Anatomy Module 1
I.
II.
Anatomy and physiology
a. Anatomy
i. Gross anatomy – macroscopic structures of an organism ( we will be dealing
with this aspect for the most part)
1. Human anatomy
2. Comparative anatomy
a. There are some homologous aspects of other animals with
humans
i. Birds wing has a radius and ulna so a bird flies with its
arms
ii. Bats wing have bones similar to human finger bones, so
a bat flies with its fingers.
3. Surface anatomy – Anatomy used for visual and palpable observation to
make diagnosis.
4. Regional anatomy – anatomy of various parts of the body.
ii. Microscopic anatomy – microscopic structures
1. We will look at some histology, the study of tissues
b. Physiology – The study of the functions of an organism and its parts.
c. Level of organization is--- molecules (proteins, salts, fats, acids,etc.) – organelles---cell –
tissues – organs---system
i. Tissues – groups of cells specialized for a particular function
1. Four basic types of tissues in the body
a. Nervous tissue – makes up brain, spinal cord, eye, etc
b. Muscular tissue – skeletal, heart, organ, muscles.
c. Connective tissue –bone, cartilage, etc
d. Epithelial tissue – surface of skin, lining of mouth, makes up the
lining of many organs, as well as glands
ii. Organs – group of tissues specialized for a particular function
1. See page 3
Steady as She goes (TAKE A LOOK AT THE VIDEO LINK ON LINE)
a. Homeostasis – A state of equilibrium in the body with respect to its functions, chemical
levels and tissues.
i. “set point” – the variations in our body around some norm.
1. Temp. 92–101 °F
2. Blood Pressure –
3. pH
b. Stress-something in the environment that causes one or more variables to move too far
from their set point, causing our bodies to react to correct them. Most of the organ
systems in the body take part in homeostasis.
i. Only system of the body which does not deal with homeostasis.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
III.
blood
IV.
V.
level
1. Reproductive System.
Nervous system and endocrine system are responsible for the control of
homeostasis.
1. Nervous system - Brain, spinal cord, and nerves. These help detect
variables beyond the body’s set points.
2. Endocrine system – secretion of hormones to help bring variables back
under control
Effector – A structure in the body that can change the value of a variable.
1. Example of Blood pressure:
a. Several Effectors:
i. Heart – slowing it down decreases the blood pressure.
ii. This is called a response.
2. Thus the receptors monitor the body’s variables, a control center (brain,
etc) establishes the appropriate range of variable, control center keeps
may have to send message to effector to keep the appropriate range
a. See page 8
Negative Feedback System: feedback system detects changes and produces the
opposite effect.
HAVE STUDENTS READ THE BLOOD SUGAR FEEDBACK AND WRITE IT OUT ON
PAPER IN GRA PHIC FORM.
VI.
VII.
take.
i.
VIII.
ii. Microbial
iii. Positive Feedback vs. Negative Feedback paragraph 3 page 9
The cell and organelle function
a. Plasma membrane
b. Nucleus
i. Nuclear envelope
c. Chromatin
d. Chromosomes
IX.
e. Cytoplasm
f. Ribosomes
i. Free ribosomes
ii. ER ribosomes
g. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
i. Series of tubes used in intracellular transport and production of lipids and
carbohydrates
h. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
i. Involved in protein synthesis, modification and intracellular transport.
i. Lipids
j. Carbohydrates
k. Golgi apparatuses
i. Packages various chemicals for secretion and other uses. May involve chemical
modification
ii. Neurons have lots of Golgi bodies.
l. Secretory vesicle
i. Originates form Golgi apparatus, pinches off the Golgi apparatus, travels to
plasma membrane where it releases contents to the outside of the cell,
sometimes the release is due to a signal prior to their release.
m. Lysosome
i. Releases enzyme to Break down lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids.
ii. A type of “suicide” package.
iii. You cannot live beyond 4 – 8 min. without oxygen due to the lysosomes of
nerve cells bursting, killing the cell by releasing their lethal contents.
n. Mitochondria
i. Major site for ATP synthesis, which is the currency of cellular energy
ii. Mitochondrial DNA
1. Circular
2. All mitochondrial DNA comes from your mother.
o. Centrioles
i. Microtubule, spiral strands of protein that influence movement within and
shape of cell.
1. Used in mitosis and meiosis
p. Centrosome
i. Center of microtubule formation for the cell
q. Mitosis
r. Meiosis
s. Cilia
Protein Synthesis Review
a. Proteins
i. Enzymes
ii. Structural
b. Transcription
c. Translation
d. Nucleotides
i. Codon
ii. Anticodon
Review of Cellular Mitosis
X.
e. Phases of Mitosis
i. Interphase – The normal, on going, living processes of a cell when not preparing
for cellular division.
