【１】交通論 According to a recent research, car use in Japan is set to decrease after 2030 as a result of declining population. In fact, car use in Japan already has certain factors that may act to reduce the number of cars on the road. These include the high tolls charged for using motorways as well as some bridges, and the high cost of parking. However, at the moment, traffic *congestion remains a major problem in many countries including Britain and Japan. Although Britain has one of the lowest rates of car ownership in Europe, it has the greatest congestion, and particularly in London road congestion is even worse. (1)Why is this? One reason is that because it is a more crowded country than others like France and Germany, it is difficult to build new roads and motorways. Another is that the English people prefer using cars to public transport which is more expensive and less modernized compared with other countries in Europe. How can congestion be reduced? One way is (2)to change the way drivers pay in Britain. At the moment, they pay tax when they buy fuel and they pay for car tax every year. However, almost all roads are free with no tolls. One change proposed is to introduce road charging and its first use is likely to be in London; for example, motorists will have to pay five pounds to enter the city center. There are also plans for more widespread road charging such as motorists paying more to travel during busy rush hour periods. However, there are both advantages and disadvantages to road pricing. If it is a fixed amount per day, like five pounds for London, it is good for people who drive high *mileages such as taxi and truck drivers but unfair for residents who live just inside the area which is being charged for. (3)If road charging is only for part of a city, as in London, it can bring greater congestion just outside the area as drivers try to avoid entering the area which is charged for. If public transport is not improved, drivers are forced to pay without any attractive alternative. The technology for road pricing is also being developed to automate it. Such automation means that satellites are used to trace the positions of cars, which has the result that the government can gain information on where somebody is at any time. This is seen as (4)a threat to privacy. Perhaps a simpler way to reduce congestion would be to make children go to school on foot or by public transport (5)as many do in Japan. The majority of children in most parts of Britain travel to school by car. As a result, cars taking children to school make up 20% of all rush hour traffic. *注 congestion 渋滞 mileages 走行距離問１下線部(1)について，その理由を二つあげよ。問２下線部(2)について，筆者があげる二つの具体的な解決策は何か，述べよ。問３下線部(3)を訳せ。問４下線部(4)について，それは何故か，その理由を述べよ。問５下線部(5)を“do”の内容が分るように訳せ。 - 21- 【２】産業論 Today we are struggling for a worldwide reformation of cultures, called “globalization.” It is an inexact term for a wild assortment of changes in politics, business, health, and entertainment. “Modern industry has established the world market. ... All old-established national industries ... are displaced by new industries whose ... products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe. In place of the old wants ... we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes.” Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote this 150 years ago in The Communist Manifesto. (1)Their statement now describes an ordinary fact of life. (2)How people feel about this depends a great deal on where they live and how much money they have. Yet globalization, as one report stated, “is a reality, not a choice.” Humans have been weaving commercial and cultural connections since before the first camel caravan ventured afield. In the 19th century the postal service, newspapers, transcontinental railroads, and great steam-powered ships wrought fundamental changes. Telegraph, telephone, radio, and television tied tighter and more intricate knots between individuals and the wider world. Now computers, the Internet, cellular phones, cable TV, and cheaper jet transportation have accelerated and complicated (3)these connections. Still, the basic dynamic remains the same: Goods move. People move. Ideas move. And cultures change. The difference now is the speed and scope of these changes. (4)It took television 13 years to acquire 50 million users; the Internet took only five. Not everyone is happy about this. Some Western social scientists and anthropologists, and not a few foreign politicians, believe that (5)a sort of cultural cloning will result from what they regard as the “cultural assault” of McDonald’s Coca-Cola Disney, Nike, and the English language itself. Whatever their backgrounds, these critics are convinced that Western — often equated with American — influences will make every cultural difference disappear. 問１下線部(1)の内容を 2 行以内で具体的に日本語で説明しなさい。問２下線部(2)を日本語に訳しなさい。問３下線部(3)の内容を具体的に日本語で説明しなさい。問４下線部(4)を日本語に訳しなさい。問５下線部(5)の内容を 2 行以内で具体的に日本語で説明しなさい。 - 22- 【３】環境論 At 5:30 the sun has not yet risen. Trees and bushes are shadows, mist lies on the fields and the grass is wet underfoot. All around me, though, is an extraordinary web of sound, up and down the scales. Some of it must be coming from near me, the sweet, high notes almost at arm’s reach; some comes from far off and I must strain to hear it. (1)As the light grows stronger, I make out shapes: small, brown birds with their chests swollen and their throats opened, singing their hearts out from rooftops and branches. Today is the first day of spring. I remember going with my father to hear the dawn chorus when I was a child ― standing under *larches while he told me which liquid sound belonged to which bird. And it still sounds beautiful to me in the garden today. But the dawn chorus is becoming muted in Britain ― the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) has reported that there is less birdsong in Britain than ever before because so many songbirds have disappeared. There are 75 per cent fewer skylarks