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Client
Technical Report
Part 3
[WASTE MONITORING]
Prepared by
Mr. Kevin Yong
Directed by
Dr. Phil Purnell
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SUMMARY
Packages stored in the storage vault will be subjected to damages such as pit corrosion,
stress corrosion, swelling, dropping and cracking. The purpose of monitoring the packages in
the vault is to provide a periodic observations and measurements to determine changes in
the physical condition of the packages over time.
Monitoring of waste packages will be conducted by visual inspections and electronic sensors
attached on ‘Dummy Packages’ and ‘Sensor Packages’. Electronic sensors include strain
gauge, humidity sensors, and thermometer and conductivity sensors for corrosion indication.
Signals and readings will be transmitted by active RFID tags to a receiver mounted on the
lifting crane. Electronic sensors and the active RFID tags will be powered by batteries which
last for 5 or 10 years, for ‘Sensor Packages’ and ‘Dummy Packages’ respectively.
‘Dummy Packages’ and ‘Sensor Packages’ will be distributed evenly within the vault. The
number of ‘Dummy Packages’ will not affect the effective storage capacity of the vault
significantly, while still providing a good representation of other ‘Real Packages’.
In order to allow packages from the bottom of a stack to be extracted, ‘Parking Bay’ has been
introduced. A ‘Parking Bay’ will exist in every 14 rows of packages, hence the lifting crane
don’t have to move the top 6 packages to the end of the vault before extracting the bottom
package.
Visual inspection will be the primary method of inspection, due to its reliability, instant
response and cost. Visual inspection will be conducted by remote cameras mounted on
robotic crawlers. Metal coupons welded on stillages or attached on metal coupons will be
inspected visually to check presence of corrosion in welded regions.
Waste packages monitoring sequence will begin with a RFID sweep followed by visual
inspection. Packages identified or suspected to be damaged will be retrieved to the
Inspection Cell for further inspection. If no package is identified damaged, random checks
will be performed on ‘Real Packages’.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................. ii
AIMS ..................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
1.0POTENTIAL DAMAGE ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1PIT CORROSION ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.2STRESS CORROSION ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.3SWELLING OF PACKAGES......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.4DROPPING OF PACKAGES ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.5CRACKING .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.0MONITORING IN VAULT ................................................................................................. 2
2.1DUMMY PACKAGES ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.2SENSOR PACKAGES .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.0ELECTRONIC SENSORS ................................................................................................ 4
3.1CORROSION SENSORS ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.2HUMIDITY SENSORS .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3RADIATION SENSORS................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4STRAIN GAUGE .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.5THERMOMETER ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.0‘PARKING BAY’ ............................................................................................................... 8
5.0SAMPLING LAYOUT........................................................................................................ 8
5.1BOX IN A BOX LAYOUT .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2OTHER SAMPLING LAYOUT ....................................................................................10
6.0DIRECT VIEWING & CCTV.............................................................................................11
6.1WELDED COUPONS ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.0MONITORING OF STILLAGES .......................................................................................12
8.0WASTE PACKAGE MONITORING SEQUENCE .............................................................12
CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................................12
REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................13
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WASTE PACKAGE MONITORING
AIMS
The purpose of monitoring the packages in the vault is to provide a periodic observations
and measurements to determine changes in the physical condition of the packages over
time.[1] By monitoring packages in the vault, the condition of the vault could also be
predicted.
INTRODUCTION
According to Nirex’s standard and specification (WPS/640), waste monitoring is defined
as “continuous or periodic observations and measurements to determine changes in the
physical condition of a waste package over time.”[1]
This report proposes designs in monitoring ILW waste packages in the vault. Packages
include 500L drums, 3m3 boxes and 3m3 drums. Monitoring of the vault will be mainly by
mobile cameras and electronic sensors. Monitoring of the waste packages are being
conducted remotely.
1. POTENTIAL DAMAGE
Packages stored in the vault are prone to be damaged mechanically or chemically. It is
thought that the following damages are likely to happen. These include pit corrosion,
stress corrosion, swelling of packages, dropping of packages and cracking.
