Typology of private sector actors in forestry
One private sector or several? This question arises whenever issues linked to the
private sector, a major player in the forest industry, are addressed. How best to
analyse such a wide variety of actors? In other words, what does a multinational
have in common with a pitsaw operator using a simple chainsaw?
The approach selected may be based on size (number of employees, turnover),
position in the value chain, from upstream (the forest) to downstream (processing,
export etc.), or the “nationality” of the capital involved. Depending on the
country, it may be essential to distinguish between log producers, sawyers,
plywood manufacturers and carpenters, not to mention charcoal burners, who
are major links in the chain.
Another fundamental point is to offer a diagram explaining any possible
interconnections between the various players (Purnomo et al. 2013). It is a
complex subject, and things get even more complicated when the concept of
legality is brought into the picture.
Typology of private sector
actors in forestry
I4582E/2/01 . 1 6
With the support of:
Document produced as part of the study entitled
Challenges and opportunities for supporting the private sector within the
framework of the Voluntary Partnership Agreement between the
European Union and the Republic of Cameroon
Typology of private sector
actors in forestry
Challenges and opportunities for supporting the private sector within the
framework of the Voluntary Partnership Agreement between the
European Union and the Republic of Cameroon
Emmanuel Groutel
Ph.D, consultant FAO, WALE sas
&
Sarah Fumey
Master Sciences-Po Paris
F o o d a n d A g r i c u lt u r e O r g a n i z at i o n o f t h e U n i t e d N at i o n s ( F AO )
R O M E , 2 015
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of
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The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or
policies of FAO.
© FAO, 2015
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Cover and back cover photos: © Emmanuel Groutel
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acronyms
iv
Typology of private sector actors in forestry
1
1. An administrative-juridical approach
5
A. International-level private-sector players
6
B. Small and medium-sized enterprises, the main national private-sector players
7
C. Local-level private-sector players
8
2. An approach based on the perceptions of
professionals in the value chain
11
3. A working definition
15
Conclusion: prospects of changes in those involved in the forest sector
17
Bibliography
18
Legal texts
18
ACRONYMS
CIRAD International Cooperation Centre on Agrarian Research for Development
EFI
European Forest Institute
EU
European Union
FLEGT Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade
SME
Small and Medium-sized Enterprises
VPA
Voluntary Partnership Agreement
iv
Typology of private sector actors
in forestry
One private sector or several?1 This question arises whenever issues linked to the private sector, a
major player in the forest industry, are addressed. How best to analyse such widely varying actors?
In other words, what does a multinational have in common with a pitsaw operator using a simple
chainsaw?
The approach selected may be based on size (number of employees, turnover), position in the
value chain from upstream (the forest) to downstream (processing, export etc.), or the “nationality”
of the capital involved. Depending on the country, it may be essential to distinguish between log
producers, sawyers, plywood manufacturers and carpenters, not to mention charcoal burners, who
are major links in the chain. Another fundamental point is to offer a diagram explaining any possible
interconnections between the various players (Purnomo et al. 2013). It is a complex subject, and
things get even more complicated when the concept of legality is brought into the picture.
With a view to supporting a study carried out in Cameroon by Groutel and Yene Yene (2014),
the present paper proposes a categorization of private players based on the Cameroonian case.
As part of the EU’s FLEGT action plan, the establishment of a voluntary partnership agreement
(VPA) between the EU and Cameroon highlights the challenges and opportunities involved in
the timber value chain. In order to address these issues and draw up recommendations suited to
the various enterprises in all their diversity, some differentiation seems necessary. Indeed, when
the challenges and expectations of the various players for each type of activity are understood,
appropriate strategies for each of them can be developed.
The method used to establish a detailed typology of private-sector players combines two approaches.
The first is administrative and juridical, and entails analysis of what the existing legal texts propose.
The second is more qualitative and is based on the professionals’ own expression of how they see
1
This study does not intend drawing up a hierarchy on the basis of licences and permits, since certain active members
of the value chain – artisans, informal-sector manufacturers, traders or intermediaries – do not have them.
