Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 66 (2012) 555 – 563
The 8th International Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) Seminar - Aligning Theoretical
Knowledge with Professional Practice
A Review on the Important Role of Vocabulary Knowledge in
Reading Comprehension Performance
Soodeh Hamzehlou Moghadama*, Zaidah Zainalb, Mahsa Ghaderpourc
abc
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor, Malaysia
Abstract
Vocabulary learning is dominant in language acquisition, whether the language is a second or a foreign language, and crucial
which learners encounter while reading could cause difficulties in processing the text. Students and teachers alike know that
many of the reading comprehension breakdowns experienced by students involve word recognition and lexical access.
Therefore, this review is an attempt to broaden our knowledge of vocabulary and its relationship with reading comprehension
performance.
© 2012
2012 The
The Authors.
Authors. Published
Published by
by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.
Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
©
Selection and
and/or
peer-review
under
responsibility
of the
2012
Committee,
Language
Academy,
Universiti
Teknologi
Selection
peer-review
under
responsibility
of the
LSPLSP
2012
Committee,
Language
Academy,
Universiti
Teknologi
Malaysia.
Malaysia.
Keywords: Vocabulary knowledge; breadth of vocabulary; depth of vocabulary; reading comprehension
1. Introduction
Language acquisition is an active procedure, which requires on the part of the learners to continually acquire
of lexicon is crucial,
so as to allow the learners to function well in a given context. Several studies in both first language (L1) and
second language (L2) have indicated that vocabulary knowledge is one of the best predictors of reading ability
and the capability to obtain new details from texts [1], [2] and [3].
Hu and Nation [4] and Schmitt [5] also hold the opinion that the amount of familiar and unfamiliar vocabulary
is one of the most significant elements in discerning the complication of a text. Likewise, Stahl [6] says that the
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60-17-210-5972
E-mail Address: [email protected]
1877-0428 © 2012 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the LSP 2012 Committee, Language Academy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.300
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. Although it can be assumed that the
same prediction be made for foreign language acquisition, only a few studies have been found to qualify this
assumption [7], [8] and [9].
One of the reasons of lack of research in this area is that people make mistakes in differentiating L2 and
foreign language acquisition. L2 generally is the language that is learned or acquired after L1; however the term
has a restricted picture when it is contrasted to the term foreign language, in which L2 acts as an identified
medium of communication among people who speak some other languages as their mother tongue, and the
foreign language plays no significant role in the community and is mostly learnt only in the classroom [10].
Ignorance of the differences between L2 and foreign language will result in confusion in the practice of language
learning, teaching and research work.
2. What Is Vocabulary and What Is Meant by a Word?
According to Milton [11] we tend to use the term
really referring to some very specialist definitions of the term, such as types, tokens, lemmas and word families.
Here is an example:
The elephant destroyed the farm,
We can count up the number of separate words in the sentence. In this case, there are five separate words. This
type of definition is useful if we want to know how many words there are in a passage, for example, or how long
the type of definition used by dictionary compilers and publishers to explain how
big the corpus is, which they use to find real examples of word use. When counting words this way, words are
often called tokens to make it quite clear what is being talked about. So, we would say that the sample sentence
above contains five tokens.
In addition to knowing about the size of a piece of writing or speech, the number of words produced, we may
also be interested in the number of different words that are used. The terms types and tokens are used to
distinguish between the two types of count. Tokens refer to the total number of words in a text or corpus, while
types refer to the number of different words. Look again at the sample sentence; there are five tokens, but only
measuring the vocabulary knowledge of learners, as we usually want to know how many different words they
have at their disposal, rather than how much they can produce regardless of repetition.
A lemma includes a headword and its most frequent inflections, and this process must not involve changing
th
by this method of counting, would be a different word [11].
As Vermeer [12] points out, the lemma is the most reliable unit of counting words. The assumption is that
learners at this level are likely to have mastered only the most frequent inflections and derivations, but will not
know the more infrequent and irregular ways in which words can change. By using lemmatised wordlists as the
basis for tests at this level, we get believable and stable results. Vocabulary tests, such as Na
[13], revised Schmitt et al. [14] and X-Lex, Meara and Milton [15], use this kind of definition of a word in their
counts and estimates of vocabulary knowledge. The last one is word family that refers to different words with
various parts of speech, for example, guide, guides, guidance [11].