A detailed report about types of corrosion is discussed in the ‘Corrosion Technical
Report’.
1.1. Pit Corrosion
Pit corrosion occurs due to the presence of a pit on the surface of packages and free
water. When water evaporates, it deposits salt or chlorides on the surface of the pit.
Chlorides then react with the stainless steel and hence initiate corrosion. The corrosion
then progresses its way towards the pit and form a progressive corrosion mechanism.
Pit corrosion can be classified as a localised corrosion. Localised corrosions are often
difficult to be detected by any sensors. This is because electronic sensor only detects the
presence of corrosion in its surrounding, and it would be uneconomic to position many
sensors around the package, as it could occur on any surface.
1.2. Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion occurs when a material is subjected to both tension and corrosion.
Mentioned above, it is often difficult to detect corrosions of a package. Thus, it would be
easier and more feasible to measure the strain of the packages, rather than detecting the
presence of corrosions.
1.3. Swelling of Packages
The wasteforms in every package differs from one another. Certain radioactive
wasteforms releases gases throughout its decaying time. Swelling of packages is likely to
happen when the venting filter of the package are clogged. Building up of gases within
the package causes the package to swell.
1.4. Dropping of Packages
Dropping of packages would only occur due to mishandling of packages, assuming that it
would only occur during lifting of packages. Hence, neglecting other mechanisms such as
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seismic movements in the PGRC, which are either site specific or has negligible
probability of occurring. This ranges from human error to control systems of remote
handling.
It is thought that such mechanism would be easier to be detected from the lifting crane or
the grabber. By placing a load cell on each crane or grabber, one could measure the
weight of the package. An unforeseen decrease in the load carried by the crane or
grabber indicates a packages being dropped.
Such detection method however has its drawbacks. For example, when a package was
accidentally dropped on to a stack of packages and it caused the whole stack of
packages to fall over. In this scenario, the sensors only assume the dropping of one
package only. Hence, it is recommended that a mobile CCTV to be dispatched to the
spot.
1.5. Cracking
Cracking could occur either due to corrosion or mechanical damage. Such mode of
failure is difficult to be detected. Cracking occurs locally and are difficult to be predicted.
Cracking could only be detected by 3D mappings.
It was also thought that it is not feasible to conduct 3D mapping within the vault. This is
due to the expensive cost of the equipment and the equipment might not be able to resist
radiation. Hence, 3D mapping can only be conducted through shielded window.
3D mapping can only be conducted effectively when there’s no ‘blind spots’, such as
packages being stacked together. Extracting packages and mapping them individually
would somehow consume too much time.
2. MONITORING IN VAULT
It was thought that monitoring in the vaults play an essential role during the 300 years of
emplacement period. Through monitoring of packages, not only one could determine the
condition of packages but also predict any failure of the vault control system. ‘Dummy
packages’ and ‘sensor packages’ will be use in order to monitor the conditions of the
packages.
2.1. Dummy Packages
‘Dummy packages’ are packages of the same dimensions and material as other
packages, but they will contain inert materials, such as grout or concrete. These ‘Dummy
Packages’ will be equipped with a set of electronic sensors and a battery, which has an
assumed battery life of 10 years. The batteries will be placed within the package and be
shielded from radiation.
The main functions of these packages are to monitor corrosion, humidity and temperature
of its surrounding area. The main advantage of these ‘Dummy Packages’ is being able to
handle it without remote handling.
The following figure shows a drawing a typical ‘Dummy Package’ for 500L drums.
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corrosion sensor
Battery shielded
within package
Humidity sensor
Figure 1: A typical ‘Sensor Package’ for 500L drum
2.2. Sensor Packages
‘Sensor Packages’ are real packages which are equipped with electronic sensors.
Electronic equipments within the vault will include corrosion sensor, humidity sensor,
thermocouple, strain gauge and a battery, with an assumed battery life of 5 years.
Batteries will be strapped on the outside of the package and will be shielded from
radiation.
The purpose of these sensor packages is to allow monitoring of the package and its
surrounding area, without reducing the effective storage capacity of the vault. The
diagram below illustrates the position of sensors in a ‘Sensor Package’.