1
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
the current set-up. Combining these two approaches, an initial diagram can be drawn up, admittedly
simplistic, but reflecting the broad lines of the situation on the ground. The case of Cameroon is
particularly interesting, inasmuch as the total number of jobs in the timber sector, both formal and
informal,2 is between 450 000 and 480 0003 for a total production, taking all markets together,
of 4.3 million cubic metres and a gross added value of US$1 450 million.4 This provides large
representative samples of the majority of players, which facilitates the task of defining categories.
Although it is based on the Cameroonian example, this typology is also intended as the basis for
definitions that can be reused in other contexts than that of the present study.
The first step will be to review the literature containing existing definitions of the various privatesector players. The second will be to use the more qualitative input of professionals in the value
chain to round out these definitions. Lastly, a categorization will be proposed in the form of a table
summarizing the elements developed in this paper.
2
However, these figures should be treated with caution, inasmuch as the informal is, by definition, invisible.
3
Cerutti and Lescuyer 2011; Rametsteiner and Whiteman 2014. By way of comparison, estimated figures are 36 000 for
the Congo, 67 000 for Gabon, 129 000 for the Central African Republic and 386 000 for Côte d’Ivoire.
4
Rametsteiner and Whiteman 2014.
2
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
© Emmanuel Groutel
3
© Emmanuel Groutel
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
4
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
An administrative-juridical
approach
In the first place, in order to obtain an overview of private players in Cameroon, we shall review
the existing literature, both national and international. This will allow us to establish an initial
typology of known players, using a twofold administrative and juridical approach. However basic
this classification may be, it does give a preliminary picture of the juridical categories that exist.
In Cameroon, there is in fact a definition of private players, but it does not cover all those of interest
to us here. It was produced by the Ministry of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises, Social Economy
and Handicrafts.5 Law 2010/001 of 13 April 2010 on the promotion of small and medium-sized
enterprises in Cameroon thus states:
qq“A very small enterprise is one employing no more than 5 people and with an annual pre-tax
turnover of no more than CFAF 15 million [€22 8006].
qq“A small enterprise is one employing between 6 and 20 people and with an annual pre-tax
turnover of more than CFAF 15 million [€22 800] but not exceeding CFAF 100 million
[€152 000].
qqA medium-sized enterprise is one employing between 21 and 100 people and with an annual
pre-tax turnover of more than CFAF 100 million [€152 000) but not exceeding CFAF 1 billion
[€1 520 000].”
5
Other ministries, such as the Ministry of Trade, also have their own definitions.
6
Exchange rate as at 30 January 2014: CFAF 1 = €0.001524.
5
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
However, these are “visible” enterprises and the informal sector must also be added:
“Everyone in Cameroon agrees that the informal sector is where the majority of the population engaged
in an economic activity is to be found. However, there is no official information (statistics, public accounts)
on its situation throughout the country.This sector, which faces a variety of problems such as job insecurity,
difficult operating conditions and outdated working techniques (intensive use of labour and obsolete
tools and equipment), is increasingly being taken into account in government priorities. Thus, strategies
to optimize its operation and modernize it are part of the Ministry of Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises, Social Economy and Handicrafts’ roadmap”
(UNICO, 2009).
The same UNICO study (for the Japan International Cooperation Agency) indicates that the
informal sector employs between 60 and 65 percent of the country’s working population,
corresponding to a contribution of between 25 and 30 percent to the country’s total GDP.
A.International-level private sector players
Since no definition of this type of structure exists, we have sought the general proposition best
suited to the local context. The word “international” is in fact rarely used in the forest or timber
sector in Africa. However, the main private players, which focus on export and have their capital
and the headquarters of their mother or holding company abroad, correspond to our definition
of a “multinational”. According to the economist Michalet (1976), a multinational or transnational
company is an enterprise with five main determining features:
qqThe search for direct access to raw materials;
qqThe need to overcome certain obstacles to trade;
qqThe search for foreign outlets following the intensification of competition on the domestic
market;
qqThe loss of a technological advantage on the domestic market, which may force businesses to
produce abroad at a lower cost so that they can continue to produce profitably;
7
qqThe search for lower labour costs.
