Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
What is personality?
• Definitions (200)
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Some stress the importance of individuality (what differs us from
others) (G.W. Allport: personality is what is behind the specific
behaviour of people)
Personality – presentation of those features corresponding to more
permanent, consistent patterns of behaviour (personality is stable
and does not change)
Personality – it is what enables us to forecast what the person will
do in certain situation (Cattel, 1965)
Psychology of personality
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Personality is
• What people want (urges, needs, interests, values)
• What are people able to do (abilities, talents)
• What people are (temperament)
• What people want to go (direction of life)
Psychology of personality
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Theory of traits
• Trait – relaive stable psychological characteristics that is
demonstrated in behaviour and acting of people and that
distinguish one person from another. For consumer behaviour
– traits like being innovative (open to test new things) – new
products and services), self confidence (when deciding what
to buy)
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Personality can be described by using various dimenensions or
scales representing specific traits.
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Five basic personality traits (McCrae and Costa, 1987)
• Neuroticism (bad adaptation)
• Extroversion
• Open to new experince
• Agreableness
• Conscientiousness
Psychology of personality
Openness to Experience
Neuroticism
Down-to-earth – Imaginative
Calm – Worrying
Uncreative – Creative
Even-tempered – Temperamental
Conventional – Original
Self-satisfied – Self-pitying
Prefer routine – Prefer variety
Comfortable – Self-conscious
Uncurious – Curious
Unemotional – Emotional
Conservative – Liberal
Extraversion
Hardy – Vulnerable
Reserved – Affectionate
Loner – Joiner
Quiet – Talkative
Passive – Active
Sober – Fun-loving
Unfeeling – Passionate
Agreeableness
Ruthless – Softhearted
Suspicious – Trusting
Stingy – Generous
Antagonistic – Acquiescent
Critical – Lenient
Irritable – Good-natured
Conscientiousness
Negligent – Conscientious
Lazy – Hardworking
Disorganized – Well-organized
Late – Punctual
Aimless – Ambitious
Quitting – Persevering
Psychology of personality
Eysenck initially conceptualized personality as two, biologically-based
categories of temperament:
The two dimensions or axes,
extraversion-introversion and emotional
stability-instability, define four
quadrants. These are made up of:
• stable extraverts (sanguine qualities
such as - outgoing, talkative,
responsive, easygoing, lively,
carefree, leadership)
• unstable extraverts (choleric
qualities such as - touchy, restless,
excitable, changeable, impulsive,
irresponsible)
• stable introverts (phlegmatic
qualities such as - calm, eventempered, reliable, controlled,
peaceful, thoughtful, careful,
passive)
• unstable introverts (melancholic
qualities such as - quiet, reserved,
pessimistic, sober, rigid, anxious,
moody).
Psychology of personality
Further research demonstrated the need for a third category of
temperament:
Psychoticism/Socialisation
Psychoticism is associated not only with the liability to have a
psychotic episode (or break with reality), but also with aggression.
Psychotic behavior is rooted in the characteristics of
toughmindedness, non-conformity, inconsideration, recklessness,
hostility, anger and impulsiveness.
The physiological basis suggested by Eysenck for psychoticism is
testosterone, with higher levels of psychoticism associated with
higher levels of testosterone.
Psychology of personality
Theory of personality
1. Psychoanalytic theory of personality - Sigmund Freud
Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
ID
I would like to
eat st. sweet!
Now!
EGO
Have a cake or
buy a candy
bar!
EGO
But you are on
a diet!
Psychology of personality
Dynamics of the personality - relates to how mental energy is divided
and used by ID, EGO and SUPEREGO.
Ego uses energy for: balancing and harmonizing of all components of
personality, reduction of inner tension (using the ego defense
mechanisms), development of interests, preferences and attitudes.
Strong ego man is considered, even-tempered and safe driver
If the energy is taken over by Id, the behavior of a man tends to be
primitive and impulsive. Man driven by ID does not reflect reality and
ethical norms.
As a driver such a man belongs among the most dangerous drivers.
Being superego driven means that the realism of the individual is
suppressed by exaggerated moralizing. Such drives is rigid, overly dutiful
and simultaneously overcritical to behavior of others, he knows
everything….
The collision between Id, ego and superego creates tension and
endangers integrity of a personality, reduces its ability to adapt and
ego has to defend it.
Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
Psychoanalysis in the area of marketing
US – survey of motivation
Based on conflict of id x superego in relation to consumption motivation.