2.1 What is vocabulary knowledge?
Researchers have taken notice of the multidimensionality and complication of word knowledge, suggesting
that knowing a word completely should include various kinds of linguistic knowledge ranging from
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557
pronunciation, spelling, and morphology [16], [17], [13] and [18] to knowledge of the word's syntactic and
semantic relationships with other words in the language, involving knowledge of antonym, synonymy, hyponym
and collocational meanings [19], [20] and [3].
The most complete descriptions of word knowledge were those suggested by Nation [13,1]. Nation [13]
itemized eight different types of knowledge that are required to know a word, but later amended it, adding a ninth
aspect 'word parts' [1]. He explained the nine aspects of vocabulary knowledge as follows:
1. Knowledge of the spoken form of a word
2. Knowledge of the written form of a word
3. Knowledge of the parts in a word which have meaning
4. Knowledge of the link between a particular form and a meaning
5. Knowledge of the concepts a word may possess and the items it can refer to
6. Knowledge of the vocabulary that is associated with a word
7. Knowledge of a word's grammatical functions
8. Knowledge of a word's collocations
9. Knowledge of a word's register and frequency
Nation further broke down each aspect into receptive and productive knowledge, which will be explained
further in the next part.
It can be claimed that vocabulary knowledge is not an all-or-nothing relationship, but a systematic procedure
in which various types of knowledge are learned until all aspects of knowledge are known for an item. Obtaining
comprehensive knowledge of a word needs substantial takings in all nine aspects of knowledge, and
consequently, large number of words, specifically the less frequent ones, may only be partially learned. It also
seems likely that some aspects of knowledge are acquired before others. Schmitt and McCarthy [21] and Schmitt
[22, 5] propose that knowledge of form, and meaning may be obtained before some of the other aspects such as
collocation and register.
2.1.1
Productive/Active vocabulary vs. receptive/passive vocabulary
All productive or active vocabulary involves words that we apply when we speak or write. According to
Nation [1], productive use of vocabulary is
and retrieving and producing the appropria
.
On the other hand, receptive or passive vocabulary is composed of words that we recognize when we hear or
see. It is normally bigger than productive vocabulary, and may comprise numerous words to which we allocate
some definitions, even if we do not understand their full meanings and implications or use them as we speak and
write [23]. Nation [1] gives a detailed definition of receptive vocabulary. He defines receptive vocabulary use as
-25].
In other words, receptive knowledge is the language input that learners receive from others through listening
or reading and try to understand it. Productive knowledge, on the other hand, is the language output that learners
convey messages to others through speaking or writing [24].
2.1.2
Breadth of vocabulary knowledge
Breadth of vocabulary knowledge is referred to the quantity or number of words learners know at a certain
level of language competence [1]
will be less than for
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As Nation [24] states the number of words that educated native speakers of English know is around 20,000
word families and for each year of their early life they add on average 1,000 word families. Studies of native
high frequency words to understand about 80% of the running texts. These data are not regular and a large
variation would be between individuals. These data do not include proper names, abbreviations, compound
words, and foreign words. A word family incorporates a root word, its inflected forms, and a small number of
logically repeated derived forms [25].
According to Nation and Waring [26], learners need to know a minimum of 3000 or so high frequency words
because it gives coverage of at least 95% of a running text. Moreover, most research indicate that knowledge of
the most frequent 5000 words should provide sufficient vocabulary to facilitate reading authentic texts. As a
matter of fact, there still remain some unknown words, but this level of knowledge should permit learners to
comprehend most of the communicative content of the text and deduce the meaning of many of the unfamiliar
words from context.
The good news for second language teachers and second language learners is that a small quantity of words
happens frequently and this small proportion allows learner to understand a large amount of the running words in
a written or spoken context which leads to a good degree of comprehension of a text.
2.1.3
Depth of vocabulary knowledge
Read [27, p. 357] explained the notion of depth of word knowledge which is more absorbing from an L2
vocabulary acquisition research belief tha
intricate and dynamic nature of this
knowledge.