1. DNA, called chromatin at this point, is unzipped and being read
2. DNA is replicated and packaged into chromosomes at the very end of
interphase.
ii. Prophase
1. Centrioles duplicate and appear,
2. Spindle fibers begin to form.
3. Centrioles move to opposite ends of cell
4. Spindle fibers spread out across the cell
5. Chromosomes have duplicated
iii. Metaphase
1. When chromosomes line up at the equatorial plane
iv. Anaphase
1. When the duplicated chromosomes are pulled apart toward the
opposite ends of the cells.
v. Teleophase
1. Original chromosomes are on one side and duplicates are on the other
side as cell pinches in forming two “new” cells.
vi. Three cells which cannot undergo mitosis
1. Mature neurons
2. Skeletal muscle cells
3. Cardiac muscle cells
Plasma Membrane
a. Fluid Mosaic Model is the description of the plasma membrane since it has various
proteins floating within the phospholipid bilayer.
i. Phospholipid bilayer
1. Two phospholipids come together with the hydrophilic (head which is
the phosphate) portion forming the outer portion of this double
membrane and the hydrophobic (the tail or lipid) portion forming the
inner portion.
a. This arrangement allows the membrane to automatically reform
if it gets disturbed or pinched in.
ii. Proteins
1. Proteins (large molecules) are imbedded or floating in the plasma
membrane.
2. Types of proteins:
a. Channel proteins – physically allow the passage of substances
through them.
b. Glycoproteins – protein containing a carbohydrate chain which
acts as a marker, allowing cells to recognize each other.
c. Receptor proteins - take in messages from other cells initiating
a response such as a nerve cell to a muscle cell.
iii. Cholesterol composes 1/3 of the lipid part of the membrane.
1. Cholesterol is found amid the fat soluble tails of the lipid causing it to
hold together, giving it a degree of firmness.
b. Functions of the Plasma Membrane
i. It holds the cell together.
ii. Provides receptors allowing cell to sense its environment
iii. The lipid portion of the membrane will allow lipid substances to dissolve into
the membrane and make their way into the cells whereas it will withhold water
soluble substances.
iv. It provides various means of transport into the cell.
1. Selective permeability
a. Ability to let certain materials in or out of cell while restricting
others.
i. Diabetes II is when cells don’t respond to the insulin,
thus not allowing glucose into the cell.
b. Size of molecule determines its permeability.
i. Small molecules can travel through channel proteins
where as large molecules cannot.
1. Water molecules which are small, easily to in
and out of the cell.
c. Charge of molecules and ions affect their ability to go in and
out.
i. When channel proteins orient their amino acids forming
a positive or negative charge which allows oppositely
charged ions to easily pass through.
2. Carrier Proteins involved in Mediated transport.
a. Carrier proteins allow certain molecules into the cell through a
process called mediated transport.
i. In response to a molecule’s specific shape, the carrier
protein accepts the molecule, binds to it and then
changes its shape in order to release the molecule into
the cell.
1. Three conditions are important in mediated
transport.
a. Specificity – carrier protein is made for
a specifically shaped molecule so there
is only one carrier protein per specific
molecule shape.
XI.
b. Competition – Similarly shaped
molecules can compete for the same
carrier.
i. Similar amino acids compete for
same carrier proteins,
therefore, you need to have the
proper proportions of amino
acids since there will be
competition and the highest
number of amino acids will be
out competing the lower
number.
c. Saturation –A carrier which constantly
transports molecules is saturated
because it cannot move the molecules
any faster.
i. If carrier proteins are not busy
transporting, then more
molecules can get inside
quickly.
3. In the end, the factors that lead to the selective permeability of plasma
membrane
a. Fatty nature allowing sat soluble molecules to travel into the
cell.
b. Channel proteins allowing small molecules to travel through the
cell membrane.
c. Channel proteins with an overall electrical charge.
d. Carrier proteins that transport larger molecules through the
membrane.
e.
Membrane Transport: explains what causes transportation across the plasma membrane.
a. Diffusion
i. Diffusion is the passive (no energy used) transportation of ions or molecules
from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
1. For example – Sodium ions which are (+) and exist in high
concentrations outside the cell, can easily travel through negatively
charged protein channels.
2. Another example is Potassium ions (+) which are in higher concentration
inside the cell. They will easily flow outwardly.
ii. Diffusion also occurs in mediated transport and is then called facilitated
diffusion.
1. This can occur either inwardly or outwardly transporting of
molecules/ions.
a. Glucose enters a cell via facilitated diffusion…no ATP needed.
b. Active Transport – transportation across membrane requiring the use of energy in the
form of ATP
i. ATP, adenosine triphosphate stores energy and can be “broken down” into ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) and P in order to release the stored energy. These can
be reused as energy is stored and released, much like recycling.
ii. Example: Sodium, which exists in high concentrations outside the cell easily
diffuses into the cell, but the cell will die if too much sodium makes its way into
the cell, so to keep it at the right concentration inside the cell, the cell expends
energy or ATP in order to actively transport, or push the sodium ions back out of
the cell through a carrier protein, going against the concentration gradient.
1. This is called the sodium PUMP
iii. Endocytosis – process by which large molecules are taken into the cell
regardless of concentration and is therefore active transport.
1. Pinocytosis “cell drinking” – process which allows proteins to enter into
the cell.
a. Proteins are dissolved in outer cellular fluid so that the plasma
membrane can gold inwardly, pinching off a vesicle. Now with
the protein inside the cell, it travels to where it is needed.
2. Phagocytosis “cell eating” – Used to ingest solids as opposed to fluids.
a. WBC’s are the most common cells using phagocytosis.
iv. Exocytosis – Transportation of material from inside the cell to outside the cell
regardless of concentration levels and is therefore active transport.
1. Gogi bodies (cell organelle) often plays a role in exocytosis.
a. Many cells using exocytosis are secretory cells.
i. Pancreas has insulin secreting cells and will thus have
large numbers of Golgi bodies.