According to Michalet, this type of structure is “usually very large; starting from a national base, it
has established a number of branches abroad in several countries, with a strategy and organization
conceived on a global scale.” These criteria fit a number of enterprises of French, Italian or Belgian
nationality.
7
6
www.ired.org/
© Emmanuel Groutel
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
B.Small and medium-sized enterprises, the main national
private sector players
In this section we find a number of definitions produced by banks, various agencies and the relevant
ministries.
Ministry of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises, Social Economy and Handicrafts
The ministry offers an initial definition of these players in Law 2010/001 of 11 April 2010 on the
promotion of small and medium-sized enterprises in Cameroon (see the definition in section 1
above).
7
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
Bank of Central African States8
The bank considers that the SME category comprises enterprises with the following features:
qqThe total amount of the enterprise’s own funds is less than CFAF 100 million (€152 000);
qqTurnover does not exceed CFAF 500 million (€760 000);
qqOutstanding short-term cash loans do not exceed CFAF 100 million (€152 000).
Japan International Cooperation Agency
For JICA, an SME is an enterprise with fewer than 150 employees, excluding branches of foreign
enterprises, state enterprises and enterprises resulting from the privatization of former state
enterprises.This definition was given in a study carried out in 2007 for the formulation of a master
plan for the development of SMEs in Cameroon.
Cameroon Investment Code
This code, which applies to economic activity in the country, was established by Decree 90/007 of
8 November 1990 and then modified by Decree 94/003 of 24 January 1994. Under this statute, any
enterprise may claim SME status if it complies with the conditions laid down in the code, as well
as meeting the following three conditions:
qqThe creation of permanent jobs for Cameroonians, with at least one job per instalment of up to
CFAF 5 million (€7 622) of investments planned by the enterprise;
qqA level of investment equal to or lower than CFAF 1.5 billion (€22 867);
qqParticipation of Cameroonians or a Cameroonian legal entity with at least 35 percent of the
capital.
C.Local-level private sector players
At the local level, the literature reports two main categories of player: handicrafts – artisans and craft
enterprises – and family enterprises.
Handicrafts: definition of the Ministry of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises, Social Economy
and Handicrafts
According to Law 2007/004 of 13 July 2007, handicrafts comprise the body of activities of
extraction, production, processing, maintenance, repairing or service provision that are essentially
manual and carried out as a main occupation. Handicrafts are then divided into three sectors:
qqArtistic handicrafts, which are “characterized by the manufacture and marketing of objects that
essentially have an aesthetic and cultural value”;
8
8
www.beac.com
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
qqProduction handicrafts, which involve “the manufacture of goods of everyday use, but without
industrial standardization, by the exclusive or predominant use of manual processing”;
qqService handicrafts, which involve “the small-scale supply of types of care meeting everyday
needs and also the provision of small services needed for daily life”.
The law then distinguishes between artisans and handicraft enterprises:
qq“Any autonomous worker who carries on an activity and who assumes full responsibility for
direction and management, while personally participating in the work, is considered an artisan”;
qq“Any unit carrying on a handicraft activity employing less than ten salaried workers and making
an investment of at least CFAF 1 million is considered a handicraft enterprise.”
For the remainder of this study, we shall consider that artisans/handicraft workers and handicraft
enterprises belong to the same category of player (very small enterprises/handicrafts).
Family enterprises: the definition of Jean-Christophe Boungou Bazika, researcher at
the Marien Ngouabi University, Republic of Congo, and Director of the Congolese Centre for
Research on Economic Analyses and Policies
In a 2005 article entitled “The family enterprise: definition and functionality from an African
perspective”, Boungou Bazika reflects on a kind of enterprise for which no official definition yet
exists. On the basis of a typology established in the form of a table, a family enterprise could be
defined as one that is collectively managed and operates according to a principle of solidarity, with
its resources coming from family savings. It operates on the basis of decision by consensus. The
sustainability of this type of enterprise depends on family cohesion, although its possibilities for
growth are limited. Decision-making is slow. Lastly, indications are that it will decline in the future.
