e n t o o , t h e l a n d on
which t h e y l i v e i s S O poor and so remote, and t h e r e s i g n a t i o n o f i t s people
s o g r e a t , t h a t n o obvious s o l u t i o n s p r e s e n t themselves. I t w i l l r e q u i r e
s p e c i f i c c o n c e n t r a t e d e f f o r t s and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e b e s t minds o f t h e
country, from t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s , from t h e voluntary associations, o r from
t h e b u s i n e s s - w o r l d , a p p l y i n g t h e i r e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l eyes, i n o r d e r t o f i n d t h e
l e s s obvious s o l u t i o n s t h a t a r e s t i l l w i t h i n t h e reach o f these p e o p l e .
And as a l a s t r e s o r t , t h e r e i s of course t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e s e t t l e m e n t .
I t i s c l e a r , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e a b s o l u t e l y poor cannot be reached and
h e l p e d t h r o u g h a g e n e r a l i z e d b a s i c needs approach. I t w i l l r e q u i r e t h e
l a y i n g - o n o f a s p e c i a l t r a c k b e f o r e t h e y can overcome t h e s p e c i f i c m e n t a l ,
p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l d e b i l i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a b s o l u t e p o v e r t y , and become
r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f f e r e d t h r o u g h t h e b a s i c needs approach,
and t o t h e community a c t i v i t i e s which make these f a c i l i t i e s m e a n i n g f u l .
Such a s p e c i a l t r a c k i n t h e development s t r a t e g y must have f i r s t c l a i m on
t h e t o t a l n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s of t h e c o u n t r y , i f t h e a t t a c k on a b s o l u t e pov e r t y i s t o be e f f e c t i v e a t a l l , and i f t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f a b s o l u t e p o v e r t y
i s n o t t o have a permanent e f f e c t on t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y t h a t development i s supposed t o b r i n g f o r t h .
I t a l s o r e q u i r e s o f course, a s p e c i a l
e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f economists and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t o h e l p us unders t a n d t h e phenomenon o f a b s o l u t e p o v e r t y i n i t s v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s
b e t t e r , and t o g e t an o ~ e r a t i o n a lh a n d l e on t h e problem.
p
The B a s i c Needs Approach: I 1
I t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t t h e s p e c i a l t r a c k has t o l e a d i n t o t h e more
g e n e r a l e f f o r t o f overcoming r u r a l and urban p o v e r t y and backwardness t h u s
a l s o r e d u c i n g t h e d u a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r o f t h e economy, t h r o u g h a g e n e r a l
b a s i c needs approach. I h a v e d e a l t elsewhere a t some l e n g t h w i t h t h e v a r i o u s
programmes t h a t t h i s approach i n v o l v e s , and w i l l t h e r e f o r e on t h i s o c c a s i o n
o n l y s t r e s s t h o s e aspects which have a b e a r i n g on o u r g e n e r a l t o p i c .
The l i m i t e d e x p e r i e n c e i n v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s t h u s f a r has shown t h a t t h e
s u p p l y o f b a s i c s e r v i c e s o n l y a r e f u l l y u t i l i z e d i f t h e y become i n t e g r a l
p a r t s o f t h e s e l f o r g a n i s a t i o n and s e l f management c a p a c i t y o f t h e urban and
r u r a l p o o r . B u t i t i s w i t h t h i s r e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e and t h e
i n f o r m a l s e c t o r i n t h e c i t i e s t h a t t h e m o d e r n i z i n g b u r e a u c r a t i c s t a t e has
t h e g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y . I t has proven t o be e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o r e v e r s e
t h e t r e n d s towards o v e r b u r e a u c r a t i s a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e i n f a v o u r o f an
e s s e n t i a l l y h a n d s - o f f p o l i c y which a l l o w s , w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e h e l p o f nongovernmental v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i s a t i o n s , g r a s s r o o t s o r g a n i s a t i o n s t o develop,
f o r c o o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t i n t h e m a r k e t i n g of a g r i c u l t u r a l produce, t h e purchase
o f f e r t i l i s e r s and p e s t i c i d e s and o t h e r needed commodities, i n w a t e r management, i n d e v e l o p i n g c r e d i t unions and b u i l d i n g a s s o c i a t i o n s , o r n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l enterprises.