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Corrosion
Sensors
Strain Gauge on
metallic strap
Battery, active RFID
tag and electronic
components
Humidity
Sensors
Figure 2: A typical ‘Sensor Package’
3. ELECTRONIC SENSORS
Due to the radioactive environment of the vault, it is difficult and not feasible to monitor
packages directly. Hence, electronic sensors will have to be used. Electronic sensors
somehow have its limitations such as it require powering up and its reliability.
Powering up these electronic systems is the main drawback. Replacing batteries too
often would increase the work load of the inspection cell, whereas having long lived
batteries would reduce its reliability.
Several methods of powering up and charging batteries have been considered not
feasible. Charging or replacing batteries with robotic crawlers somehow would prove
difficult and time consuming. Hence, it is suggested that a battery life indicator should be
included into the system, and batteries will be replaced.
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From current proven technology, it is possible to design batteries which can last for at
least 2 years. It is also possible to design such batteries to be small enough to be
attached to the package, without affecting much of its properties. It is also assumed that
these sensors will take measurements 3 times every 24 hours, rather than taking
continuous readings.
3.1. Corrosion Sensors
Figure 3 A typical corrosion sensor used in gas pipes [2]
It was assumed that corrosion is most likely to happen in welded areas of the package.
Hence, these corrosion sensors will be positioned at these potential areas. These regions
include top side of the lid and underside of the lifting flange. Corrosion sensors will be
mounted on a strap and be strapped around these areas. This is to prevent alterations of
the packages itself.
Corrosion sensors worked by measuring the conductivity of the material. Stainless steel
has a relatively high conductivity. The presence of chloride would result in a decrease in
its conductivity and hence the presence of corrosion can be detected.
3.2. Humidity Sensors
Figure 4: A typical humidity sensor [3]
From experience of similar projects, it was found that corrosion usually occurs due to the
presence of free-water. When water evaporates, it deposits chlorides and is the main
corrosive agent. Hence, a humidity sensor is essential in predicting corrosion happening.
It was thought that free-water or moisture is likely to be present at the underside of the
package, which also include stillages. Therefore, humidity sensors will be placed at the
bottom of the package.
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Humidity sensors also act as a fail-safe sensor, if the corrosion sensors malfunction. One
could determine the condition of the packages by relying on two different sensors, without
having to send robotic crawlers.
3.3. Radiation Sensors
The radioactive level of each package will be measured in the inlet cell before being
transferred to the vault. The radiation level of the waste packages will only decrease
through time, but will never increase.
The scope of the project only deals with unshielded ILW, hence measuring radiation level
is thought to be redundant. Sensors such as a Geiger-Muller tube also proved to be
expensive.
3.4. Strain Gauge
The strain gauge on the
wall gives a rough
estimation of the size of a
strain gauge that could be
adopted.
Figure 5: A typical strain gauge mounted on the wall [4]
It is thought that expansions of packages are more significant or more likely to happen in
the planar direction, rather than axially. The expansion of the packages will be measured
by a strain gauge on a metallic strap. The metallic strap will then be strapped at mid
height around the package.
This method allows the strain gauge to obtain any expansion or within the package to be
detected. But the metal strap will need to be replaced, depending on its material. This is
due to creeping of the material. It is also noted that strain gauges will not be mounted on
‘Dummy-Packages’ as they don’t contain any waste materials.
3.5. Thermometer
An electronic thermometer will be used to record the temperature around the sensor. This
could also acts as a secondary monitoring of the vault. Although the condition of the vault
will be monitored by other sensors around its wall, ceiling and roofs, but it somehow
couldn’t detect hotspots among stacks of packages.
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3.6. RFID Tags
Figure 6: A typical active RFID tag [5]
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is an identification technology which is commonly
used in tracking something. By emitting radio waves of different frequencies, the receiver
could identify each individual package.
It is good practice to be able to identify each package, without too much hassle. The
usage of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags proves to be reliable and simple.
RFID tags can be classified as active RFID tags and passive RFID tags. The following
table illustrates their differences.
