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Developing Writing Skills through Cognitive and Compensatory Learning
Strategies
Yalile Jiménez Olivares 1 2
Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica
Kevin A. Brand Fonseca 3 4
Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica
RESUMEN
Las estrategias de aprendizaje cognitivas y compensatorias son recomendables para facilitar el
proceso de escritura dado a que ayudan a los estudiantes de Inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL)
en el desarrollo de esta habilidad lingüística. Los estudiantes pueden recurrir a estas estrategias
para superar las dificultades cuando escriben. Este estudio se llevó a cabo con estudiantes del
curso Composición del diplomado de inglés en la Universidad Nacional, Campus Pérez Zeledón.
Los autores de este documento investigaron las estrategias de aprendizaje utilizadas por los
estudiantes para mejorar sus habilidades de escritura. A la luz de estos resultados, los
investigadores sugieren una serie de estrategias de aprendizaje cognitivas y compensatorias que
pueden ayudar a los estudiantes de EFL a escribir efectivamente.
ABSTRACT
Cognitive and compensatory learning strategies are advisable to facilitate the writing process
since they assist EFL learners when developing this linguistic skill. Students can resort to these
strategies in order to surmount the intricacies of writing. This study took place in a group of
students in the Composition Course from the Associate‘s Program in English at Universidad
Nacional, Pérez Zeledón Campus. The authors of this paper investigated which learning strategies
learners use to develop writing skills. In the light of these results, the researchers suggest a series
of cognitive and compensatory learning strategies that may help EFL learners to write effectively.
Palabras clave: adquisición de una segunda lengua, estudiantes de EFL, estrategias cognitivas,
estrategias de compensación, escritura.
Keywords: second language acquisition, EFL learners, cognitive strategies, compensatory
strategies, writing.
1
[email protected]
I guarantee that this paper represents my own intellectual production and hereby I free the Escuela de Literatura y
Ciencias del Lenguaje in case I do not fulfill this personal obligation.
3
[email protected]
4
I guarantee that this paper represents my own intellectual production and hereby I free the Escuela de Literatura y
Ciencias del Lenguaje in case I do not fulfill this personal obligation.
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Introduction
Learning strategies play an important role in the second language acquisition process.
Mastering a second language entails a complex route for some learners. Consequently, most of
them make use of different learning strategies to successfully reach their goal. These means may
be used consciously or subconsciously. Oxford demonstrated that learning strategies can be
taught effectively to second language learners. She proposed a categorization of learning
strategies: direct and indirect. She claimed that direct learning strategies require that the learner
make mental processing of the language in direct involvement with it (Oxford, 1990: 37) 5. The
learning strategy taxonomy proposed by Oxford addresses the four linguistic skills: listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. This paper investigates the learning strategies that Composition
Course students from the Associate‘s Program in English at Universidad Nacional use to deal
with the writing process.
In the study, most EFL learners agreed with the fact that writing is the most complicated
linguistic skill for them to master. The Composition Course students‘ mentioned their main
weaknesses in the areas of grammar, mechanics, vocabulary, and content. However, the use of
cognitive and compensatory learning strategies may help them deal with these deficiencies. EFL
learners also remark their lack of interest in writing. This disinterest might occur due to varied
reasons; one is that most of them do not realize the importance of becoming communicative
competent in writing; another reason is that, in the classroom context, they are barely faced with
real-life tasks. The aim of this study is that the data collected and their analysis could be used in
the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context to reinforce learners‘ writing skills. The main
motivation of this paper is that cognitive and compensatory learning strategies can be explicitly
taught to assist EFL learners in the development of writing skills.