than 25 years ago (some three to four million down) and a third fewer blackbirds. Half of our lapwings have vanished in ten years. The RSPB divides birds into (2)three categories of endangerment: red, amber and green. Many woodland and garden birds (such as the robin, blue tit and magpie) are in the green section ― stable or increasing in numbers. Most of the birds in the red section (which generally means a decline of more than 50 per cent from 25 years ago) live and breed around farmland. They include the lapwing, song thrush, gray partridge, turtle dove, skylark, bullfinch, red-backed shrike, tree sparrow and linnet. (3)Most modern farms are factories: fields extending to the horizon, sprayed, fertilized and plowed up by machines in pursuit of maximum output. Even marginal areas are farmed, and it is in the margins that wildlife flourishes. Between 1930 and 1984, 97 per cent of unimproved grassland was lost in England and Wales and there were 76,000 fewer miles of *hedgerows in 1990 than in 1984 ― a net loss of 23 per cent. (4)The decline of our birds speaks for a general threat to British nature: the death of the butterfly, the insect, the wild flower. We still think of Britain as a country full of natural beauty, of shady woods where owls *hoot, of hedgerows, footpaths and green fields. We want jobs and good health, but we want to hear the nightingale sing and to see the swallows coming home for spring. (5)Yet pollution and the drive for short-term profit at the expense of our land are condemning many of our best-loved songbirds to decline. *larches 「カラマツ(落葉松)」 *hedgerows 「(農地などを区切る)生け垣」 *hoot 「ホーホーと鳴く」問１．下線部(1)を日本語に訳しなさい。問２．下線部(2)の 3 つの範疇のうち，“red”と“green”の内容を，本文に即して日本語で簡潔に説明しなさい。問３．下線部(3)に関して，なぜ筆者はそう考えるのか，本文に即して日本語で簡潔に述べなさい。問４．下線部(4)を日本語に訳しなさい。問５．下線部(5)の内容を日本語で簡潔に述べなさい。 - 23- 【４】技術論 The senses of hearing, smell, and touch intimately involve the individual with an environment. Human beings, however, are largely visual. Vision is our most intellectual sense. It distinguishes and defines. “We prefer seeing to everything else,” says Aristotle, “because, above all the other senses, sight makes us know and brings to light the many differences between things.” Sight provides us with a universe structured in space. All the objects are visible at the same time, and they are stable long enough for us to grasp their relationship to each other. Sight is the “coolest” of the senses: it stirs our emotions the least. The visual field does not surround us; we can see only what is in front. We stand at the margin of the visual field. (1)All objects in it, no matter how close, still seem “out there.” We cannot wholly possess what we only see: there remains both a physical and a psychological distance between the onlooker and that which he or she looks at. A beautiful face or sunset can arouse powerful emotions, but because neither can be touched, a kind of distance persists. Since we normally perceive with all our senses and not just with our eyes, we do not ordinarily feel cut off from our setting. That sight alone is not effective in joining self with the world is suggested by the experience of soldiers who lost their hearing suddenly during the war. At first they found the noiseless world peaceful; in time, it seemed to them static, lifeless, and unreal. They felt isolated as though they lived behind glass screens. Self-awareness is possible in a human being by virtue of the human brain and eyes. We know the fact that what we see is necessarily “out there,” and that we always stand at the margin of our own visual field. How this fact might stimulate self-consciousness is illustrated by the following common experience. You push open the door and see a crowd at a party. You are keenly aware of being the outsider surveying the field ahead, until you plunge into the crowd. In an instant, you belong. Of course, what you see is still “out there,” but the sense of isolation fades in the midst of the noise and the smell of tobacco, food, and sweat. One more point: seeing promotes a consciousness of self because it is often experienced as a personal act, an initiative that one takes and maintains with one’s will. The other senses are relatively passive. (2)Sounds and smells reach us and we respond. Most of the time, we hear rather than listen, smell rather than smell out; and our skin simply registers the things — wind in the hair, sand between the toes, the human touch — that move over or press it. 問１下線部(1)を，it の内容を明確にして日本語に直しなさい。問２聴覚を失った兵士に何が起こったか。50 字程度の日本語で述べなさい。問３パーティー会場の例を参考にして，視覚とその他の感覚が人の意識に与える作用について 50 字程度の日本語で述べなさい。問４下線部(2)から推測して，筆者の考える視覚の特徴を簡潔に述べなさい。 - 24- 【５】生活論 Prehistoric humans spent only 40 percent of their waking hours on the necessities of life, such as food and shelter, according to anthropologists*. That left 60 percent for “leisure” pursuits ― napping, storytelling, painting pictograms* on cave walls, and so on. Despite the increase of “labor-saving” devices ranging from microwave ovens to drip-irrigation systems*, modern humans seem to have less leisure time than (1)their long-lost ancestors. Visions of a twenty-hour work week, a noble idea proposed by philosopher Bertrand Russell in the 1930s, have never come to pass. In fact, as the global and domestic economy declines, many people find themselves working fifty to sixty hours a week just to (2)get by. In this culture, our sense of identity and even self-worth is measured largely by the work that we do, rather than by what we do with our spare time. In fact, the very adjective “spare” suggests that any time left over from work is of lesser importance. (3)Paradoxically, however, what we do in our spare time more often defines our personalities than what we do nine to five. Certainly for some people, their professional career is identical with personal satisfaction, but for many, work is the way to pay the bills, while leisure is an opportunity to pursue activities that truly nurture them. Juliet Schor, in her essay “Exiting the