Active RFID tags
Passive RFID tags
Longer range up to 100m
Shorter range up to 4 feets
Requires additional battery cell
Doesn’t require any additional batteries
[6]
It is thought that active RFID tags will be placed in every ‘Dummy Package’ and ‘Sensor
Package’. Passive RFID tags will somehow be attached on other ‘Real Packages’. With
active RFID tags, signals can be sent to a receiver mounted on the lifting crane, whereas
the passive RFID could provide some form of identification when packages are being
lifted.
It is also preferable to use high frequency waves due to its fast data transfer. Low
frequency waves are more penetrative, hence it is only being used if the signal will have
to penetrate through dense materials, such as concrete and steel.
Hence the active RFID tags shall be positioned on the surface where it is not shielded. It
is thought that the RFID tags shall be placed in the side of the packages. In order to allow
ease in RFID scanning and ease of mounting these tags, a ‘sticker’ will be used to fix the
position of the RFID tag.
The condition of the vault simply restricts the usage of passive RFID tags on ‘Dummy
Packages’ and ‘Sensor Packages’. Scanning RFID tags individually will somehow
consume too much time and hence an active RFID tag will be used.
Active RFID tags will be powered by the attached battery cell. After the electronic sensors
had done its individual measurements, the signals will then be transmitted to a receiver
mounted on the crane. Hence, by performing and ‘RFID sweep’, one could collect
readings from all ‘Dummy Packages’ and ‘Sensor Packages’ fairly quickly.
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Figure 7: Passive RFID tag underneath an ‘adhesive sticker’ [7]
Other ‘Real Packages’ will however be attached with passive RFID tags or stickers. This
is to allow identification while lifting packages. By equipping with a passive RFID tag, one
could also keep track where a specific package is located within the PGRC.
4. ‘PARKING BAY’
Figure 8: A drawing of a ‘Parking Bay’ in a vault
In order to enhance speed in extracting packages from the bottom of a stack, a
‘Parking Bay’ was being introduced. By having empty columns in every interval, packages
at the bottom of the stack can be extracted without having the crane to move packages to
the end of the vault.
5. SAMPLING LAYOUT
Equipping every package with the set of proposed sensors will prove to be too expensive
and uneconomic, hence monitoring of every packages in the vault is not feasible. Nirex
recommended a sample survey of a subset of packages should be taken. In order to
obtain a good sample of the condition in the vault, Nirex suggested a non-probabilistic
method and a probabilistic method.[1]
Since the probabilistic method requires information of the vault condition which is site
specific, hence this method has been abandoned. It should be noted that the probabilistic
method would maximise the use of sensors.
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The position of ‘Dummy Packages’ and ‘Sensor Packages’ should be distributed evenly in
order to obtain a good representation of other packages in the vault. The number of
‘Dummy Packages’ however should be kept minimal such that it doesn’t reduce the
effective storage capacity of the vault.
5.1. Box-in-a-box Layout
Distance = 3 stillages
packages apart
Distance = 7 stillages
packages apart
Position of ‘Dummy
Packages’
Figure 9: A box in a box layout [8]
The arrangement for unshielded ILW packages within the vault will be 7 stillages across
and 7 stillages in a stack.[9] Assume 7 stillages across by 7 stillages high by 7 stillages
along the vault to be named as a block.
The diagram above illustrates the positions of ‘Dummy Packages’ in a block. The smaller
cube from the diagram above has the dimension of 3 by 3 by 3 stillages apart. ‘Dummy
Packages’ will be positioned in every corner of each cube, hence giving a total of 16
‘Dummy Packages’ in a block. From the diagram above, ‘Sensor Packages’ will be
positioned at every centre of each face of both cubes, hence giving a total of 12 ‘Sensor
Packages’ in a block.
Through calculations, the following table illustrates the number of ‘Real Packages’,
‘Dummy Packages’, ‘Sensor Packages’ and the total space available, with the
assumption that a vault will only store 1 type of package.
