Scholarly Journal of Biological Science Vol. 6(1), pp. 11-22, April 2017
Available online http:// www.scholarly-journals.com/SJBS
ISSN 2315-6147 © 2017 Scholarly-Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Post-natal development of prescapular lymph node in
One-Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius): A
Histological study
Bello, A.*1, Umaru, M.A.3, A.Shehu, S.A.1, Suleiman, M. H.2, Baki, A.S.4 and Muhammad, S.5
1
Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto.
2
Department of Veterinary Anatomy, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria.
3
Department of Theriogenology and Animal production, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto.
4
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto.
5
Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Usmanu Danfodiyo University,Sokoto.
ABSTRACT
A histomorphometric study was conducted on the prescapular lymph nodes of thirty camels (15 each
from male and female) collected from Sokoto metropolitan abattoir over a period of three weeks at
different post-natal ages. The approximate age of the camels was estimated using rostral dentition.
Histologically, the lymph nodes were surrounded by a connective tissue capsule which increases in
thickness with advancement in age in both male and female animals. Thick trabeculae passed from the
capsule to the substance of the node and divide the node into many lobes. From the inner surface of the
capsule and the thick trabeculae, thin trabeculae originated and passed into the parenchyma dividing
the lobes into many lobules. Blood and lymphatic vessels pierced through the capsule into the nodes in
all ages but are larger and more numerous in the adult animals. Lymphocytes form a variable number of
discrete spherical or ovoid areas of tightly packed lymph nodules in all ages, but more prominent in
females and diminish with advancement in age. Areas of a nodular lymphoid tissues and diffuse
lymphoid tissues were also noted in all ages and both sexes.
Key words: Post-natal, histomorphometric, Lymph node, one-humped camel.
INTRODUCTION
The one-humped camel is a typical desert animal that
has developed sophisticated physiological adaptation for
coping with heat, feed and water scarcity in its dry and
rough habitat (Al-Haj et al., 2007). According to FAO
statistics, there are about 19 million camels in the world,
of which 15 million are found in Africa and 4 million in
Asia. Of this estimated world population, 17 million are
believed to be one-humped dromedary camels and two
million two-humped bactrian camels (Z. Farah, 2005).
The habitat of dromedary is Nothern Africa and the
near East and Central Asia (Wilson 1984). Approximately
11 million dromedaries representing two-third of the
*Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected].
world’s camel population are in the arid areas of Africa
particularly North East Africa i.e Somalia, Ethiopia and
Kenya (Z. Farah 2005). The dromedarian camel is one of
the most economically important domesticated species in
Arabian Peninsula, North Africa and Middle East.
The lymphatic system is responsible for the
immunological defense of the body. It protects the body
from exogenous (foreign) and abnormal endogenous
macro-molecules and from viruses, bacteria, and other
invasive microorganisms. It includes all the lymphatic
organs: thymus, tonsils, spleen, lymph nodes and hemal
nodes, and the diffuse lymphatic tissue and lymphatic
nodules present in many mucous membranes. The
circulating lymphocytes, as well as the lymphocytes and
plasma cells that are widely disseminated throughout the
organism, also participate in this protective system
Scholarly J. Biol. Sci.
(Dyce and Wensing, 2010).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area
The study was carried out with in Sokoto metropolis, the
capital city of Sokoto state, Nigeria. The state is situated
o
o
on latitude 12 15’ and 5 12E, and is 300m above the
sea level (Sokoto, 2001). Sokoto state occupies an area
of short grass savannah in the south and thorn shrub in
the north. It shares boundaries with Zamfara state to the
east, Niger republic to the north and Kebbi state to the
west and south-west.
Sample collection
A total number of thirty prescapular lymph nodes were
collected from both male and female camels. Three
lymph nodes each were obtained from male and female
1
camels of 0-6 months, 6 months-2 year, 2-4 years, 4-7 /2
1
years and above 7 /2 years respectively. The camels
were aged using rostral dentition. The lymph nodes were
collected through daily visits to Sokoto modern abattoir
according to Bello et al., 2013. The abattoir is located
within sokoto metropolis. The lymph nodes were
collected after the camels were slaughtered and were
labelled and transported to the Department of Veterinary
Anatomy Laboratory of Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto for analysis.