Squirrel Cage,” takes this argument a step further. Drawing a distinction between “(4)unpaid work” and “true leisure,” she argues that much of what we do in our “non-working” hours, routine activities such as house cleaning and trimming our toenails, is actually work. Therefore, when we add this unpaid work time to forty-odd hours per week on the job, we’re left with almost no “true leisure” time. Yet ironically, it is this tiny fraction of “true leisure” time that plays what some would argue the most important role in defining us as unique individuals. With so little “true leisure,” the pressure to have fun and fill that time with satisfying activities becomes greater. Our weekends should be filled with great parties, hot dates, productive creativity, and meaningful spiritual activity, or we feel as though we’ve failed in some way. Although we look forward to the parts of our lives away from work, the pressure to occupy free time with stimulating activity can actually become as oppressive as work itself. A sociologist calls (5)this sense of the burden of leisure “the lifestyle trap.” When the stress of work flows over into non-working hours, then leisure becomes restless, action-packed and anything but relaxing. 注 anthropologists 人類学者； pictograms 絵文字； drip-irrigation systems 農業などで使われる細流灌漑システム問１下線部(1)と(2)の語句とほぼ同じ意味を表す語句を，本文中からそれぞれ抜き出して書きなさい。問２下線部(3)を日本語に訳しなさい。問３本文中で下線部(4)の具体例としてあげられているものを二つ，日本語で書きなさい。問４下線部(5)が意味する内容を 35 字以内の日本語で書きなさい。 - 25- 【６】学校論 The term gakkyû hôkai (class disintegration) is applied to a breakdown of discipline in the classroom. Because it is a recent phenomenon, there are no reliable statistics yet on its extent. It is said that at least one class in every large-scale elementary school is in chaos. (1)There was a time when Japanese treated schools with a nearly religious respect. School was regarded as something children were expected to attend, even if they had a fever. In class, children obeyed the rules; they remained seated quietly, and raised their hands if they wanted to speak. Western academics invariably noted the “utterly quiet classrooms” they saw in Japan in numerous papers they published in the 1970s and 1980s, linking Japan’s phenomenal economic growth to the nature of the nation’s public education system. However, for today’s elementary school-age children, the teacher in charge of their class is not the only teacher they deal with. About 40 percent of the nation’s sixth graders also attend cram schools. Many of these children feel closer to cram school teachers than their regular schoolteachers. (2)This extra contact with teachers has reduced the relative importance of the traditional classroom schoolteacher, which helps explain why there are more children who do not feel they must follow the teacher’s instructions. Many teachers have expressed the opinion that the maximum for classroom size, now 40 children to a class in public elementary schools, is too large. Reducing the student-teacher ratio is a formidable challenge because it would be more expensive for national and local governments. Still, as the problem of class disintegration spreads, more experts say elementary classes need to be cut to 20 or 30 children. Some municipalities have already begun hiring teachers to bring about such reductions. At the same time, (3)the traditional style of instruction, in which the teacher, with his or her back to the blackboard, just repeats what the textbook says, is being increasingly criticized as out of date. This approach, from a time when children were supposed to be taught “from above”, leaves the presentation of the curriculum to the teacher’s initiative. For today’s children, exposed daily to stimulating information by other media and personal computers, lessons presented in this way must be utterly boring. There is a need for (4)a new approach to instruction , in which children take the central role in selecting study topics and exploring solutions. (Adapted from “Chaos in Elementary Classrooms” by Takahashi Shôtarô) (注) cram schools：塾，予備校／ formidable：きわめて困難な／ municipalities：地方自治体問１．下線部(1)を日本語になおしなさい。問２．下線部(2)はどういうことを述べているのか，わかりやすく 50 字以内(句読点を含む)の日本語で説明しなさい。問３．下線部(3)を日本語になおしなさい。問４．下線部(4)の内容を 30 字以内(句読点を含む)の日本語で説明しなさい。 - 26- 【７】人物論 Kurosawa was born in Tokyo in 1910, the seventh child of a strict soldier-father. The boy’s early loves were oil painting and literature, including the Western writing that was so influential in Japan at the time. These interests would become vitally important throughout his career. The painter’s eye is particularly obvious in his films, especially in his later ones, and Kurosawa adapted film plots from such different authors as Shakespeare, Dostoevsky and hard-boiled detective writer Ed McBain. He stumbled into the movie business as a young assistant director and scenario writer, directing his first film, Sanshiro, Sugata, at the age of 33. Five years later, he made Drunken Angel, considered by critics the first true Kurosawa film. It was also his first collaboration with actor Toshiro Mifune, who would work with the master 15 more times. Rashomon was the film that introduced Kurosawa to the outside world, and that began (1)an uncomfortable relationship with fame that lasted throughout his whole career. He had the artistic strength to resist compromise, either political or commercial. But his own producer on Rashomon didn’t understand the film, which gained attention at home only after receiving international praises. Kurosawa had occasional commercial difficulties from then on, despite such major hits in Japan as Yojimbo. His last films were produced with Hollywood support and money. They were bigger events in the West than in Japan, despite the kimonos and the films’ medieval setting. At his death in 1998, four decades after Rashomon, Kurosawa was virtually forgotten in Japan. (2)The irony is that he was such a Japanese filmmaker. (3)Aside from his excellent movies about warriors, Kurosawa also told bitter stories of