It t a k e s a w h i l e f o r t h e r u r a l bureaucracy t o r e a l i z e
t h a t a c c o u n t a b i l i t y t o t h e i r members o f t h e i n f o r m a l l e a d e r s e l e c t e d t o h o l d
f o r m a l p o s i t i o n s i n such o r g a n i s a t i o n s , c o n s t i t u t e t h e g r e a t e s t e d u c a t i o n a l
and s e l f c o r r e c t i v e mechanism, and t h e g r e a t e s t f o r c e towards r u r a l emancip a t i o n . It a l s o t a k e s t i m e f o r a t r a d i t i o n a l l y p a t e r n a l i s t i c bureaucracy t o
r e a l i z e t h e c r u c i a l i m ~ o r t a n c eo f d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n . A l s o t h a t i t s h o u l d n o t
f e e l t h r e a t e n e d by t h e growing c a p a c i t y f o r s e l f - o r q a n i s a t i o n and s e l f management, and t h a t t h e s e c u r i t y r i s k s p e r c e i v e d a r e outweighed by t h e developmental dynamics r e l e a s e d i n t h i s way. I t opens t h e way towards v i l l a g e
autonomy and a c t i v e v i l l a g e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n development p l a n n i n g and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . Another o b s t a c l e i n t h i s r e g a r d i s t h e f a c t t h a t many governmental programmes towards i n c r e a s e i n f o o d p r o d u c t i o n and t h e s u p p l y o f
c r e d i t f a c i l i t i e s , aimed a t income and employment generation, a r e directed
towards individual v i l l a g e r s . This tends t o f u r t h e r atomize the vi 1lage
r a t h e r than t o s t i m u l a t e o r g a n i s a t i o n . They a l s o tend t o ignore e x i s t i n g
p a t t e r n s of s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and the d e s i r a b i l i t y f o r the poorest
vi 11 agers t o organize themselves s e p a r a t e l y , as an e s s e n t i a1 s t e p towards
improving t h e i r local bargaining position i n the defence, or the promotion,
of t h e i r own s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t s .
J u s t l i k e t h e attempts t o reach and help t h e absolutely poor require the
breaking up of t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s t h a t keep them in a s t a t e of
permanent indebtedness and deoendency, the more general e f f o r t a t i n t e g r a t e d
r u r a l development through a basic needs approach, a l s o requires s t r u c t u r a l
reform in order t o overcone the impediments standing i n t h e way of i t s e f f e c t i v e implementation. This imp1 i e s land reform, improved land tenure prac t i c e s , and the consolidation of fragmented mini holdings towards t h e e s tablishment of higher y i e l d i n g farm systems through group and cooperative
o r g a n i s a t i o n s . Also the adoption of p r i c e p o l i c i e s f o r d i f f e r e n t foodstuffs
which favour the rural area as a g a i n s t the urban, in a manner which stimul a t e s food production and increases rural income, while a t the same time
ensuring improved calory and o r o t e i n i n t a k e among the urban poor and rural
landless labour. In general , the economic revi t a l i s a t ion of the countryside
through realignment of import and export d u t i e s , and a review of the exchange
r a t e in order t o chanqe the r e l a t i v e valuation of labour and c a p i t a l i n f a vour of labour.
The basic needs approach a l s o requires i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c i e s giving p r i o r i t y
t o labour i n t e n s i v e i n d u s t r i e s and labour i n t e n s i v e production processes
t h a t a r e compatible with the requirement of e f f i c i e n c y : p o l i c i e s favouring
c a p i t a l i n t e n s i v e i n d u s t r i e s serving small rural e n t e r p r i s e s ( e . g . process i n g p l a n t s , cold storaqe f a c i l i t i e s , motorized f i s h i n g boats, owned or des t i ned t o be owned by cooperatives of primary producers) ; locational p o l i c i e s
ensuring proper geographical d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n d u s t r i e s throughout the rural
a r e a s , and where possible with forward and backward linkages t o local production and s e r v i c e s c a p a b i l i t i e s . Also p o l i c i e s which prevent modern sect o r e n t e r p r i s e s t o compete unduly with local e n t e r p r i s e s i n the r u r a l a r e a s ,
using local m a t e r i a l s , And f i n a l l y , p o l i c i e s d i r e c t i n g new investments i n
t h e modern s e c t o r i n support of these p o l i c i e s .