Topography
The positions of the lymph nodes were determined prior
to removal from six camels (Three from each sex).
Histological Study
For histological study, ten small slices of tissue (about
10mm in length and 5mm thick) were taken using sharp
(new) razor blade. Slices of tissue were fixed by
immersion in 10% formalin for 24 hours. After fixation the
samples were dehydrated in ascending grades of ethanol
(70%, 90% and absolute). The specimens were cleared
in xylene and were then transferred to molten paraffin
o
(mp.60 C) in an embedding oven. The samples were
blocked in paraffin wax. The blocks were trimmed and
thin sections, 5-7µm thick, were cut on a rotary
microtome and mounted on clean glass slides.
Sections were stained with hematoxyline and eosin
(HandE) for general histology in following sequence;
absolute alcohol, 90% ethanol, 70% ethanol, 50%
ethanol, hematoxyline, 35% ethanol, acid alcohol,
alkaline alcohol, eosin, absolute alcohol, alcohol + xylene
and then xylene. The slides were then covered with cover
slip and mounted with DPX (Canada balsam mountant)
and viewed under light microscope for histologic
evaluation.
12
RESULT
The lymph nodes were surrounded by a connective
tissue capsule. There was increase in thickness of the
capsule with advancement in age in both male and
female animals.The capsule was thickest at the hilus
where more blood and lymphatic vessels were present.
The hilus was easily distinguishable with advancement in
age.
Thick trabeculae passed from the hilus or internal
surface of the capsule to the substance of the node,
dividing the node into many lobes. From the inner surface
of the capsule and the thick trabeculae thin trabeculae
originated and passed into the parenchyma dividing the
lobes into many lobules. Blood and lymphatic vessels
were observed piercing through the capsule into the
nodes (probably at the hilar region). The blood vessels
are present in all ages but are larger and more numerous
in the adult animals.
The parenchyma of the lobule consisted of the cortex
and medulla, although it was very difficult to distinguish
probably due to absence of silver impregnation. The
cortex was organized inform of lymph nodule and diffuse
lymphoid tissues.
In young camels, majority of the lymph nodules have
large germinal centres and a narrow corona. The
germinal centres are more pronounced in female thn in
male camels. With age, the germinal centres smaller and
completely surrounded by a wide corona.
The medulla was found to be surrounded by cortex or
trabeculae and contained blood vessels. In the
parenchyma, lymphocytes formed a variable number of
discrete spherical or ovoid areas of tightly packed lymph
nodules. They were seen in all ages, more prominent in
females and diminish with advancement in age. Areas of
anodular lymphoid tissues and diffuse lymphoid tissues
were also noted in all ages and both sexes.
DISCUSSION
The qualitative and quantitative analysis of prescapular
lymph nodes of camel in this study suggested that the
topography of the node in camel resembles that of
ruminants as described by Dyce and Wensing (1971),
Sisson and Grossman (1975) and May (1970). The only
difference lies in their anatomical relations.
Different structural variations of the lymph node were
noted, these seems to be related to the degree of
differentiation by age and/or sex. The progressive
increase in biometrics of the nodes agrees with the
reports of Dyce and Wensing (1971) and Sisson and
Grossman (1975).
A well-developed capsule and trabeculae which
increase in thickness with advancement in age in both
male and female were noted. The trabeculae originated
from the inner wall of the capsule and divide the node
Bello et al.,
13
Figure 1: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group A male) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A) with less
pronounce germinal center (lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with developing traberculae connective tissue fibers
(Red arrow)at the hilus (H) and thick connective tissue capsule (Yellow arrow) HandE x200.