ordinary, contemporary Japanese, some of them nobodies. High and Low, with Mifune as a rich businessman tormented by a poor kidnapper, is one. These films have influenced me greatly with their realism and concern for the common people. My impression is that through Kurosawa’s films all of us can experience the soul of Japan, the inner strength of the Japanese people. Yet his own countrymen, in rather large numbers, accused him of making films to foreigners’ tastes. In the 1950s, Rashomon was criticized as exposing Japan’s ignorance and backwardness to the outside world ― a charge that now seems absurd. In China, I have faced the same criticism. Kurosawa has set the example of a cinema with a strong national flavor that attracts the interest, and the admiration, of the outside world. I tried to put that lesson to use in my own films. Kurosawa tells me to keep my own Chinese character and Chinese style. That is his great lesson for Asian filmmakers. 問１下線部(1)で筆者の言う an uncomfortable relationship with fame とは具体的にどのようなことを指しているかを，本文に即して日本語で述べなさい。問２下線部(2)で筆者の言う The irony とは具体的にどのようなことかを，本文に即して日本語で述べなさい。問３下線部(3)を日本語に訳しなさい。問４筆者である中国入の映画監督は黒沢監督のどういったところを手本としようと考えていますか。日本語で述べなさい。 - 27- 【８】生活論 Real policemen, in both Britain and the United States, hardly recognize any resemblance between their lives and what they see on TV ― if they ever get home in time. There are similarities, of course, but the policemen don’t think much of them. The first difference is that a policeman’s real life revolves round the law. Most of his training is in criminal law. (1)He has to know exactly what actions are crimes and what evidence can be used to rove them in court. He has to know nearly as much law as a professional lawyer, and what is more, he has to apply it on his feet, in the dark and rain, running down an alley after someone he wants to talk to. Little of his time is spent in chatting to attractive women or in dramatic encounters with desperate criminals. He will spend most of his working life typing millions of words on thousands of forms about hundreds of sad, unimportant people who are guilty ― or not ― of stupid, minor crimes. (2)Most television crime drama is about finding the criminal: as soon as he’s arrested, the story is over. In real life, finding criminals is seldom much of a problem. Except in very serious cases like murders and terrorist attacks, little effort is spent on searching. The police have elaborate machinery that eventually uncovers most wanted men. Having made an arrest, a detective really starts to work. He has to prove his case in court and to do that he often has to gather a lot of different evidence. Much of this has to be given by people who don’t want to get involved in a court case. So, as well as being overworked, (3)a detective has to be out at all hours of the day and night interviewing his witnesses and persuading them, usually against their own best interests, to help him. The third big difference between the drama detective and the real one is the unpleasant moral twilight in which the real one lives. Detectives are subject to two opposing pressures: first, as members of a police force they always have to behave with absolute legality; secondly, as expensive public servants they have to get results. They can hardly ever do (4)both. Most of the time some of them have to break the rules in small ways. If the detective has to deceive the world, the world often deceives him. Hardly anyone he meets tells him the truth. This separation the detective feels between himself and the rest of the world is deepened by (5)the simple-mindedness of citizens, social workers, doctors, law-makers, and judges, who, instead of wiping out crime, punish the criminals less severely in the hope that this will make them reform. The result, detectives feel, is that nine-tenths of their work is re-catching people who should have stayed behind bars. １．下線部(1)を日本語に直せ。２．下線部(2)を日本語に直せ。３．下線部(3)を日本語に直せ。４．下線部(4)の具体的内容を，本文にそって，日本語で説明せよ。５．下線部(5)はどういうことについていっているのか，本文にそって，日本語で説明せよ。 - 28- 【９】言語論 Definitions of bilingualism cover a very broad range of linguistic abilities. Perhaps the broadest definition of the bilingual is “a speaker of one language who can speak in another language.” Clearly this definition fits the person who speaks two languages equally fluently. It would, ( A ), also fit the person who has finished less than a single term of study of a second or foreign language. Language learners may be able to construct complete and meaningful sentences in the new language but they may do so in much the same way as they follow recipes or assemble a new bicycle according to written instructions. That is to say, a person who has not yet acquired a full grammar for a language may still be able to construct meaningful sequences of words in that language. ( B ), the person who is able to read another language fluently with native-like comprehension may not have learned to produce meaningful sentences in that language. This person would not be considered a bilingual by the broad definition above. A stricter definition of bilingual, “a person with native-like control of two languages,” would of course exclude the beginning language student. Such a definition would still exclude the person who easily comprehends but cannot speak in a second language. It would also exclude the fluent speaker who had a “foreign accent.” Both extremes in definition yield unsatisfactory results, perhaps because each relies on degree of control of the language as the definitional criterion. A more intuitively appealing definition of bilingualism considers the most relevant factor to be the regular use of two languages. Regular use of two languages implies a system ― or two ― of rules for interpreting and possibly producing word sequences in both languages. The system for each language may be quite close to the grammar of a monolingual speaker of that language or it may be somewhat different, but surely it is governed by its own set of internally consistent rules. The one aspect of bilingualism most commonly noted is the relative ease with which a child acquires two languages simultaneously (or a second language in early childhood). ( C ), adults often struggle to learn the language of a new speech community. The most usual case is for children who learn two languages early in life to sound like native speakers in each of their languages. For adults, the more usual case is for the learners of a second language to always be distinguishable from native speakers. These differences may be found in any or all aspects of the linguistic system. 