In a d d i t i o n , i t needs an i n c r e a s e of the number of non-exploi t a t i v e linkages
between the modern and the rural s e c t o r , once rural i n s t i t u t i o n s and capab i l i t i t e s have become strong enough, a l s o development of a network of a g r i c u l t u r a l support s e r v i c e , road systems and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i t e s .
The b a s i c needs approach t h e r e f o r e c a l l s f o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l reform a t the
national level and macro economic p o l i c i e s t h a t a r e supportive of i t . Without them, any achievement in rural development w i l l eventually be wiped o u t
aqain. I t i s t h e r e f o r e a f a l l a c y t o assume t h a t the b a s i c needs approach
could ever be a development s t r a t e g y by i t s e l f . A t b e s t i t i s an e s s e n t i a l
element of one which r e q u i r e s fundamental changes i n the p a t t e r n of growth
underlying the development s t r a t e g y .
The b a s i c needs approach i s o f t e n seen and presented, as a means towards
more e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n of income as w e l l as o f t h e development burden.
S h i f t s i n t h e p a t t e r n s o f growth coupled w i t h an emphasis on b a s i c needs,
undoubtedly has an improved d i s t r i b u t i v e e f f e c t .
There a r e however some cases when income d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l n o t be adequate
t o l e a d t o a more e q u i t a b l e s o c i e t y . The i n i t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h may
be so skewed, o r base l i n e p r o d u c t i v e c a p a c i t y may be so low, t h a t r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a s s e t s may be i n e v i t a b l e . Even t h e n i n l a r g e populous T h i r d World
c o u n t r i e s an u n u s u a l l v h i a h growth r a t e and a r a p i d l y expanding modern s e c t o r
may s t i l l n o t be a b l e t o absorb t h e l a r g e l a b o u r s u r p l u s r e s u l t i n g from t h e
moderni s a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e . Therefore, i r r e s p e c t i v e whether a s t r a t e g y i s
pursued o f arowth before d i s t r i b u t i o n , growth w i t h d i s t r i b u t i o n , o r d i s t r i b u t i o n b e f o r e growth, i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s a s e p a r a t e e f f o r t s u c c e s s f u l l y t o
e l i m i n a t e a b s o l u t e p o v e r t y w i t h a f i r s t c l a i m on n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s , w i l l
s t i l l be necessary. No development s t r a t e g y which t r e a t s a b s o l u t e p o v e r t y as
a r e s i d u a l problem w i l l do. We w i l l have t o t u r n development t h i n k i n g ups i d e down.
Once a b s o l u t e p o v e r t y i s overcome, and t h e p h y s i c a l and mental d e b i l i t i e s
t h a t go w i t h i t , a g r e a t d e a l o f developmentalenergy among t h e p o o r may be
r e l e a s e d . I n those r e g i o n s i n I n d i a where t h i s has happened, we a r e a l s o
w i t n e s s i n g m a j o r s h i f t s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f economic as w e l l as p o l i t i c a l
power between t h e l o w e r and t h e h i g h e r c a s t s , amounting t o a q u i e t s o c i a l
r e v o l u t i o n . Because i t i s a l m o s t an autonomous process, i t i s accompanied
by a g r e a t d e a l o f r u r a l v i o l e n c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s an on g o i n g process
which undoubtedly w i l l p r o f o u n d l y change b o t h I n d i a n p o l i t i c s and c u l t u r e .