Figure 2: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group A female) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A) with
pronounce germinal center (lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with developing traberculae connective tissue fibers
(yellow arrow) and thick connective tissue fibers capsule (Red arrow) at the hilus (H) HandE x200.
Scholarly J. Biol. Sci.
Figure 3: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group B male) showing differentiated zones of cortex (A) with less pronounce
germinal center (few lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with developing traberculae connective tissue (Red arrow) and
thick connective tissue fibers capsule (Yellow arrow) HandE x200.
Figure 4: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group B female) showing differentiated zones of cortex (A) with well
differentiated germinal center (lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with developing traberculae connective tissue fiber
(yellow arrow), blood vessels (black arrow) and thick connective tissue fibers capsule (yellow arrow) HandE x200.
14
Bello et al.,
15
Figure 5: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group C male) showing differentiated zones of cortex (A) with less
pronounce germinal center (few lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with developed traberculae connective tissue
fibers(Yellow arrow) and blood vessels (BV) HandE x200.
Figure 6: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group C female) showing clearly differentiated zones of
cortex (A) with well differentiated germinal center (lymphatic nodules), lymphatic follicle (Green arrow) and
medullar (B) zone with developed traberculae connective tissue fibers (yellow arrow), thick connective tissue
fibers capsule (Black arrow) and blood vessels (BV) at the hilus (H) HandE x200.
Scholarly J. Biol. Sci.
16
Figure 7: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group D male) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A) with
pronounce germinal center (few lymphatic nodules), lymphatic follicle (Yellow arrow) and medullar (B) zone with developed
traberculae connective tissue fibers(Green arrow) and thick connective tissue fibers capsule HandE x200.
Figure 8: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group D female) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A)
with well differentiated germinal center (lymphatic nodules), lymphatic follicle (Green arrow) and medullar (B) zone with
developed traberculae connective tissue fibers connective tissue (yellow arrow), thick connective tissue fibers capsule
(Black arrow) and blood vessels (BV) at the hilus (H) HandE x200.
Bello et al.,
17
Figure 9: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group E male) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A) with less
pronounce germinal center ( lymphatic nodules), NOlymphatic follicle and medullar (B) zone with poorly developed traberculae
connective tissue fibers and blood vessels (BV) HandE x200.
Figure 10: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group E female) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A)
with less pronounce germinal center ( lymphatic nodules), NOlymphatic follicle and medullar (B) zone with poorly
developed traberculae connective tissue fibers and blood vessels (Yellow arrow) HandE x200.
Scholarly J. Biol. Sci.
Figure 11: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group A) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A) with less
pronounce germinal center (lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with NO developing traberculae connective tissue fibers
connective tissue and MILDLY thick connective tissue fibers capsule (TC) at the hilus (H) HandE x200.
Figure 12: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group B) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A) with less
pronounce germinal center (lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with POORLY developing traberculae connective
tissue fibers connective tissue (Red arrow) and MODERATELY thick connective tissue fibers capsule (Red arrow) at
the hilus (H) HandE x200.
18
Bello et al.,
19
Figure 13: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group C) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A) with less
pronounce germinal center (lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with POORLY developing traberculae connective
tissue fibers connective tissue (Green arrow) and developed thick connective tissue fibers capsule at the hilus (H) HandE
x200.
Figure 14: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group D) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A) with less
pronounce germinal center (lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with developing traberculae connective tissue
fibers connective tissue (TC) and WELL developed thick connective tissue fibers capsule (Red arrow) at the hilus (H)
HandE x200.
Scholarly J. Biol. Sci.
Figure 15: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group D) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A)
with less pronounce germinal center (lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with developed traberculae
connective tissue fibers connective tissue (TC) and WELL developed thick connective tissue fibers capsule (Red
arrow) at the hilus (H) HandE x200.
Figure 16: Photomicrograph of Camel lymphnode (Group E) showing clearly differentiated zones of cortex (A)
with less pronounce germinal center (lymphatic nodules) and medullar (B) zone with developing traberculae
connective tissue fibers connective tissue (TC) and HIGHLY developed thick connective tissue fibers capsule
(Red arrow) at the hilus (H) HandE x200.