Interpretations:
Why people smoke?
It is the compensation for thumb sucking in childhood…
Why man buy convertibles?
Compensation for lady-loves…
Why people do not want to buy dried fruit? Resembles old age…
Today: some principles are used for investigation of unconscious motives
of consumer behaviour
Neopsychoanalysis
C.G. Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horneyová, E. Fromm
- Biodeterministic approach of Freud x socio deterministic approach of
Adler (impact of culture and society)
Psychology of personality
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Psychology of personality Alfred Adler
• Freud: people are driven by
sex and aggression
• Adler: sex is not the only cause
of our behaviour
• It is not possible to separate
personality from its social
commnity (stress the social
determinants of personality,
the ability of man to create its
fate, overcome urges and
improve, develop
All behaviour is focused on one target – to escape from
subordination and to develop the sense of own value, to gain
Psychology of personality
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Neurotic syndrome
Freud which unconscious compulsion/urge is demonstrated by it
Adler: why people do it (why a small childs wets, what is the reason
of bad results at school, of stealing…)
Adler: unconsciously we strive to achieve the feeling of power and
superiority – this is the key motivation power in our life. All that
people do serves them to overcome the inferiority feelings and gain
the feeling of dominance (source – childhood, total dependence of
parents)
Psychology of personality
Life style – way how to overcome our weaknesses and inferiority
complexes.
Ruling type They are, from childhood on, characterised by a tendency
to be rather aggressive and dominant over others. Their energy (the
strength of their striving after personal power) is so great that they
tend to push over anything or anybody who gets in their way. The
most energetic of them are bullies and sadists, less energetic ones
hurt others by hurting themselves (eg depressives, alcoholics, drug
addicts and suicidal patients).
Leaning type They are sensitive people who have developed a shell
around themselves which protects them, but they must rely on others
to carry them through life's difficulties. They have low energy levels
and so become dependent. When overwhelmed, they develop what
we typically think of as neurotic symptoms: phobias, obsessions and
compulsions, general anxiety, hysteria, amnesias, and so on,
depending on individual details of their lifestyle.
Psychology of personality
Life style – way how to overcome our weaknesses and inferiority
complexes.
Avoiding type
These have the lowest levels of energy and only survive by essentially
avoiding life -- especially other people. When pushed to the limits,
they tend to become psychotic, retreating finally into their own
personal worlds.
Socially useful type
This is the healthy person, one who has both social interest and
energy. Note that without energy, you can't really have social interest,
since you wouldn't be able to actually do anything for anyone! These
people believe in doing good for the sake of society. They also believe
they have control over their lives.
(Adler noted that his four types looked very much like the four types
proposed by the ancient Greeks. Adler believed very strongly that
each person is a unique individual with his or her own unique
lifestyle.)
Psychology of personality
The prototype of your lifestyle tends to be fixed by about five years
old. New experiences, rather than change that prototype, tend to be
interpreted in terms of the prototype.
Most will go through life with a strong sense of inferiority, a few will
overcompensate with a superiority complex. Only with the
encouragement will some truly compensate.
Pampering
The pampered child fails in two ways: First, he doesn't learn to do for
himself, and discovers later that he is truly inferior, and secondly, he
doesn't learn any other way to deal with others than the giving of
commands. And society responds to pampered people in only one
way: hatred.
Neglect
A child who is neglected or abused learns what the pampered child
learns, but learns it in a far more direct manner: They learn inferiority
because they are told and shown every day that they are of no value;
They learn selfishness because they are taught to trust no one.
Psychology of personality
Personality and behaviorists
Personality is created and influenced by external environemt
that by mental actitivities.
Behaviorism focuses on observable and measurable behavior.
Interest in learning process (classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, laws of learning and effect)
Psychology of personality
Behavioristické pojetí osobnosti (John Watson, Edward CH.
Tolman)
James Watson – man is a mechanism the activities of which are
determined by the environment he/she lives in.
Personality is a product of set of habits. The key is to develop such
habits that allow us to survive.
There are only few things inborn (anger, sexuality) the rest we
learned.
Edward Ch. Tolman - S-R model expanded to S-O-R model, O is a
personalit variable driven by impulses or motives to accommodate
our needs/desires. The urges cause that under certain conditions we
behave in a certain way.
He distinguishes urges of the first level (apetences, aversions) and
second level (to enforce our opinion) – the second level urges are
learned.