9
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T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
An approach based on the
perceptions of professionals in the
value chain
The forest sector’s view of itself as a type of structure is undoubtedly specific to this particular
industry. A series of interviews was carried out in order to obtain a picture of how the practitioners
themselves see their field of activity. Forest operators, sawyers, managers and forest experts were
canvassed through personal interviews or by e-mail.9 The question they were asked was: “How is
your profession structured in Africa, and more particularly in Cameroon, in terms of the various
players in the private sector?” We also considered their perception of past or current changes. The
results of this informal survey now follow.
Large international export enterprises
These enterprises are always mentioned first. For the most part, they have their headquarters in a
foreign country, generally on another continent (Europe or Asia). They are visible and structured;
and because of their visibility, they may incorporate such eco-labels as FSC or TOL.10 They are
industrialized, making significant long-term investments in forest harvesting, and they handle their
own logistics from the forest to export of the product. According to those questioned, in recent
years these enterprises have greatly expanded processing activities in order to offset the reduction
in volumes harvested, the difficulty of selling logs at a cost-effective price, the rise in taxation and
transport costs, and the increase in legality requirements. It should be noted that supply problems
have often led them to acquire logging concessions. In Cameroon, “with 54 percent of the areas
allocated to concessions that are fully held and 74 percent of those that are held in partnership or
leasehold, they possess 85 percent of the processing capacities in the country” (CIRAD 2006). Most
of them have adapted to changes in the legislative and regulatory framework by focusing on the
sustainable management of concessions and in some cases on acquiring labels for their products.
9
20 contacts in August 2014.
10 FSC
= Forest Stewardship Council; TOL = Timber Origin and Legality.
11
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
© Emmanuel Groutel
Large national export enterprises
Like “foreign” enterprises, these may cover all the stages in the production chain from forest through
processing to export – which entails substantial investments.They carry out their own marketing or
use agents.They are subject to the same export priorities as international enterprises, although some
of them do not undertake processing.This aspect should change in coming years, as it is increasingly
difficult to achieve satisfactory results simply as forest harvesters. In some cases, these enterprises
also have small processing and repackaging units for the export of wood from community forests.
On the other hand, we should also note the possibility of focusing purely on processing, without
holding any forest concessions.
International traders
These operators are intermediaries and do not necessarily have large structures (in terms of human
resources), although they generally handle large volumes. Depending on the outlet to which they
are connected, they may make use of eco-labels. Export is their primary focus.
Intermediaries and agents
These operators, who may be based in either the consuming or producing country, are charged by
either suppliers or clients with finding outlets, inspecting products, organizing transport etc. They
are paid a commission (a percentage) and do not commit their own funds to the activities they
undertake. Their structures are minimal (one person or only a few people) and their turnover is
low. Nevertheless, they can have a significant influence on the market. Through their knowledge of
12
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
upstream potential (customers, uses, shipping companies, products, legislation etc.) and downstream
markets, they make an active contribution to the creation of new flows.They have a market research
function. Although they are often not visible and hence little studied, their role in international
trade is significant.
Medium-sized national enterprises
Also selling for export, these enterprises are usually confined to a single country where they have
their headquarters. They may also have activities other than those associated with the forest sector.
Because of their size and their commercial targets, they are not obliged to observe labelling standards.
They handle both production and export. They have little capacity for technological development,
but they may obtain loans from commercial banks.
Although they do have some internal organization, their capacities for collecting data or
implementing a marketing strategy are limited.
Small national enterprises
Less visible than the previous players, their rise in recent years is highly indicative of the difficulties
faced by the forest private sector. They handle volumes coming mainly from illegal extraction that
are then sometimes packaged for export (which the SMEs do not undertake directly themselves)
or destined for the domestic market, depending on opportunities and the enterprise’s commercial
approach.Their production facilities are fairly basic.We should note that the equipment used varies
depending on whether products are intended for the local market or export. Thus, “mobile saws
are still linked to the export market” while sawyers using chainsaws focus on the domestic market
(Cerutti and Lescuyer 2011). They have a low capacity for self-finance and their access to credit
is limited by high interest rates rather than the need for guarantees. It is hard to assess the costeffectiveness of these structures. Although they do have some internal organization, it tends to be
rudimentary.