20
Bello et al.,
21
into many lobes. These results were in agreement with
those of Osman (1998) and Sharfee (1989) in the same
species.
The increase in thickness of the capsule with
advancement in age confirms the reports of Furuta
(1949) in hamster and rats and Sugimura (1962) in cats.
The result of this study partially agrees with the reports of
Abdel-magied et al., 2001that in camel the parenchyma,
consist of lymph nodules, anodular dense lymphoid
tissue and diffuse lymphoid tissues.
The lymph nodules were found to be situated below the
capsule and on either side of the trabeculae. This is in
partial agreement with the reports of Osman (1998).
Moreover the nodules were found to be more prominent
in females than in males but tend to decrease (diminish)
with advancement in age. But the population of diffuse
lymphoid tissues increases.
In the present study, there are small blood vessels in
the capsule the size and number of which increase with
advancement in age in both sexes. This suggests high
blood supply to the nodes and possibly high antigen
response.
Camel has long being known for its ability to withstand
diseases (Leese, 1927) and these unique lymph nodes
may play a part in this phenomenon because of the
relatively high pro[portion of diffuse lymphoid tissues in
both ages and sexes seen in this study. This reflect the
ability of camel to produce T-lymphocytes as it was
reported by Abbas et al.,1999 that diffuse lymphoid tissue
is the site of lymphocytes production.
CONCLUSION
The lymph nodes in camel are elongated and palpable
Topography of lymph nodes of camel resembles that of
ruminants
Lymph nodes are larger and heavier in male than in
female of the same age
The biometrics of lymph nodes increase with
advancement in age
The lymph nodes show clear lobulations
Thick capsule covers the lymph node in both sexes and
increase in thickness with advancement in age in both
male and females
Numerous blood vessels are found on the nodes which
reflects high blood supply and inturn increase in response
to antigens
The parenchyma has areas of dense and diffuse
lymphoid tissues and lymph nodules
Lymph nodules are more pronounced in female than in
male and decrease with advancement in age
RECOMMENDATIONS
There is a need for pre-natal study of prescapular lymph
nodes in camel
Further research on other superficial lymph nodes is
recommended as they are also important in disease
diagnosis
REFERANCE
Bello, A., Sonfada, M.L. Umar, A.A., Umaru, M.A., Shehu, S.A., Hena,
S.A., Onu, J.E. and Fatima, O.O. (2013). Age estimation of camel in
Nigeria using rostral dentition. Sci. J. Animal Sci. 2(1).
Abbas, A.S., Lichtman, A.H. and Pober, J.S. (1994). Cellular and
Molecular Immunology. Co. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders.
Abdel-Magid, E.M. (1986). A preliminary ultrastructural investigation of
the lateral retropharyngeal lymph node. Group Document No. SRC
12.International Livestock Centre for Afarica (ILCA). pp. 61-72.
Abdel-Magied, E.M., Taha, A.A.M., Al-Qarawi, A.A. and Elfaki, M.G.
(2001). The Parotid, Mandibular and Lateral Retropharyngeal Lymph
Nodes of the Camel (Camelus dromedaries). Anatomia Histologia
Embryologia, 30:199-203.
Andreason, E. and Gottlieb, O. (1946). The haemolymph nodes of the
rat. Medder., 19/1: 1-27. (Cited by Osman, 1988).
Anonymous 1: https:// Wikipedia.org>wiki>camel
Anonymous4:https://en.wikivet.net/veterinary
education-online
/discipline/ anatomy and physiology/ lymphoreticular system/
embryology /lymph nodes
Anthony J. Smith. Tropical Agriculturalist, Camels, Adaptation,
Macmillan publishers; 4: pg 34-46.