Psychology of personality
Social psychology and personality – Albert Bandura, Julian Rotter,
Walter Mischel
• They focused on relations between observable behaviour,
environmental impacts and reactions (rewards and punishment)
and personality factors such as opinions, self -perception) –
reciprocal determinism
• People are able to use symbols, think, plan and create –
they have the idea of future consequences that motivate
them
• External reinforcement is not the only way – can be done
also by reading, observing
• Man has an ability to autoregulate
• Learning by modelsof behaviour, by observing the others
(combination of attention, memory, motoric reproduciton
and motivation)
Psychology of personality
Phenomenology and personalit – subjective experience of a man
Humanistic concept of personality – Carl Rogers, A. Maslow
• All living organisms from birth have an urge to selfactuation – this
is driving mechanism that helps us survive, grow and achieve the
full potential
Positive regard– unconditioned positive regard and conditioned
positive regard (conflict between self (real me) and the person other
want me to be)
Self image – determining factor for the general approach and view
Psychology of personality
Abraham Maslow
- Hierarchy of needs: lower level needs must be satisfied (at least
partially) before the upper level needs start to motivate us
Psychology of personality
Abraham Maslow
Maslowova classification of needs is most frequently used within
the analysis of consumer and his/her behaviour – to determine the
tendencies of consumer behaviour
Problems: allocation of product categories to individual levels –
the same product may satisfy various needs of various
consumers or more needs of one consumer
Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
Generally valid: the lower level needs are more important and they
must be – at least – partially satisfied, only than the higher level needs
start to motivate us.
Not always valid! Satisfaction of higher needs (esthetic, moral) may
help to survive emergency (critical) situations - (famine, lack of…)
where the satisfaction of basic needs is limited or not possible
(concentration camps).
Psychology of personality
Physiological needs
Basic needs of human body and have the highest priority.
Include:
• Breathe
• Body temperature regulation
• Water
• Sleep
• Nutrition
• Excretion
• Physical activity
• Reproduction
Psychology of personality
Safety needs
With the physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety
needs take precedence and dominate behavior.
• Personal security
• Financial security
• Health and well-being
• Employment security
• Moral security
• Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
Psychology of personality
Need of belonging
• After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of
human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of
belongingness. This need is especially strong in childhood and can
override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to
abusive parents. Deficiencies within this level of Maslow's
hierarchy – due to neglect etc. – can impact the individual's
ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships
in general, such as
• Friendship
• Intimacy
• Family
Psychology of personality
According to Maslow, humans need to feel a sense of belonging and
acceptance among their social groups, regardless if these groups are
large or small. For example, some large social groups may include
clubs, co-workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports
teams, and gangs. Some examples of small social connections include
family members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and
confidants. Humans need to love and be loved – both sexually and
non-sexually – by others.
Psychology of personality
Esteem
All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have
self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the typical human desire
to be accepted and valued by others. People often engage in a
profession or hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the person
a sense of contribution or value. Low self-esteem or an inferiority
complex may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy.
People with low self-esteem often need respect from others; they may
feel the need to seek fame or glory. However, fame or glory will not help
the person to build their self-esteem until they accept who they are
internally.
Psychology of personality
Self-actualization
What a man can be, he must be.„
This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for selfactualization. This level of need refers to what a person's full
potential is and the realization of that potential. Maslow describes
this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to
become the most that one can be.
Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For
example, one individual may have the strong desire to become an
ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For
others, it may be expressed in paintings, pictures, or inventions.
As previously mentioned, Maslow believed that to understand this
level of need, the person must not only achieve the previous needs,
but master them.
Psychology of personality
Self-transcendence
Maslow termed these peak experiences. They are profound, lifealtering moments of love, understanding, happiness, bliss. They are
moments in which one feels radically more whole, more completely
alive, more aware of truth, beauty, goodness, and so on.
Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
'The Big Five' is the commonly used term for the model of
personality which describes the five fundamental factors of our
personality.
The model is commonly referred to as OCEAN, being an acronym for
names often used for the five traits. The alternative acronym CANOE
is less commonly used.
5
Psychology of personality
The Big Five 'super traits' have been researched and validated by
many different psychologists (WT Norman 1963, McCrae & Costa
1987, Brand & Egan 1989, LR Goldman 1990 and P Sinclair 1992)
and are at the core of many other personality questionnaires.
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Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Extraversion/Introversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
Psychology of personality
Personality and consumer behaviour
What influences our consumer behaviour?
Perception, attention, learning, memory, forgetting