設問１文中で試みている，bilingual(ism)の 3 通りの定義を日本語で書きなさい。設問２ ( A ) ( B ) ( C )に最も当てはまる言葉を選んで，その記号を書きなさい。 A B (a) but (b) however (d) meanwhile (e) therefore (a) As a result (b) Consequently (c) in fact (c) Indeed (d) On the other hand (e) While C (a) All the same (b) By comparison (d) In any case (e) Not to mention (c) For instance 設問３第二言語について，子供が早い時期に学ぶ場合と，大人が学ぶ場合とでもっとも違う点はどこに現れると言っていますか，句読点を含めて 30 字以内で説明しなさい。 - 29- 【10】国家論 International development and environmentalism have not always sat well together. Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammed angrily said to a reporter investigating his government’s proposed dam project in 1997, “Malaysia wants to develop, and I say to the so-called environmentalists, ‘Mind your own business’.” Yet in the filthy industrial zones of many developing world cities we can see (1)a real risk too that economic development may destroy the very natural resources upon which people depend. So can poorer countries develop and go green at the same time? I believe we can and must help them to (2)do so. Just over a year ago the UK Government published a policy statement on international development, entitled Eliminating World Poverty: A Challenge for the 2lst Century. Britain’s first government policy on development for a generation, it set out a radical new agenda. Our overall aim is the reduction of extreme poverty. And we now use our influence nationally and internationally to strengthen (3)the rights of poor people to secure a fairer share of the world’s resources, and to work their way out of poverty. Over the last year that agenda has put Britain at the forefront of international efforts to tackle world poverty ― and to promote (4)sustainable development. For sustainability is absolutely central to our strategy. Too often in the past, the development and environment agendas have been addressed separately. But it is now clear that we will only conserve the natural environment if we work with local communities, supporting forms of development that allow them to improve their economic circumstances but are also environmentally sustainable. This is also the key to tackling global environmental challenges. It is impossible to persuade developing countries to cooperate fully with international agreements on, say, climate change if (5)it appears that richer countries are focusing on environmental protection at the expense of development and fighting poverty. The only way forward for the environment is on the basis of international co-operation and a commitment to greater global fairness. That means recognising that it’s the rich countries who are the biggest polluters and consumers ― and (6)they who must make the most decisive steps to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions and change their patterns of consumption. But it also means recognising our moral obligation and common interest in reducing poverty in the world. 問１．下線部(1)の “a real risk” が指す内容を日本語で説明しなさい。２．下線部(2)の “do so” が指す内容を本文から抜き出して英語で答えなさい。３．下線部(3)の “the rights of poor people” とはどのような権利をいうか，その内容を日本語で説明しなさい。４．下線部(4)の “sustainable development” とはどういうことをいうか，“sustainable” の表わす内容がわかるように簡潔に日本語で述べなさい。５．下線部(5)を日本語に訳しなさい。６．下線部(6)の “they” が指すものを本文から抜き出して英語で答えなさい。 - 30- 【11】家族論 In many ways, the family is the most obvious field of conflict in the culture war. Some would argue that it is an absolute battleground. The public debate over the status and role of women, the increase in family violence, the rise of aggressive behavior among teenagers, the growing demand for adequate kindergartens, and so on, fill the headlines of the nation’s newspapers, magazines, and intellectual journals on a daily basis. Public demonstrations, speeches and statements for or against any one of (a)these issues mark the significant events of our generation’s political history. One might possibly say that this field of conflict is the beginning and end of the contemporary culture war, for the issues debated in the area of family policy touch upon and may even relate to other fields of conflict ― education, the arts, law and politics. In the final analysis there may be much more to the contemporary culture war than the struggle for the family, yet there is little doubt that the debated issues in the area of family life are central to the larger struggle and are perhaps crucial to other battles being fought. Most who observe the arguments over the family, however, tend to grasp the controversy as a disagreement over how strong the family is. One observer, for example, has described the controversy as one between optimists and pessimists. Both sides, he argued, agree that the family is changing, yet they disagree sharply over the degree, the meaning, and consequences of those changes. The pessimists view rising trends in divorce, single-parent families, double-income couples, couples living outside of marriage, and the like, as (b)symptoms of the decline of the family. The optimists, on the other hand, regard the changes as positive at best and lacking effect at worst and, therefore, they believe that social planning should reflect and respond to the new realities. The American family is not collapsing, the optimists say, but is adapting to new social conditions. The flexibility of the family, therefore, signals that the family is “here to stay.” Observations such as these provide interesting perspective and insight on the matter, forcing us to consider the specific social and economic circumstances of family life. But (c)they miss what is really at stake. The discussion over the family, in fact, reflects fundamental differences in the beliefs and world views of the two groups. The issue, then, is not whether the family is failing or surviving. Rather, the discussion is over what the family is in the first place. If the symbolic significance of the family is that it is a microcosm of the larger society, then the task of defining what the American family is becomes vital to the very task of defining America itself. For this reason it is also a task that embraces the future of American political life. 