Type of
Package
‘Real
Packages’
‘Sensor
Packages’
‘Dummy
Packages’
‘Parking
Bay’ (1
every block)
Total Space
500L Drums
29100
276
304
700
30380
3m3 drums or
boxes
6429
265
292
168
7154
Type of
Package
‘Real
Packages’
‘Sensor
Packages’
‘Dummy
Packages’
‘Parking
Bay’ (1
every 2
Total Space
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blocks)
500L Drums
3
3m
drums/boxes
29464
276
304
336
30380
6520
265
292
77
7154
From the table above, it was thought that the number of ‘Parking Bay’ reduces the
effective storage capacity of the vault the most. Hence, it was decided to have a ‘Parking
Bay’ in every 2 blocks.
From calculations, it was also found that by introducing ‘Dummy Packages’ and ‘Parking
Bays’, the effective storage capacity of the vault is reduced by 2% for 500L drums and
5% for 3m3 drums and boxes.
It was also found that 2% of the 500L drums will be monitored with electronic sensors, via
‘Dummy Packages’ and ‘Sensor Packages’, while 9% of the 3m3 boxes or drums will be
monitored with electronic sensors. Although, it may seemed that the sample size being
monitored for 500L drums is insufficient, it should be noted that the distances between
each sets of sensors is the same as the ones for 3m3 drums or boxes. Hence, it is
arguably that the quality of the sample size is the same.
By distributing both ‘Sensor Packages’ and ‘Dummy Packages’ uniformly, one could also
monitor the condition of the vault. For example, if a region in a vault experience leakage
of water, the sensors around the region could indicate it.
5.2. Other Sampling Layouts
Other sampling layouts have been considered. Appendix 1A shows a sampling layout
where ‘Dummy Packages’ will be placed around the edge of the wall. This layout is only
feasible if the packages being stored are shielded.
The advantage of such layout is ease in conducting testing in the vault, without having to
retrieve packages within the block. This layout however provides a poor representation of
other packages in the vault. Only being able to monitor conditions of packages near the
wall, this layout had been rejected.
Another approach was to distribute more ‘Dummy Packages’ and ‘Sensor Packages’
according to the probability and criticality of failure. Such an approach maximises the
usage of sensors. For example, the likelihood of packages at the bottom of a stack to be
corroded is higher compared to packages at the top of the stack, hence more ‘Dummy
Packages’ and ‘Sensor Packages’ will be placed at bottom of a stack.
This approach wasn’t being implemented as it was considered to be too complicated as
optimising the usage of every sensor is simply impossible. It is also difficult to justify that
package at the bottom of a stack to have a higher chance to fail, while package at the top
of the stack has higher probability of dropping. This layout should be considered if the
proposed layout should fail.
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6. DIRECT VIEWING & CCTV
CCTV
mounted can
pan, tilt and
zoom.
Figure 10: A typical radiation resistant robotic crawler [10]
It is best practice to be able to view packages either directly or via remote cameras.
Visual inspection has the advantage of being reliable, fast and cheap. Visual inspection
also has the advantage of providing an independent judgement from sensors.
It was considered that direct viewing of packages in the vault will be not economic. It
would be expensive to have shielded windows along the vault, and maintenance work
such as cleaning windows will be an issue.
Two options were considered, either by using stationary cameras or cameras mounted on
robotic crawlers. It was decided that by mounting CCTVs on robotic crawlers, one could
gain flexibility in the expense of cost.
In order to optimise the usage of these crawlers, cameras must be able to zoom, pan, tilt
and have adequate lightings. Robotic crawlers should also have the capability to access
every package.
6.1. Welded Coupons
Figure 11: Corrosion in welded regions [11]
The lid of a package consist welded regions. It is also noted that the lid of a package will
be difficult to be viewed, even by using CCTVs on robotic crawlers, due to blind spots.
Therefore, a welded metal coupon was being introduced.
A welded metal coupon of the same material will be welded on every stillage and
attached to every 3m3 packages. Assuming that welded regions are more susceptible to
be corroded, hence it will be more likely that these welded coupons experience corrosion.
By just viewing on these welded coupons, one could judge if the other welded regions of
a package is corroded.