Bello, A., Onu, J.E., Sonfada, M.L., Shehu, S.A., Jimoh, M.I. and
Olusola, O. and Umaru, M.A. (2014): Histomorphological studies of
the prenatal development of thyroid gland in one humped camel
(Camelus dromedarius). JBR J. Clinical Diagnosis and Res. 2(1): 1-3.
< http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/jcdr.1000106>.
Bello, A., Alimi, O.O., Sonfada, M.L., Umaru, M.A., Onu, J.E, et al.
(2014). Histomorphometric Study of the Prenatal Development of the
Circumvallate Papillae of One-Humped Camel (Camelus
Dromedarius). Anat and Physiol 4: 168. doi:10.4172/216109401000168
https://www.omicsonline.org/openaccess/histomorphometric-study-of-the-prenatal-development-of-thecircumvallate-papillae-of-onehumped-camel-camelus-dromedarius2161-0940.1000168.pdf.php?aid=40606
Bello, A., Dabai, D.I., Umaru, M.A., Shehu, S.A. and Jimoh, M.I. (2016).
Prenatal Development of Yankasa Sheep (Ovis aries) Kidney: A
Histomorphometric Study. J Kidney 2: 126. doi:10.4172/jok.1000126
http://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/prenatal-development-ofyankasa-sheep-ovis-aries-kidney-ahistomorphometric-study-jok1000126.pdf
Bello, A., Onyeanusi, B.I., Sonfada, M.L., Adeyanju, J.B., Umaru, M.A.,
et al. (2014). Gross Embryonic Diffrentiation of the Stomach of the
One Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius). Anat. and Physiol 4:
131.
Doi:
10.4172/21610940.1000131.
https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/gross-embryonicdiffrentiation-of-the-one-humped-camelcamelus-dromedariusstomach-2161-0940.1000131.php?aid=23477
Bello, A., Onyeanusi, B.I., Sonfada, M.L., Adeyanju, J.B. and Umaru,
M.A. (2012). A biometric study of the digestive tract of one-humped
camel (Camelus dromedarius) foetus. Sci. J. Zoology. 1(1): 11-16.
Bello, A., Lawal, U.F., Onyeanusi, B.I., Sonfada, M.L., Umaru, M.A.,
Onu, J.E., Shehu, S.A. and Umar, A.A. (2013). Prenatal Development
of the Kidney of One-Humped Camel (Camelus dromedarius) – A
Histomorphometric Study; Afri. J. Biomed. Res..16:31–37.
http://www.ajbrui.net/ojs/index.php/ajbr/article/view/249.
Bello. A., Umar, A.A., Sonfada, M.L., Umaru, M.A., Shehu, S.A., Onu,
J.E., Adamu, Y.A. and Oyelowo, F.O. (2013). Estimation of camel
age in nigeria using rostral dentition. In the Proceeding of 38th
Conference of the Nigerian society for Animal production, and 40th
Anniversary Annual conference. pp 34-40.
Belz, G.T. and Heath, T.J. (1995a). Lymph pathways of the medial
retropharyngeal lymph node in dogs. J. Anatomy. 186/3: 517-526.
Belz, G.T. and Heath, T.J. (1995b). Pathways of blood flow to and
Scholarly J. Biol. Sci.
through superficial lymph nodes in the dog. J. Anatomy. 187/2: 413-421.
Chretien, P.B., Behar, R.J., Kohn, Z., Moldovanu, G., Miller, D.G. and
Lawrence, W. (1967). The Canine Lymphoid System: A study of the
effect of surgical excision. Anatomical Record, 159: 5-16.
Dhablania, D.C., Tyagi, R.P.S. and Khatra, G.S. (1994). Morphological
studies of the lymph nodes of head in buffalo calves. Indian Vet. J.
71/5: 469-473.
Dyce and Wensing (2010). A Text book of Veterinary Anatomy, fourth
edition; the organization of the lymphatic system, Saunders
publishers; 7: 256-267.
Dyce, K.M. and Wensing, C.J.G. (1971). Essentials of Bovine Anatomy.
Utercht
Academische
Paperback.