It is really obvious that knowing a word means knowing more than its single meaning in a specific text.
Learners also need to know the pronunciation, spelling, syntactic and semantic relationship with other words such
as collocation, synonym, antonym and hyponym [19]. So, vocabulary should not be considered a single
dimension, instead it is better to be viewed as a multidimensional structure [28].
Depth of knowledge is a network of links between words. It is about how they associate and interact with each
other, and may be restricted in use according to register and context. This would include, for example, how words
collocate, form idioms and can have multiple possible meanings. Depth is generally used to refer to a wide
variety of word characteristics, including the shades of meaning a word may carry, its connotations and
collocations, the phrases and patterns of use it is likely to be found in, and the associations the word creates in the
mind of the user. All of these imply that a word will be linked to other words and ideas in the lexicon and,
provided these links are correct and appropriate, to enable learners to use their chosen words appropriately and
well [11].
3. Significance of vocabulary learning
To prove the importance of vocabulary in second language acquisition, numerous ideas have been raised.
Krashen [29] holds the opinion that there are great causes for devoting consideration to vocabulary. First,
vocabulary appears to be a proper indicator of language ability because learners regularly make use of dictionary
rather than a grammar book. Wilkins [30: 111]
This means knowing a great amount of vocabulary is actually
favorable since it assists learners to speak more and to have a good influence on other people as well.
Second, a great amount of words is required for being competent in a foreign language. Baker et al. [31] also
believe that learning a foreign language fundamentally and immensely is dependent on vocabulary knowledge.
According to Nation [32]
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559
As explained above, vocabulary learning has received increasing attention in ESL/EFL research agenda
because lexical ability is one of the prerequisite skills for L2 and foreign language literacy [33], [34], [35], [36]
and [1]. In other words, vocabulary knowledge determines the extent to which the learners have commands over
a foreign language.
4. Relationship between breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge
Researchers in the area of vocabulary learning and teaching differentiated between two aspects of vocabulary
knowledge: size and depth [37], [16], [11] and [3]. However, not long ago, Milton [11] analyzed a great deal of
studies in his outstanding volume Measuring Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Milton experientially
claims that these two aspects are not divisible and that they might be connected to each other.
Moreover, administering Vocabulary Levels Test (for measuring breadth) and Word Associates Test (for
measuring depth of vocabulary knowledge) to 44 Korean students and 33 Chinese students, Qian [38] found that
the scores of the two tests were closely and significantly correlated at 0.78 for the Korean students and 0.82 for
the Chinese students. He concludes that size is as valuable as depth to vocabulary knowledge since these two
aspects overlap one another and are interconnected. Qian [2]
of vocabulary knowledge measures are both capable of explaining a considerable portion (over 50%) of the
variance in
.
Mehrpour et al. [39] investigated the particular role learners' vocabulary knowledge plays in their reading
comprehension performance. They also attempted to investigate whether there is a relationship between these two
vocabulary knowledge dimensions, that is, depth and breadth. The participants of the study were 60 (30 males
and 30 females) EFL learners. To collect the relevant data, Vocabulary Levels Tests and Word associates Test
were administered. The results further revealed that depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge are positively
correlated, that is, those learners who had large vocabulary size had a deeper knowledge of the words, too.
Inevitably, it should be mentioned that both breadth and depth aspects of vocabulary knowledge should be
viewed as a knowledge continuum rather than two distinct dimensions of lexical developments [20], [38] and
[40]. For beginners, the two aspects seem to be more distinct, but the breadth and depth knowledge tend to
converge when learners become more advanced [40].
5. Relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension
A number of EFL studies have demonstrated the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading
comprehension performance. Zhang and Anual [41] studied the role of vocabulary in reading comprehension
with 37 secondary students learning English in Singapore. The Vocabulary Levels Test was used to measure
students' vocabulary knowledge. Result showed that students' vocabulary knowledge at the 2000-word and the
3000-word levels were correlated with their reading comprehension. This shows a close relationship between
vocabulary knowledge and English reading comprehension.