Literature review
Second language acquisition and learning
Acquiring or learning a second language is complex for most learners. Second language
acquisition and second language learning involve different processes. The former process refers
to picking up a second language through exposure. The latter process deals with the conscious
study of a second language (Ellis, 2010:6) 6. To a certain extent, it is difficult to determine what
elements of a language learner‘s competence or performance have been acquired or learned. In
that matter, Rod Ellis claimed, ―I wish to keep an open mind about whether this
acquisition/learning is a real distinction or not‖ and, under this belief, he defined second
language acquisition (SLA) as ―…the subconscious or conscious processes by which a language
other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural or tutored setting‖ (6). This same author
considered the learning process ―… as the internalization of rules and formulas which are then
used to communicate in the L2‖ (229). Both processes demand mental processing of the
language. It means that learners have to perform some actions in order to internalize the language
5
Oxford, Rebecca. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1990.
6 Rod, Ellis. Understanding second language acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012
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patterns. The difference between acquisition and learning lies, thereby, in the degree of
consciousness when processing the target language.
Selinker was concerned about the way in which people actually learn second languages. He
found that only five percent of the adult second language learners do not struggle in the SLA
process; he remarked that:
… those adults who ‗succeed‘ in learning a second language so that they achieve
native-speaker ‗competence‘ have somehow reactivated that latent language
structure which Lenneberg describes. This absolute success in a second language
affects, as we know from observations a small percentage of learners – perhaps a
mere 5%. It follows from this assumption that this 5% go through very different
psycholinguist process than do most second language learners… (Selinker,
2009:212)7
In other words, most learners of a second language (95%) go through a complex learning
process. Language learners vary not only in the rate at which they learn or acquire the target
language but also in the learning strategies used throughout the process. The vast majority of EFL
learners who attempt to be competent in a target language, therefore, have to take advantage of
learning strategies to reach such goal.
The role of learning strategies in SLA
Language learning strategies are paramount in SLA because they help ESL/ EFL learners to
surmount the difficulties of learning a second language (L2). Such strategies ―are among the main
factors that help determine how—and how well—our students learn a second or foreign
language‖ (Oxford, 2001: 359)8. As a matter of fact, when students are able to deal with the
intricacies of the L2 successfully, they simultaneously develop the linguistic competence that
enables them to make suitable use of the target language. In this sense, learning strategies can be
defined as ―specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques—such as seeking out conversation
partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task—used by student to
enhance their own learning‖ (359). Grounded on such concept, these strategies aim at facilitating
the language learning process inasmuch as learners recur to distinct means to internalize the
target language (TL) more efficiently. Learning strategies, hence, need to be considered in SLA
since they support students when facing linguistic challenges in the learning process. The
aforementioned strategies are usually classified as either direct or indirect.
Direct and indirect learning strategies
In 1990, Oxford proposed a learning strategies taxonomy that is widely considered among
language teaching scholars. She supports the idea that these strategies are useful to ease the
language learning process, but they can meet the learners‘ needs more adequately if they, as EFL
learners, are taught to use them either directly or indirectly. Regarding direct strategies, learners
―directly involve the target language‖ (Oxford, 1990: 37) 9 . Such strategies entail mental
7 IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistic in Language Teaching. Volume 10, Issue 1-4, Pages 209-232,
ISSN 1613-4141, DOI: 10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4 209, November 2009
8
Oxford, Rebecca. «Language learning styles and strategies». Teaching English as a second or foreign language.
Ed. Celce-Murcia. Marianne: Heinle & Heinle, 2001: 359-366.
9
Oxford, Rebecca. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1990.
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processing of the language, but the three groups of strategies (memory, cognitive, and
compensation) deal with the linguistic information differently. Nevertheless, not only are these
strategies suitable to enhance the psycholinguistic processes involved in language learning, but
also they are effective to compensate the lack of competence in negotiating meaning. Direct
strategies, in consequence, facilitate the learning of a second language (L2) through techniques
that enhance the learners‘ performance.