A.Oosthoek’s
Uitgevers
Maatschappy. N.V.
Dyce, K.M., Sack, W.O. and Wensing, C.J.G. (1987). Textbook of
Veterinary Anatomy. W.B. Saunders Company. Philadelphia. london.
Toronto.
El-Amin F.M (1979). The dromedary of Sudan. In “Wokshop on camels”
Khartoum, Dec. 1979. International foundation of science provisional
report Stockholm, Sweden, 6: 35.
El-Gendi, E.M.M. (1971). Studies on the lymph nodes of the Buffalo in
Egypt. M.Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. Cairo University.
Eugene H. Johnson*, Khalid R, Al habsi and bRashid M. Al-Busaidi
(2013). A Review of observations made on select parameters of the
camel immune system. Agriculture and marine science, 18: 1-6.
FAO (1990). Statistics year book, Food and Agricultural Organization,
Rome, Italy. p 44.
Fawcett, D.W. (1994). Bloom and Fawcett A textbook of Histology.
Twelfth Edition. PP. 447-459. Chapman and Hall: New York. London.
Faye B., 2004. Dairy productivity potential of camels. Proc. of the 34th
meeting FAO/ICAR (International Committee for Animal Recording).
Session on camelids. 28 mai-3 juin 2004, Sousse (Tunisie).
Faye, B., Saint-Martin, G., Cherrier, R. and Ali, R. (1992). The influence
of high dietary protein, energy and mineral intake on deficient young
camel: I. Changes in metabolic profiles and growth performance.
Comp. Bioch. Physiol. 102A: 409-416.
Faye, B., Vias, G. and Chaibou, M. (2008). La dynamique des systèmes
d’élevage camelin à l’aune des changements climatiques. Le cas du
Niger. Actes de l’atelier régional sur l’élevage et le changement
climatique en Afrique de l’Ouest: « Impacts des changements
climatiques sur les interactions élevage et environnement », Niamey
(Niger), 11-15 février 2008.
Flower M. E., (1978): Restraint and Handling of Wild and Domestic
Animals, pp 249, Iowa State University Press.
Furuta, W.J. (1949). Changes in the Capsule of the Lymph Node in
Experimental Hyperplasia. Archives of Pathology, 47: 273-282.
Heath, T.J. and Nikles, S.A. (1991). Relationships between lymph
nodules and lymph sinuses in lymph nodes: a study in horses. J.
Anatomy. 178: 39-43.
Hjort, A.F.O. (1988). Sustainable subsistence in arid lands: the case of
camel rearing. In « camels in development ». Ed. Hjort af Ornas,
SIAS, Uppsala, Suède.
Junqueira, L.C., Carneiro, J. and Kelley, R.O. (1998). a LANGE medical
book Basic Histology. Ninth Edition. Appelton and Lange: Norwalk.
California.
Kessel, R.G. (1998). Basic Medical Histology: The Biology of Cells,
Tissue, and Organs. PP. 207-212. Oxford University Press, Inc: New
York. Oxford.
Khan, B. and Iqbal, A. (2001). Production and composition of milk.
Review. Pak. J. Agric. Sci., 38(3-4):, 63-67.
Konuspayeva, G. (2007). Variabilité physico-chimique et biochimique du
lait des grands camélidés (Camelus bactrianus, Camelus
dromedarius et hybrides) au Kazakhstan, PhD thesis, Université
Montpellier II, France. p. 255.
Leese, A.S. (1927). A Treatise on the One-humped Camel, in Health
and Diseases. Stamford, UK: Hayne and Son.
Leeson, T.S. and Leeson, C.R. (1970). Histology. Second Edition. W.B.
Saunders Company. Philadelphia. London.
May, N.D.S. (1970). The Anatomy of the Sheep. Third Edition.
University of Queensland Press.
22
Nandini, S. (2005). Immunology Introductory Text Book, Revised
second edition, New Age International Publishers. 3:14-17.