As t h e I n d i a n e x p e r i e n c e shows, t h e emergence o f t h e poor i n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l
and economic 1 i f e o f the c o u n t r y , i s a process t h a t i s uneven, v e r y much dependent on t h e 1 ocal c o i n c i d e n c e o f p r o t e c t i v e and s t i m u l a t i n g p o l i t i c a l
l e a d e r s h i p , and a p t i t u d e s , d r i v e s and o r g a n i z i n g c a p a c i t y among t h e poor.
O b v i o u s l y even when a b s o l u t e p o v e r t y has been overcome, t h e b a s i c needs
approach among t h e poor i s s t i l l e s s e n t i a l . Income, food, n u t r i t i o n and
h e a l t h , i n c l u d i n g c l e a n water, m i g h t be t h e most u r g e n t i n g r e d i e n t s o f such
an approach. Then e f f o r t s a t a c o m b i n a t i o n o f l e g i s l a t i o n on t h e n a t i o n a l
and r e g i o n a l l e v e l , and t h e development o f o r g a n i s a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t y . Comm u n i t y o r g a n i s a t i o n a and a c t i v i t i e s s h o u l d n o t o n l y have access t o r e l e v a n t
i n f o r m a t i o n i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y , b u t s h o u l d become p a r t o f an in f o r m a t i o rial u n i v e r s e a t t h e l o c a l and r e g i o n a l l e v e l . The amount and k i n d s o f i n f o r m a t i o n u s u a l l y dispensed through e x t e n s i o n workers o r t h e v i l l a g e headman
s i m p l y w i l l n o t be enough t o p r o v i d e t h e mental s t i m u l a t i o n and t h e awareness
o f opportunities t h a t the r e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f the poor require. This includes
access t o i n f o r m a t i o n as w e l l as i n f o r m a t i o n channels b u t a l s o shared c o n t r o l
o v e r i n f o r m a t i on channels. The d e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n networks, and
t h e d e m o c r a t i s a t i o n o f t h e i r c o n t r o l would be e s s e n t i a l p r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r
such success.
TOWARDS AN ENDOGENOUS I N D U S T R I A L I Z A T I O N GEARED TO S A T I S F Y I N G THE
kEEDS OF THE POOR
b y Abd-el Rahman ~ h a n c '
The needs o f t h e poor, w i t h n e g l i g i b l e p u r c h a s i n g power, have n o t been r e l f e c t e d t o any marked degree i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n s t r u c t u r e o f t h e modern manufactur i n g s e c t o r , w h i l e t h e consumption p r e f e r e n c e s o f t h e h i g h e r income groups,
as seen i n t h e p a t t e r n s o f consumer goods o u t p u t s , have been moulded substant i a l l y by t h e t a s t e s and values o f N o r h t e r n p o p u l a t i o n s . The f i n a l m i x of
modern i n d u s t r y , which has determined t h e c h o i c e o f t e c h n o l o g i e s , has worked
i n f a v o u r o f i m p o r t e d processes based on l a r g e - s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n , heavy use
o f c a p i t a l and o n l y l i m i t e d c a l l on t h e g r e a t e s t resources o f t h e T h i r d World
c o u n t r i e s , people, and on l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e s k i l l s and raw m a t e r i a l s . The
p a t t e r n s o f i n d u s t r i a l r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n has s i g n i f i c a n t l y weakened l i n k a g e s
between i n d u s t r y and o t h e r s e c t o r s o f t h e economy, n o t a b l y a g r i c u l t u r e , cont r i b u t i n g l i t t l e t o a general i n c r e a s e i n p r o d u c t i v i t y and e x a c e r b a t i n g urbanr u r a l , t r a d i t i o n a l - m o d e r n and a g r i c u l t u r e - i n d u s t r y d i c h o t o m i e s i n t e a d o f
encouraging i n t e r a c t i o n among them.