Artisans
Artisans purchase raw materials and process them into finished or semi-finished products. They
work in small teams and basically focus on the local market. Their modus operandi is self- or familyemployment, with no real internal organization.Working capital is hard to obtain. Having no access
to raw materials from validly supervised concessions, their products are essentially illegal.
13
© Emmanuel Groutel
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
14
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
A working definition
When professionals from the sector are questioned, they fill out the picture by adding intermediaries,
mentioning service providers (mechanics, equipment servicers etc.), subcontractors (carriers),
traceability specialists or logistics coordinators. All these people are basic to the value chain and
should be consulted when dealing with the sector. However, they cannot be included in the same
way as producers, processors, traders or exporters, since they do not play a direct role in the trade
in forest products.
The concepts of legal and illegal, formal and informal or visible and invisible are also regularly
mentioned by the professionals, but it is impossible to categorize them because of the difficulties in
defining the extent of such notions.
Table 1 below brings together the proposals of administrations and the observations of professionals
in the sector.
The proposed categories are confined to six:
qqLarge international/national enterprises (LE)
qqMedium-sized national enterprises (ME)
qqTraders (TR)
qqSmall enterprises (SE)
qqIntermediaries (IN)
qqArtisans (AR)
Large enterprises, whether their headquarters are in Cameroon or elsewhere, have to deal with
fairly similar constraints regarding finance, structure and reputation, and they have been grouped
together. Companies listed on the stock exchange and possessing a social audit report and/or a
corporate social responsibility policy may, however, be subject to more severe constraints.
15
© Emmanuel Groutel
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
Table 1. Categorization of the various players in the wood sector by Groutel and Fumey
Administrativejuridical
category
Number of
employees
Turnover
Professional
activity
Target
Large enterprise
> 100
> CFAF 1 billion
Producer and processor
Export
> €1.5 million
Medium-sized
enterprise
21 – 99
Proposed
category
LE
Large international
enterprise
Producer and processor
Export
CFAF 100 million –
1 billion
Producer and processor
Export & local
€150 000 – 1.5 million
Intermediary trader
Large national
enterprise
ME
Medium-sized national
enterprise
Export
TR
Trader
Small enterprise
6 – 20
CFAF 15 million –
100 million
Processor and
marketer
Local
€23 000 – 150 000
Intermediary
Export
SE
Small enterprise
IN
Intermediary
Very small enterprise/
Handicrafts
16
1–5
< CFAF 15 million
< €23 000
Processor and trader
Local
AR
Artisan
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
Conclusion
prospects of changes in those involved in the forest sector
It is not easy to draw up a clear typology of the enterprises that work in the timber industry.
What we do see is the wide gap between the various segments. Thus, the “structured” or formal
sector in Cameroon employs 22 000 people for US$695 million, while the formal and informal
sectors, taken together, would account for 450 000 jobs and US$1 450 million (Rametsteiner and
Whiteman 2014).11 In particular, “the domestic market is largely dominated by illicitly obtained
timber: Cerutti and Lescuyer estimate that about 73 percent of the wood sold in the main markets
comes from unknown sources. A significant amount of this wood takes the road from northern
Cameroon into Chad” (Julve et al. 2014).
Despite its limitations, the suggested divisions do allow us to establish a framework and to name
the various players. We have therefore used a classification with six categories, including segments
that are not usually listed, such as intermediaries and traders. Although they are seldom included
in studies and are rarely described, they play a very important role in markets and hence in the
establishment of standards and regulations.
In this study we have considered forest harvesting, processing and marketing enterprises. When
seeking to address the expectations of a sector with regard to a process such as the VPA-FLEGT one,
the following should also be added, while remaining in the private sector: representative authorities
(trade unions), forest experts (managers, certifiers, carriers, logistics coordinators), and all enterprises
that can be impacted or have an impact in this matter.
Categorization allows us to understand the expectations, challenges, opportunities or fears of the
various players in the wood industry for each type of activity.This reflection may serve as a basis for
developing appropriate strategies.