Further, Martin-Chang and Gould [42] found a strong correlation both between vocabulary and reading
comprehension and between reading rate and primary print knowledge. Vocabulary knowledge is fundamental in
reading comprehension because it functions as identical as background knowledge in reading comprehension.
Vocabulary knowledge facilitates decoding, which is a significant part of reading [2].
There are more studies that have shown the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading
comprehension [43], [44], [45], [46] and [47].
Joshi and Aaron [45] found that vocabulary knowledge is a strong predictor of reading ability when factoring
reading speed with decoding and comprehension. Likewise, Garcia [48] found that lack of vocabulary knowledge
in the test passages followed by questions is a strong element influencing fifth and sixth grade of Latino bilingual
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learners on a test of reading comprehension. Small vocabulary size, as well as a lack of adequate knowledge of
word meanings, usually impedes learners from comprehending the meaning of the text.
A number of studies [8], [49], [50], [51], [52], [38], [53] and [41] have used scores on vocabulary size to
predict levels of academic reading comprehension. Laufer [52] discovered significant correlations between
different types of vocabulary size tests and reading comprehension tests in her studies. In a research with 92 firstyear university students whose native language was either Hebrew or Arabic [51], the correlation between the
scores on the Vocabulary Levels Test and scores on reading comprehension was 0.50 which is moderate, and that
between the scores on Eurocentres Vocabulary Test [54] and scores on reading comprehension was 0.75.
Furthermore, Pringprom [55] studied about the relationships between English vocabulary size and reading
comprehension performance of 30 undergraduate students at Bangkok University. The researcher administered
the Vocabulary Levels Test bilingual version (Englishand a multiple- choice-questioncorrelated.
Recent studies conducted in foreign language contexts, reported high and positive correlations between
vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension as well. In a study carried out by Rashidi and Khosravi [56],
the role of depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension was investigated. The Word
Associates Test and the Vocabulary Levels Test were administered to 38 senior university students for assessing
depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge respectively. Findings suggest interrelation among depth, breadth
and reading comprehension performance with a positive correlation of 0.87 between the scores on the Word
Associates Test and reading comprehension test, and also a positive correlation of 0.75 between the scores on the
Vocabulary Levels Test and reading comprehension test. Students with stronger depth and breadth of vocabulary
performed better in reading comprehension test.
Farahani [57] investigated the relationship between depth of vocabulary knowledge and Iranian learners'
lexical inferencing strategy use and success. Her findings showed
that there was a significant relationship
between depth of vocabulary knowledge and the type of lexical inferencing strategy use. In other words, those
who had stronger depth of vocabulary knowledge used certain types of lexical inferencing strategies more
frequently than those who had weaker depth of vocabulary knowledge and these strategies made them more
successful in inferring the meaning of unknown words.
In another study done by Kaivanpanah and Zandi [58], the role of depth of vocabulary knowledge in reading
comprehension was investigated. For this purpose, a Test Of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and a
measure of depth of vocabulary knowledge developed by Qian and Schedl [28] was administered to 57 EFL
learners (17 males and 40 females). The analysis of the results showed that depth of vocabulary knowledge was
significantly related to reading.
successfully understand what they read puts a substantial demand on classroom teachers, curriculum organizers,
program developers, and reading researchers. The need is that notable consideration should be given to the
6. Conclusion
This review shows that vocabulary knowledge plays a very significant role in reading exams, and reading
investigation has constantly come up with a word knowledge element on which vocabulary tests load positively.
Vocabulary knowledge is fundamental since lexical errors are the most recurring ones and, concurrently, they
form an important obstruction to communication.
EFL teachers sometimes challenge
Considering the fact that breadth and depth are two connecting aspects of vocabulary knowledge, knowing an
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561
abundant vocabulary cannot assist learners a great deal if their comprehension is insubstantial and shallow. This
means to have a good understanding, both aspects of vocabulary knowledge-depth and breadth- are required.
Therefore, although the size of vocabulary knowledge is a crucial element on evaluating the reading
comprehension, depth of vocabulary, in addition to what is expected, plays a significant part in reading
comprehension performance. The investigations mentioned in the review indicate that depth of vocabulary
knowledge, breadth of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension are highly, and positively, correlated.
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