True i n t e r a c t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e needs t o be b o t h an i n p u t and o u t p u t
o f i n d u s t r y . The endless v a r i e t y o f ways i n which sugar cane can be used as
an i n p u t f o r i n d u s t r y o f f e r s a good example. The p r o d u c t i o n o f food, paper
and energy o u t o f suoar cane w i l l c o n t i n u e t o p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e
i n d u s t r i a l development o f T h i r d h o r l d c o u n t r i e s endowed w i t h l a n d , w a t e r and
sun f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f sugar cane. I f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n T h i r d
World c o u n t r i e s i s t o r e a c h a g r o s s o u t p u t r a t e o f 4% p e r annum i n t h e n e x t
two decades, t h e i r i n d u s t r y would have t o p r o v i d e more f e r t i l i z e r s , b e t t e r
a g r i c u l t u r a l machinery and o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l o u t p u t s which can r e i n f o r c e t h e
development o f b o t h a g r i c u l t u r e and i n d u s t r y . Investments i n one o r a n o t h e r
o f these s e c t o r s s h o u l d n o t t h e r e f o r e be c o n s i d e r e d as d e v o t i n g a l o w e r
p r i o r i t y t o t h e o t h e r m a j o r s e c t o r . The p a t h o f a c c e l e r a t e d development o f
any T h i r d World c o u n t r y i s c o n d i t i o n e d upon a balanced and i n t e g r a t e d growth
o f a g r i c u l t u r e and i n d u s t r y b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t t h e o t h e r s e c t o r s as w e l l ,
such as i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . t r a n s p o r t and communications and e d u c a t i o n w i l l a l s o
have t o grow a t t h e same a c c e l e r a t e d pace.
The r e c o r d o f i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s would seem t o
suggest t h a t i n f o l l o w i n g an e x p o r t p r o m o t i o n o r i m p o r t s u b s t i t u t i o n s t r a t e g y ,
n e i t h e r has accommodated s u c c e s s f u l l y t h e human needs o f t h e b u l k o f t h e pop u l a t i o n , because l a c k o f p u r c h a s i n g power has p r e v e n t e d t h e s e needs f r o m
b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o e f f e c t i v e demand. A new approach, which we would c a l l
"endogenous i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n " , i s t h e r e f o r e p r e s c r i b e d w h i c h would a n t i c i p a t e
needs o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n and t a i l o r t h e i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n s t r u c t u r e t o
produce goods t o f u l f i l l them.
The dynamics o f g r o w t h would come f r o m w i t h i n
I/ Dr. Abd-el Rahman Khane, MD, A l g e r i a , i s t h e E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r o f t h e
U n i t e d N a t i o n s I n d u s t r i a l Development O r g a n i z a t i o n , a f o r m e r member o f
t h e A l g e r i a n Government and former Secretary-General o f OPEC. The t e x t
reproduced here i s e x c e r p t e d f r o m h i s address t o t h e UN Committee o f
t h e Whole (New York, September 1979).
t h e c o u n t r y c a l l i n g f o r a much g r e a t e r emphasis on s e l f - h e l p o r s e l f - r e l i a n c e .
I n c a r r y i n g o u t t h i s s t r a t e g y , income would be generated d i r e c t l y i n t h e hands
o f t h e r u r a l and urban poor t o h e l p them s a t i s f y t h e i r minimum needs f o r food,
c l o t h i n g , s h e l t e r and medical care. P r o j e c t s would s t r e s s a low c a p i t a l /
l a b o u r r a t i o , use l e s s energy, and encourage g r e a t e r use o f l o c a l s k i l l s ,
e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l r e s o u r c e s , m a t e r i a l s , c a p i t a l goods, and t e c h n o l o g y . The r o l e
o f s m a l l and medium-sized as w e l l as agro-based i n d u s t r y would be expanded.
There would be a c l o s e i n t e r a c t i o n between farms and i n d u s t r y a t t h e r u r a l
l e v e l and a p o s i t i v e economic r o l e f o r t h e government i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f
i n d u s t r i a l and pub1 i c goods. Yet an endogenous i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n approach i s
n o t t o be equated w i t h a c l o s e d door p o l i c y o r a u t a r c h y . Trade exchanges
s h o u l d be based on f r e e access and on f a i r and r e m u n e r a t i v e p r i c e s t o producers
o f raw m a t e r i a l s who s h o u l d n o t be t h e u n w i l l i n g r e c i p i e n t s of e x p o r t e d i n flation.