11 As
with the jobs mentioned at the start of this study, the figures given are estimates and should be treated with caution.
17
T yp o lo gy o f p r i vat e s e cto r a cto r s i n f o r e st ry
Bibliography
Boungou Bazika, J.-C. 2005. L’entreprise familiale: définition et fonctionnalité dans une perspective africaine.
CERAPE, 18(3-4).
Cerutti, P.O. & Lescuyer, G. 2011. Le marché domestique du sciage artisanal au Cameroun. CIFOR.
CIRAD. 2006. Audit économique et financier du secteur forestier au Cameroun. Ministry of the Economy and Finance of the
Republic of Cameroon.
Groutel, E. 2013. Evolution des marchés des bois tropicaux africains – Ethique et pragmatique, pour une valorisation durable des
ressources forestières. FAO.
Groutel, E. 2015. MATRICE OCR: Comment mener une approche intégrative inspirée de Follett? FAO (in press).
Groutel, E. & Yene Yene, G. 2014. Challenges et opportunités dans le soutien auprès du secteur privé, dans le cadre de l’Accord
de Partenariat Volontaire de l’Union européenne et du Cameroun. EFI-FAO-UK AID.
Julve Larrubia, C, Tabi Eckebil, P.P., Nzoyem Saha, N., Tchantchouang, J.-C., Kerkhofs, B., Beauquin, A.,
Mbarga Mbarga, J.-P., Vermeulen, C., Cerutti, P.O. & Lescuyer, G. 2014. Forêts communautaires camerounaises
et plan d’action, Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT): quel prix pour la légalité? Bois et forêts des
tropiques, 317(3): 71-80.
Michalet, C.-A. 1976. Le capitalisme mondial. PUF.
Purnomo, H., Wardell, A., Shantiko, B., Achdiawan, R., Melati, Yovi, E.Y., Effendi, R. & Amin, S.M. 2013.
Action research to improve furniture value chain governance and enhance livelihoods of small-scale producers. Brief Info,
64, CIFOR.
Rametsteiner, E. & Whiteman, A. 2014. Situation des forêts du monde. FAO.
Simpson, R. & Vandenhaute, M. 2014. Le processus Accord de partenariat volontaire (APV) dans les pays d’Afrique centrale
et de l’Ouest: de la théorie à la pratique. FAO.
UNICO. 2009. Etude sur la formulation du plan directeur (M/P) pour le développement des petites et moyennes entreprises en
République du Cameroun.Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for the Ministry of Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises, Social Economy and Handicrafts of the Republic of Cameroon.
Legal texts
Code des Investissements du Cameroun (Cameroon Investment Code), established by Decree 90/007 of 8 November
1990, then modified by Decree 94/003 of 24 January 1994.
Law 2007/004 of 13 July 2007 governing handicrafts in Cameroon.
Law 2010/001 of 13 April 2010 on promotion of small and medium-sized enterprises in Cameroon.
18
© Emmanuel Groutel
© Emmanuel Groutel
Typology of private sector actors in forestry
One private sector or several? This question arises whenever issues linked to the
private sector, a major player in the forest industry, are addressed. How best to
analyse such a wide variety of actors? In other words, what does a multinational
have in common with a pitsaw operator using a simple chainsaw?
The approach selected may be based on size (number of employees, turnover),
position in the value chain, from upstream (the forest) to downstream (processing,
export etc.), or the “nationality” of the capital involved. Depending on the
country, it may be essential to distinguish between log producers, sawyers,
plywood manufacturers and carpenters, not to mention charcoal burners, who
are major links in the chain.
Another fundamental point is to offer a diagram explaining any possible
interconnections between the various players (Purnomo et al. 2013). It is a
complex subject, and things get even more complicated when the concept of
legality is brought into the picture.
Typology of private sector
actors in forestry
I4582E/2/01 . 1 6
With the support of:
Document produced as part of the study entitled
Challenges and opportunities for supporting the private sector within the
framework of the Voluntary Partnership Agreement between the
European Union and the Republic of Cameroon