〔設問〕２．下線部(a)の these issues は具体的に何を指しているか。ここで挙げられているものすべてを日本語で記しなさい。３．下線部(b)の symptoms of the decline of the family は具体的に何を指しているか。ここで挙げられているものすべてを日本語で記しなさい。４．下線部(C)を日本語に訳しなさい。 - 31- 【12】教育論 Parents from all cultures want to teach the lessons of life to their children so that they can protect them from harm and ready them for the adult world. (1)What better way for children to learn those lessons than from short stories that entertain them and at the same time teach the values of their culture. A story that teaches an important moral lesson is called a fable. Fables have been an important part of many cultures from the very beginning of human civilization. The fable form appeared early in the development of primitive people as part of the oral tradition. It is often a story about animals with human characteristics. The stories were told from parent to child over thousands of years, and this was how cultural values and the language were passed down through generations. The lesson of a fable is usually summed up in one sentence at the end ― the moral. The moral often becomes a proverb ― a sentence that states a basic truth about life or gives a general rule of behavior, which is an integral part of the idiom of a language and culture. The most famous fables in the English language and American culture come from a man named *Aesop, who was born a slave in Greece around 620 B.C. As an adult, Aesop was given his freedom because of his ( a ). Aesop traveled through many parts of Greece, teaching and talking with famous philosophers. (2)Through stories he tried to teach lessons that warned about the bad qualities of humans, hoping that people who heard the stories would learn how to improve their behavior. You might have read or heard some of Aesop’s fables in your own language. Although hrs stories are well-known, very little is known about him. Many think that he collected stories that were ( b ) at the time, perhaps adding his own. There are well over 300 fables in English that are considered to be written or collected by Aesop. Aesop’s stories have survived because they describe ( c ) human problems and teach simple standards of ( d ) and wrong. Stories about talking animals teach lessons about the good and bad qualities of human beings, our virtues and vices. This kind of fable or story always has a moral, a lesson at the end. The stories might describe animals, but the humans who hear the story know who the ( e ) is really for. (注) *Aesop：イソップ(『イソップ物語』の作者) 〔１〕下線部(1)の内容を 35 字程度の日本語で説明しなさい。〔２〕本文中の(a)～(e)を補うのに最も適当な語を(ｱ)～(ｵ)から選び，その記号を書きなさい。 (ｱ) intelligence (ｲ) lesson (ｴ) right (ｵ) universal (ｳ) popular 〔３〕下線部(2)を日本語に訳しなさい。〔４〕第 2 パラグラフ(“A story that teaches... language and culture.”)では「寓話」，「教訓」，「ことわざ」について述べているが，それぞれ互いにどのように関わっているのかが明確になるよう，120 字程度の日本語でまとめなさい。ただし，次にあげた語を必ず一度は説明の中で使用し，下線を引くこと。慣用表現，最後，真理，動物，文化 - 32- 【13】アメリカ論 The attitudes of Americans toward the events of August 6, 1945, are a good deal more vague than their attitudes toward those of December 7, 1941. One reason, perhaps, is that Americans were (1)the actors in 1945 ― they dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima ― whereas on Pearl Harbor Day they were acted upon. It is always easier to attach a definite label to someone else’s behavior than to one’s own. President Roosevelt’s characterization of December 7, 1941, as “a date which will live in *infamy” may have faded somewhat, but (2)it has certainly not disappeared from the national vocabulary; whereas attitudes toward Hiroshima have become surrounded by self-justification, feelings of guilt, and doubt. Was it necessary to drop the bomb? Could the war have been won without it? Should we have issued a warning or given a demonstration of the bomb’s potential damage? Was it a racist act, something we would not have done in the war with Germany? Was the dropping of an A-bomb morally justifiable under any circumstances? (3)Such annoying questions undoubtedly helped soften American attitudes toward Japanese wartime behavior: if they were beastly during the war, we were beastly too. But, paradoxically, (4)American guilt feelings may also cause us to dislike the Japanese more. We not only tend to avoid people who make us feel guilty, we also tend to “project” our own feelings of guilt, so that the victim becomes transformed into an accuser whom we then hate for accusing us. It is a well-known psychological mechanism in unhappy marriages, and it can equally well color relationships between nations and peoples. It is important to recall, however, that, just as unhappy marriages may once have been happy, the news of Hiroshima was not initially surrounded by a mood of American guilt. (5)One senses in the news reports a feeling of awe, a definite awareness that we had entered the atomic age, but this is coupled with a strong determination to end the war. In his announcement concerning the bomb, President Truman said: “It was to spare the Japanese people from utter destruction that the **ultimatum of July 26 was issued at Potsdam. Their leaders promptly rejected that ultimatum. If they do not now accept our terms, they may expect a rain of ruin from the air the like of which has never been seen on this earth.” *infamy：disgrace **ultimatum：最後通牒(ちょう) １．下線部(1)は，どのような意味で用いられているか，日本語で述べなさい。２．下線部(2)の意味する内容を，具体的に日本語で述べなさい。