The i n t e r n a t i o n a l exchange o f goods and s e r v i c e s i s assumed t o const i t u t e an i m p o r t a n t element i n t h e process o f development, b u t c a r e s h o u l d
be g i v e n t o f i t t i n g t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l f l o w s o f f i n a n c e , technology, i i r p o r t e d
m a t e r i a l s and components t o t h e p r o d u c t i v e s t r u c t u r e deemed most s u i t e d f o r
f u r t h e r i n g t h e s o c i a l o b j e c t i v e s i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . T h i s s t r a t e g y ,
based on human needs, emphasizes t h e r o l e o f i n d u s t r i a l development i n a1l e v i a t i n c t h e p o v e r t y t h a t p r e v a i l s i n t h e urban and r u r a l areas o f most
T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .
' . e r I 2 i A . D 12 e s t maintenant disponible (document des Nations
Urn-es A / S 4 / 4 G ? ) ef-i fran&.s.
On p a t I'obtenir dons Les bureaux
des nations Unies ou en k r - i v a n t 6 l a FIFAD.
Docwientos TIFAD 1.5, e s t d uhora dispordble en Espanol (Docwento
de las Iluc-iones Unidas, A'o. A/.34/467). Se puede obterer de las
i n a s de Las Haciones Un-idas o escribiendo a la FIPAD.
. S h r i d a t h Ramphal, One w o r l d t o share (London: Hutchinson Benham, 1979).
S e l e c t e d speeches o f t h e Commonwealth Secretary-General 1975-79 w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n by Barbara Ward.
. Ignacy Sachs, S t r a t e g i e s de l ' e c o d e v e l o p p e m e n t ( P a r i s : Les E d i t i o n s
o u v r i e r e s , 1979). Un b i l a n e t une p e r s p e c t i v e .
. Samir Amin, Classe e t n a t i o n dans l ' h i s t o i r e e t l a c r i s e contemporaine
( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s de M i n u i t , 1979). Une synthese de l a c o n t r i b u t i o n c o n c e p t u e l l e e t p o l i t i q u e de Samir Amin a l ' i n t e l l i g e n c e de l a c r i s e contemporaine.
. Jacques B o u r r i n e t (comp), Le d i a l o g u e euro-arabe ( P a r i s : Economics, 1979).
Avec des a r t i c l e s d ' I s n i a i 1 - S a b r i A b d a l l a e t de Khaled Abdulnour.
. G a b r i e l G a r c i a Marquez, I n e v i l hour (New York: Harper and Row, 1979).
E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e l a t e s t novel o f t h e a u t h o r o f "One hundred y e a r s
o f s o l i t u d e " and member o f IFDA C o u n c i l .
. Roger D. Hansen, Beyond t h e North-South s t a l e m a t e (New York: McGraw-Hill,
1979). An i m p o r t a n t p r o d u c t o f t h e 1980s P r o j e c t o f t h e US C o u n c i l on F o r e i g n
Relations.
. Edgard P i s a n i , D e f i du monde - campagne d l E u r o p e ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s Ramsay,
1979). Un p l a i d o y e r p o u r une a u t r e Europe p a r l e m i l i t a n t s o c i a l i s t s f r a n c a i s .
. James W. B o t k i n , Mahdi Elmandjra, M i r c e a M a l i t z a , No l i m i t s t o l e a r n i n g ,
B r i d g i n g t h e human gap ( O x f o r d : Pergamon Press, 1979). A r e p o r t t o t h e Club
o f Rome o f a new k i n d . The q u e s t i o n r a i s e d b y t h e a u t h o r s i s whether humanity
can s h i f t f r o m a mode o f l e a r n i n g c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y unconscious a d a p t a t i o n t o
one o f conscious a n t i c i p a t i o n ; t h e y propose t h e development o f " a n t i c i p a t o r y
and p a r t i c i p a t o r y l e a r n i n g " .