In order to allow visual inspection to be carried out easily, the welded coupons will be
welded or attached at a standard and obvious location of each stillage and package. It is
also suggested that the coupon could be coloured in order to contrast the change in
colour of stainless steel, and also to capture one’s attention.
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The flow diagram below illustrates sequence of visual inspection carried out. Significant
deformations will be inspected first, followed by welded coupons and filters. It was found
that the filters on the lid are also likely to be corroded as being clogged.
Check for
significant
deformation
Welded Coupon
Filter (whether
it’s corroded or
clogged)
Corrosion in
welded areas
Other visible
areas
7. MONITORING OF STILLAGES
It was assumed that stacking of stillages will not cause significant damage to the bottom
stillage. If the stillage should fail or be subjected to corrosion, stillages will be inspected 4
times more frequent compared to 500L drums. Hence, there is no need for stillages to be
monitored.
8. WASTE PACKAGE MONITORING SEQUENCE
The flow diagram below illustrates the monitoring sequence of waste packages in the
vault. It begins by performing a ‘RFID Sweep’ on every package in the vault, thus reading
measurements of ‘Dummy Packages’ and ‘Sensor Packages’. Damaged packages are
then being identified; packages around it will then be re-assessed by visual inspection.
Packages identified or suspected to be damaged will then be retrieved to the Inspection
Cell.
If no damaged packages are identified by the ‘RFID Sweep’, 4 real packages will be
selected randomly and be retrieved to the Inspection Cell for further inspection. At the
same time, visual inspection will be carried out on ‘Real Packages’ via CCTVs mounted
on robotic crawlers.
RFID
Problem
package
assessed with
mobile CCTV
Problem
package(s)
identified
Extract + transfer to
Inspection Cell
Sweep
All packages
confirmed
safe.
4 real packages
randomly selected.
These are taken to
Inspection Cell
Real packages
randomly selected.
These are inspected
by mobile CCTV.
CONCLUSION
It was concluded that waste package monitoring plays an essential role to demonstrate
package integrity during the emplacement period. It also serves a purpose of reducing
the work load of the Inspection Cell. The condition of the vault could also be monitored at
the same time. Waste Package monitoring is also proved feasible and could be
conducted relatively fast and easy, through electronic sensors and visual inspection.
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REFERENCES
[1] WPS/640: Guidance on monitoring waste packages during storage, September 2005
[2] Images from National Energy Technology Laboratory, U.S.A.
http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/press/2003/tl_conformablearray.html, 29th Oct 2003
[3] Images from CTL Group,
http://www.ctlgroup.com/template.asp?topic=2087, 2006
[4] Photographs from Duncan Heron from Duke University,
www.env.duke.edu/eos/geo41/mmo.htm, April 1984
[5] Images from Fujitsu
http://www.fujitsu.com/global/news/pr/archives/month/2004/20040927-01.html ,
September 2004
[6] RFID Journal at www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/208#Anchor-33869, January
2007
[7] Images from Macau Productivity and Technology Transfer Center
http://www2.cpttm.org.mo/cyberlab/rfid/intro.html.zh , January 2007
[8] Images from Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences
http://www.ics.uci.edu/~eppstein/junkyard/box-in-box.gif
[9] DRG No.: E/DRG/0040010, N/077 Volume 2, Generic Repository Design: Reference
Case Design, July 2003 by Nirex
[10] Images from Inuktun,
www.inuktun.com, January 2007
[11] Images from Corrosion Technology Testbed, Kennedy Space Centre
http://corrosion.ksc.nasa.gov/filicor.htm, January 2007
Nirex Reports




WPS/700: 500 litre drum waste package specification: Explanatory Materials and
Design Guidelines, October 2005
WPS320/01, Specification for 3 cubic metre drum waste package, Technical Note
July 2005
WPS 310/01: Specification for 3 cubic metre box waste package, Technical Note
July 2005
WPS/640: Guidance on monitoring waste packages during storage (Nirex online),
September 2005
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Appendix 1A
Real Packages
Dummy Packages
Dummy Packages placed along the side of the storage vault.
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