Narayankhedkar, S.G., Nehete, S.B. and Sawane, M.P. (1998):
Production and Management of Swine, camel, Equine and yak,
Arunjyoti Publications, 20, Sanskruti, Sector 6, Airoli, Navi Mumbai
400 700.
Nikles, S.A. and Heath, T.J. (1992). Pathways of lymph flow through
intestinal lymph nodes in the horse. Anatomica Record, 232/1: 126132.
Old, J.M. and Deane, E.M. (2001). Histology and immunohistochemistry
of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue of the eastern grey kangaroo,
Macropus giganteus. J. Anatomy. 199/6: 657-662.165
Osman, D.I., Elmaghrabi, A.A. and Abugrain, B.M. (1992).
Ultrastructure of the Cells of the Parotid Lymph Nodes of the
Dromedary Camel. Libyan Vet. Med. J. 1: 34-54.
Pacholek, X., Vias, G., Faye, B. and Faugère, O. (2000). Elevage
camelin au Niger. Référentiel zootechnique et sanitaire. Pub.
Coopération Française, Niamey, Niger. p.93.
Ji, R., Cui, P., Ding, F., Geng, J., Gao, H., Zhang, H., Ju, J., Hu, S. and
Meng, H. (2009). Monophyletic origin of domestic Bactrian camel
(Camelus bactrianus) and its evolutionary relationship with the
extanct wild camel (Camelus bactianus ferus). Animal Gen. 40(4):
377-382.
Rathore, G.S. (1986): Camels and their management, pp 55-56, Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
Rhodin, J.A. (1974). Histology A text and Atlas. Johannes A.G. Rhodin:
New York. Oxford University Press.
Richard, D. and Gerald, D. (1985). La production laitière des
dromadaires Dankali (Ethiopie). In : Conference internationale sur les
productions animales en zones arides. 1985/09/07 –12, Damas
(Syrie), Maisons- Alfort, CIRAD-EMVT, 16 p
Sarma, K. and Sarma, K. (2000). Topographical studies on certain
palpable lymph nodes of Assam local goat. Indian Vet. J. 77/7: 627628.
Sarma, K., Sarma, K. and Goswami, R.N. (2001). A note on the various
dimensions of superficial lymph nodes of adult Assam local goat.
Indian Vet. J. 78/2: 136-138.
Schwartz, H.J. and Dioli, M. (1992). The one-humped camel in EasternAfrica. Editions Verlag, Weikersheim (Allemagne), p. 282.
Sharfee, N.A.-H.M. (1989). Some Morphological Studies on the
Lymphoid Organs of the Camel. M.Sc. Thesis, University of
Khartoum.Veterinary Science.
Smuts, M.M.S. and Bezuidenhout, A.J. (1987). Anatomy of the
Dromedary.Clarendon Press. Oxford.
Sonfada, M.L. (2008). Age related changes in Musculoskeletal tissue of
one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) from foetal period to two
years old. A phD Thesis, Department of Veterinary Anatoomy,
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto, Nigeria.
Sugimura, M. (1962). Histological and histochemical studies on the
postnatal lymph nodes of the cat: About structural variations with
relation to differentiation, location and age. Japanase J. Vet. Res.
10/4: 155-203.
Taher, S.M. (1962). Study of the lymph nodes of the camel. M.Sc.
Thesis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. Cairo University. 171.
Wenk, E.J., Orlic, D., Reith, E.J. and Rhodin, J.A.G. (1974). The
Ultrastructure of Mouse Lymph Node Venues and the Passage of
Lymphocytes across Their Walls. Journal of Ultrastructure Research,
47: 214-241.
Wilson, R.T. (1984). The Camel. First Edition. Longman Group Ltd.
London. New York. Rhodin
Young, B. and Heath, J.W. (2000). Wheater’s Functional Histology: A
text and Colour Atlas. Fourth Edition. Churchill Livingstone.
Edinburgh. London.
Farah, Z. (1996). Camel milk, properties and products. SKAT-Verlag.
St. Gallen, Switzerland.