. Roger Katan, De q u o i se m e l e n t l e s u r b a n i s t e s ? (13125 Le Paradou, France:
E d i t i o n Actes/Sud, 1979). A l i r e p a r a l l e l e m e n t a l ' a r t i c l e de John T u r n e r
dans c e t t e l i v r a i s o n des D o s s i e r s FIPAD. A r c h i t e c t e e t u r b a n i s t e , Katan a r e nonce a une " c a r r i 6 r e 1 ' pour p a r t i c i p e r aux l u t t e s u r b a i n e s avec l e s i n t e r e s s e s .
. Paul H a r r i s o n , I n s i d e t h e T h i r d World (Harmondsworth, UK: P e l i c a n Books,
1979). An anatomy o f p o v e r t y .
. N i c h o l a s Georgescu-Roegen, Demain l a d e c r o i s s a n c e (Lausanne: E d i t i o n s P.M.
Favre, 1979). E n t r o p i e , e c o l o g i e , economie.
. C h r i s t i a n Baudelot e t a1, Qui t r a v a i l l e pour qui? ( P a r i s : Francois Maspero,
1979). Une facon d ' a n a l y s e r l e s l i e n s e n t r e l a production e t l a consommation
qui contribue i e c l a i r e r la question de l a duree du t r a v a i l .
. Peter P h i l l i p s f e d ) , A Question of P r i o r i t i e s , New Zealanders in Conversat i o n about the Future (Auckland, 1979) Box 5313, Wellesley S t r e e t , Auckland,
New Zealand.
. Abby Rubin Riddell, Restructuring B r i t i s h Industry: The Third world dimension (London: Catholic I n s t i t u t e f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Relations, 1979). Greater
consideration of t h e TW dimension in domestic p o l i c i e s i s necessary i f B r i t i s h
i n t e r e s t s a r e t o be served s i n c e t h e r e a r e mutual b e n e f i t s in incorporating
t h e needs of TW economies in B r i t i s h economic decision-making.
. SIPRI, Nuclear energy and nuclear weapon p r o l i f e r a t i o n (London: Taylor and
Francis, 1979). A review of technical i s s u e s of t h e c u r r e n t nuclear power s i t u a t i o n and of t h e inherent r i s k s f o r nuclear weapon p r o l i f e r a t i o n , by t h e
Stockholm I n t e r n a t i o n a l Peace Research I n s t i t u t e .
. Farmers Assistance Board, Green revolution and imperialism and Liberation
(P.O. Box AC-623, Quezon City, P h i l i p p i n e s ) . Nimeographed documents.
r a t i o n - the s t r u g g l e of the F i l i p i n o Peasant movement toward s e l f - r e l i a n c e a s s e r t s t h a t only t h e F i l i p i n o peasant can provide t h e necessary motive force
f o r s o c i a l change.
. A l t e r n a t i v e s , A journal of world policy. As IFDA Council member Rajni
Kothari puts i t , " t h i s journal should have s t a r t e d a t l e a s t 20 years e a r l i e r " .
Vol. 5 no. 1 , i t e n t e r s i t s f i f t h year with an i s s u e including papers by Rajni
Kothari ("Towards a j u s t world") and S i l v i u Brucan ("Europe in t h e global s t r a t e g i c game"). (Centre f o r the Study of Developing S o c i e t i e s , 29 Rajpur Rd.,
Delhi 110054, I n d i a . )
. Revue i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d ' a c t i o n communautaire / I n t e r n a t i o n a l review of community development. 41e numero d'une revue publiee j u s q u ' i c i en I t a l i e e t
~ r e m i e rnumero d'une nouvelle s e r i e .- ~. u b l i e eau Canada fCase ~ o s t a l e1655.
Montreal ) . Theme de ce numero: La p r i s e en charge commu~autaikede l a s a n t e
(Quebec, France, Belgique, S u i s s e , I t a l i c , Za'i're, Chine e t C a l i f o r n i e ) .
Meetings
. A n a l t e r n a t e approach t o the management of research, development and educ a t i o n in science and technology, a workshop a t t h e Indian I n s t i t u t e of Management, Bangalore 560 027, India (June 1980). Enquiries t o Prof. J . Bandyopadhyay.

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