３．下線部(3)を日本語に訳しなさい。４．下線部(4)について，このようになる理由を，日本語で説明しなさい。５．下線部(5)を日本語に訳しなさい。６．1945 年 8 月 6 日の出来事を比喩(ゆ)的に述べている箇所を，原文のまま抜き出しなさい。 - 33- 【14】医療論 At a recent professional meeting, a Stanford University researcher discussed the results of a test of the effects of a drug to control aggression. The trouble is that the research was carried out on juvenile inmates in a California prison, creating a lot of legal and ethical problems. The Stanford research gave groups of juvenile inmates varying doses of an anti-aggression drug and assessed its effect on their behavior. The controversy lies in the fact that the researcher reportedly admitted setting the dose so low as to be a placebo, intentionally denying the (1)subjects any therapeutic effect from the drug. Federal regulations allow research in prisons under only very limited conditions : when there is a prospect of direct therapeutic benefit for the subjects. This means no placebo-controlled trials are allowed. Research in prisons was not always so limited. (2)Before the early 1980s, prisoners were considered to be a popular research population. Prisoners offered a controlled environment: No prisoners would be “lost to follow-up.” Prisoners were highly motivated subjects, whether to earn extra money or other forms of payment, make up for previous behavior, or get better access to medical care. In fact, a study performed in the early 1980s demonstrated that research participation was a popular and highly-valued activity; the most powerful inmates were the most likely to be research subjects. But such motivation is precisely why concerned regulators moved to limit research participation by prisoners. How can subjects give truly voluntary consent in a setting where freedom is so severely constrained? In the case of the Stanford research, consent is doubly complicated by the fact that the prisoners were juveniles. The Stanford researcher has not yet commented on his motives, but he might have found inmates a desirable research population for a number of reasons. (3)For research into ways to control aggression, whom is it better to study and who is more likely to benefit than aggressive prisoners? Deceitfully breaking the rules as he did, however, runs the risk of harming not only subjects but the future of such research altogether. 注 juvenile：(adjective) young, youthful; (noun) a young person, a youth placebo：偽薬。薬効はないが患者には薬効があるように信じさせて与える物質。 therapeutic：connected with the cure of disease １下線部(1)の“subjects”の説明としてもっとも適切なものを選んで記号で答えよ。ｲ) In experiments and the like, subjects are people or animals whose behavior or reaction is studied and tested. ﾛ) Subjects of a discussion, letter, book, etc. are things, people, ideas, issues, or events that are being discussed, written about, or considered. ﾊ) Subjects of a State are its members apart from the supreme ruler. ２下線部(2)はどのような理由によるか。その理由を 40 字以内の日本語(句読点を含む)で 2 つ記せ。３下線部(3)を和訳せよ。４スタンフォード大学の研究者が行なった研究は，法律的にどのような点が問題となるのか，説明せよ。 - 34- 【15】科学論 Long, long ago, before civilization began, the first men who roamed the earth must surely have wondered about the warm sun as it rose each morning with never failing light. It is not hard to imagine that they puzzled over the position, the distance and the purpose of the stars, the moon, the Milky Way and the dancing northern lights. Very early recorded notions of the earth and heavens seem funny to us now. (1)No one before the Greeks dreamed that the earth moves or is round. Ancient Egyptians thought that the ship of the sun-god traveled over the body of the sky every day, sank into the land of the dead under the earth and reappeared the next morning. Chaldeans and Hindus saw the earth as 〔(2)a giant turtle, a great disk, four elephants, on, on, resting, stood, that〕. The Chinese of 2000 B.C. thought that a dragon was trying to devour the life-giving sun whenever an eclipse of the sun occurred. Despite these superstitions, early people learned many things from the sky and counted on the heavens in very practical ways. They learned to measure time by the sun. Since certain stars can be seen night after night, hunters and travelers discovered how to tell direction by them. The earliest farmers figured their planting seasons by the moon. From their careful studies of the sun the Egyptians counted 365 days to the year. The heavenly bodies were used in measuring land and planning buildings three thousand years before the birth of Christ. Babylonia was the mother country of (3)astrology, a false science based on the superstition that the position of the stars as a person’s birth can affect his life. Yet the Babylonian calendar had a seven-day week and its day contained twelve double hours. As far back as 1200 B.C. the Phoenicians steered their way by the sun and stars across the open sea. In later years before the birth of Christ the Greeks gave a special name to seven heavenly bodies (the sun, the moon, Venus, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury and Saturn) that change their positions among the stars. These they called planetes, the Greek word for wandering. From it comes our word “(4)planet.” １．下線部(1)を日本語に訳しなさい。２．絵を参考にし，下線部(2)の語群を並べかえて文を完成しなさい。３．下線部(3)の内容を日本語で述べなさい。４．下線部(4)の語のもとの意味を日本語で書きなさい。 - 35- 【16】国民論 Japan’s (1)Jibetarians have attracted a lot of attention recently. These are the kids who squat on the ground (jibeta), in the street, on the train, in any public place ― oblivious* to the disapproving gazes of passers-by. Older Japanese deplore their behavior as an indication of social and public moral deficiency. There are other things the old folks dislike: youngsters speaking loudly on mobile phones in crowded trains as if no one were around; teenage girls in public places putting on makeup or changing stockings, again, as if nobody else were present. How to interpret the phenomenon? To older Japanese, and to many outside the country, young Japanese seem to have lost a sense of public morals, to have turned away from “group consciousness” toward individualism. In my opinion, however, there hasn’t actually been a great change in attitudes. Rather, these so-called deplorable manners are in fact typically Japanese. Shinji Miyadai, a sociologist who was my mentor, analyzes public awareness in both Japan and the West in his book Manners at the End of the Century. He argues that Western societies developed public manners so that people of varying ethnic and religious backgrounds could live peacefully together. Exchanging smiles with a stranger in an elevator, for example, represents the “wisdom to ease relations with total strangers,” he writes. In Japan, however, we have no concept of the “public.” We are not trained to deal with strangers. We are told, from the time we are small children, to get along with fellow members of our group. (2)At an elementary school excursion, for instance, teachers tell us to make sure not to exclude any pupils when walking in small groups. When a student was hospitalized in my junior high school, the instructor told us to visit him because we were all friends. But nobody taught us how we should relate to strangers. Look at adult Japanese. They courteously greet people they know and behave politely with them. But as soon as they are out of sight of their company, they behave as they please. It’s just like the old saying, “When away from home, have no shame.” In the past when Japan was made up of small rural communities, it was common for respectable men on trips to shed their inhibitions* and act wantonly*. (3)I think the youth whom older people frown upon today are acting just like these men. *oblivious：(…に)気づかない *inhibition：抑制 *wantonly：勝手気ままに１．下線部(1) ‘Jibetarians’ の意味を，日本語で述べなさい。２．欧米と日本とでは， ‘public’ に関する意識がどのように異なると論じられていますか。80 字以内(句読点を含む)の日本語で述べなさい。３．下線部(2)を和訳しなさい。４．下線部(3)のように筆者が考えるのはなぜかを，日本語で説明しなさい。 - 36- 【１】愛知教育大学（2003）問１英国はフランスやドイツのような他国より過密で，新しい道や高速道路を造るのが困難なこと。英国人がヨーロッパの他国に比べて値段が高く，近代化が遅れている公共交通機関より車の使用を好むため。問２特定の道路使用に使用料を徴収すること。ラッシュアワー時の車の移動に，より多額の道路使用料を請求すること。問３もし道路への課金がロンドンのように，都市の一部だけだとしたら，運転手たちは料金のかかる地域に入らないようにしようとするので，その地域のすぐ外にさらにひどい渋滞がもたらされる可能性がある。問４政府が誰がどこに居るかという情報をいつでも得ることができるから。問５日本で多くの人が子供たちを徒歩や公共交通機関を利用して学校に行かせているように。【２】茨城大学（2000）問１製品は国内だけではなく外国でも消費され，新たな要求が生まれると外国の製品を輸入してまでその要求を満たすということ。問２人々がこれについてどのように感じるかは，どこにすんでいるか，そしてどの位お金を持っているかに非常に左右される。問３商業的及び文化的なつながり問４テレビが 5000 万人の利用者を獲得するのには 13 年かかったが，インターネットはたった 5 年だった。問５グローバリゼーションが進むことによって，固有の文化が失われ，文化が同質的になること。【３】九州大学（2002）問１．太陽の光が強まるにつれて，姿形がはっきりしてくる。茶色の小鳥たちが胸を膨らませ，口をいっぱいに開き，屋根の上や木の枝から張り裂けんばかりにさえずっている。問２． (red) 個体数が 25 年前に比べて 50％以上減少している (green) 個体数が一定しているか増加している問３．最大の収穫量を追求するために農地は果てしなく拡張され，機械によって農薬が散布され，肥料がまかれ，土地が耕されるから。問４．鳥の数の減少は，蝶や昆虫や野生の花が姿を消すなど，イギリスの自然全体が脅かされていることを示している。問５．汚染や，国土を犠牲にした目先の利益の追求のために，愛されている多くの鳥が減少しているということ。【４】熊本大学（2000）問１視野の中のすべての物体は，どんなに我々の近くにあっても，｢向こうに｣あるように見える。問２当初は無音状態が平和に思われたが，やがて動きも生気も現実感もないものに感じられ，兵士は孤独感に陥った。問３視覚は自分と環境との距離を意識させる働きをするが，聴覚や嗅覚などの感覚はそうした意識を消す作用をする。 - 37- 問４視覚は人が自分の意志で選んで、継続する自主的な行動として経験され、自己意識を高める作用をする能動的な感覚である。【５】神戸大学（2002）問１ (1) Prehistoric humans (2) pay the bills 問２しかし，逆説的だが，9 時から 5 時の間に行う仕事より，余暇に行う活動の方が，我々の個性を明らかにすることが多い。問３家の掃除，足指の爪の手入れ問４暇な時間を刺激的な活動で満たさなければならないという強迫観念。【６】埼玉大学（2000）問１日本人が宗教的とも言える尊敬の念を持って学校を扱っていた時代があった。学校というものは，たとえ子供たちが熱を出していても，出席するべき所と見なされていた。問２子供たちが学校以外で先生と別の接触をするようになって，通常の学校教師の重要性が相対的に低くなったということ。問３教師が黒板を背にしてただ教科書に書いてあることを繰り返すだけの伝統的な教え方は，時代遅れであるとますます批判されつつある。問４子供たちが自ら課題を選び，解答を探すことを助ける指導方法。【７】静岡大学（2000）問１海外では名声が高かったが，国内ではなかなか理解されず，資金難に苦しんだり，外国人好みだと非難されたりしたこと。問２海外での高い評価に反して日本ではなかなか理解されず，実は非常に日本的で，日本の魂や日本人の内面の強さを描いた映画を作ったのに，それに対して外国人好みとすら非難されたこと。問３侍ものの秀逸な映画とは別に，黒沢は，現代に生きるふつうの日本人 — 中にはごく普通の人 — を描いたほろ苦い物語も作っている。問４自国の文化の色濃い作品でありながら世界の人びとを引きつける映画作りをするところ。【８】島根大学（2002）１．警官は、どんな行為が犯罪なのか，どんな証拠が法廷での犯罪立証に使えるのかを正確に知らなければならない。２．テレビの犯罪ドラマのほとんどは犯人探しが中心であり，犯人が逮捕されるとすぐにその話は終わりとなる。３．刑事は昼夜四六時中出かけていっては証人と会って話をし，説得して，通常はむしろ彼らの最大の利益には反するのだが，協力してもらわなければならない。４．第 1 に警察のメンバーとして，刑事は常に完全に合法的な行動をしなければならないこと。第 2 に多額の税金で賄われる公務員として刑事は結果を出さなければならないこと。５．市民，社会福祉事業担当指導員，医師，議員や判事などは，犯罪を撲滅する代わりに，犯罪者を更正させたいとの希望で刑を軽減することしか念頭にない。その結果，刑事の仕事の 10 分の 9 は刑務所に入っているべきだった人間を再逮捕することになること。 - 38- 【９】千葉大学（2000）設問１ある言語を話す人が，また別の言語も話せること。2 つの言語をどちらも母国語のように使えること。設問２ A (b) B (d) C (b) 設問３子供は比較的容易に第 2 言語を習得し，大人は苦労するところ。【１０】筑波大学（2000）１．人びとが依存している天然資源そのものを経済的な発展が破壊しかねないという現実的な危険。２．develop and go green at the same time ３．世界の資源のより公平な分け前にあずかり，貧困から抜け出していく権利。４．環境を維持しながら開発を行っていくこと。５．裕福な国々が，開発や貧困との戦いを犠牲にして，環境保護に焦点を当てているように思われる６．the rich countries 【１１】東京外国語大学（2003）１． (ｱ) ○ (ｲ) × (ｳ) × (ｴ) × (ｵ) ○ ２．女性の地位と役割，家庭内暴力の増加，ティーンエージャーの間に見られる攻撃的行動の増加，十分な幼稚園を求める要求の高まり３．離婚，片親の家庭，共働き夫婦，結婚せずに同棲する男女の増加傾向４．これらの発言は，本当に危うくなっているものを見失っている。【１２】東京農工大学（2000）〔１〕子供が人生の教訓を体得するのには，楽しみながら学べる寓話が一番よい。〔２〕 (a) ア (b) ウ (c) オ (d) エ (e) イ〔３〕物語を通して，彼は人間の悪い性質について警告する教訓を教えようとしていた。そして，その物語を聞いた人びとが自分の行いを改善する方法を学んでほしいと望んだ。〔４〕寓話とは重要な教訓を教えてくれる物語のことで，多くは人間の性格を持った動物が扱われ，最後は必ず 1 文の教訓で終わる。それらの教訓はその文化になくてはならない慣用表現であることわざとなって，人生の真理や行動規範を人びとに提示する。【１３】富山大学（2000）１．広島に原子爆弾を投下した人びと。２．アメリカ人の使う言葉の中に｢真珠湾攻撃の日｣がいまだに生き続けていること。３．このようなやっかいな質問は疑いもなく，戦争中の日本人の行為に対するアメリカ人の姿勢を軟化させる助けになった。つまり，戦時中，日本人が残忍であったとしたなら，我々だって残忍だったではないかというのである。４．一般に，加害者は自分に罪の意識を起こさせる被害者を避けるばかりでなく，罪悪感を表に出す傾向があり，その結果，被害者は加害者を告発する人物に変貌する。そこで，加害者は被害者から告発され， - 39- 今度は被害者を恨むようになるから。５．ニュース報道の中に，人は畏怖の念を，私たちが原子力の時代に入ってしまったという明確な認識を感じ取るが，この意識は戦争を終結させようとする確固たる決意と結びついている。６．a rain of ruin from the air the like of which has never been seen on this earth. 【１４】一橋大学（2000）１イ２囚人は追跡調査可能な環境にいて，報酬などを求める強い動機づけも持っていたから。３攻撃性を抑制する方法を研究するのに，攻撃的な囚人以上に被害者に適する人がいるだろうか，また彼ら以上に恩恵に浴することができそうな人間がいるのだろうか。４この研究者は偽薬となるまで服用量を減らし、意図的に被害者に薬効が及ばないようにしたが，これは刑務所内での偽薬治療を禁じるアメリカ合衆国の規定に違反する。【１５】三重大学（2000）１．ギリシャ人より前の人びとは，地球が動いているとか，地球は丸いなどとはだれも夢にも思わなかった。２．a great disc resting on four elephants that stood on a giant turtle ３．出生時の星の位置がその人の一生に影響を及ぼすという迷信に基づいた偽の科学である占星術。４．さまよい歩く【１６】山口大学（2000）１．通行人たちの非難するような視線も気にせず，通りや列車内などどんな公共の場所でも地べたに座り込む若者たち。２．欧米では民族的・宗教的に異なる人びとが一緒に平穏に生活できるように公共のマナーが発達したが，日本では見知らぬ人と付き合う訓練もされておらず，その概念もない。３．例えば，小学校の遠足では，教師は私たちに小グループで歩くときは，どんな生徒も仲間はずれにしないようにと言う。４．昔の日本で，きちんとした人でも旅となると，いわゆる｢旅の恥はかき捨て｣で抑制を取り払い，勝手気ままに振る舞うことがふつうであった。現代日本の大人も，知っている人の前を離れれば同様のことをするから。 - 40-