Indirect strategies also play a key role in the language learning process but in a distinct
way. In this case, ―these strategies are called ‗indirect‘ because they support and manage
language learning without (in many instances) directly involving the target language‖ (135). Such
means are functional in SLA, for they supply students with ideas to deal with the language
learning process without necessarily making use of the linguistic system. Indirect strategies can
be divided into meta-cognitive, affective, and social strategies. These strategies are ―useful in
virtually all language learning situations and are applicable to all four language skills: listening,
reading, speaking, and writing‖ (135). Indirect strategies, thus, ease the load of learning a
language by offering solutions to deal with meta-cognitive, affective, and social barriers.
However, in the case of writing skills, students normally resort to strategies that tackle their
linguistic difficulties in a direct way.
Writing and the Use of Cognitive and Compensatory Learning Strategies
Writing is complex, as it combines an array of linguistic, stylistic, and discourse-related
elements to make form and meaning fully-functional. In fact, Olshtain10 argued that ―the writing
process, in comparison to spoken interaction, imposes greater demands on the text, since written
interaction lacks immediate feedback as a guide‖ (207). For this reason, learners need to make
use of different strategies to handle such complexities directly. Cognitive and compensatory
learning strategies are advisable since the learner might overcome the errors that hinder written
communication on their own or through the teachers‘ assistance. Cognitive strategies are practical
to learn a language, for EFL students can manipulate or transform the target language (Oxford,
1990: 43). In the case of compensatory strategies, they can be used for the learner to go further in
the learning process. The purpose of the use of compensation strategies is ―to make up for an
inadequate repertoire of grammar and, especially, of vocabulary‖ (47). Hence, cognitive and
compensation strategies can help students to manipulate the linguistic resources in order to
enhance written communication.
Cognitive learning strategies may be further classified. The former strategies are labeled
as practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, as well as creating
structure for input and output (Oxford, 1990: 69). Practicing learning strategies are divided into
repeating, writing the same thing several times; formally practicing with writing systems,
copying letters and words of the TL; recognizing and using formulas and patterns, completing
structures and distinguishing chunks; recombining, looking for different ways to combine
punctuation patterns and parts of speech in a text; and practicing naturalistically, writing for reallife tasks. In regard to receiving and sending messages, the only strategy suggested was to consult
books and dictionaries. In the same fashion, when analyzing and reasoning, students can use
cognitive strategies by reasoning deductively, applying the rules learned in different contexts;
10
Olshtain, Elite. «Functional tasks for mastering the mechanics of writing and going just beyond». Teaching english
as a second or foreign language. Ed. Celce-Murcia. Marianne: Heinle & Heinle, 2001: 207-217.
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translating, copying the L1 linguistic patterns in the L2; and transferring, using L1 forms to
facilitate the use of the L2. In the case of creating structure for input and output, learners can
resort to strategies like taking notes, writing down details that could be useful when writing;
summarizing, writing down the most important facts to synthesize a piece of writing;
highlighting, giving emphasis to the linguistic patterns or devices that could be used when
writing (69-90). To sum up, the aforementioned strategies collaborate in the development of the
writing process in distinct ways.
Compensatory learning strategies are also subdivided. The taxonomy proposed by Oxford
indicates that students can guess intelligently and overcome limitations in speaking and writing.
For the purpose of this study, only will the strategies for overcoming writing problems be taken
into account like letting students select a topic in accordance to their affinities, adjusting or
approximating the message by removing information to fit one‘s competence, coining words
(making up new words to convey meaning a concept), and using circumlocutions or synonyms
(96-97). The strategies portrayed in these taxonomies will simplify the writing learning process in
the target language because students can rely on them to assure the enhancement of such a
linguistic skill.
Research methodology
Participants
The participants chosen for this study were second year undergraduate students at
Universidad Nacional, Pérez Zeledón Campus. These people were studying English as a foreign
language; all of them were enrolled in a writing course. The Composition course is part of the
curriculum of the Associate‘s Degree in English. The curriculum of this program focuses on the
linguistic, communicative, and socio-cultural areas11. This undergraduate degree is composed of
seventeen courses that sum up sixty-one credits. These students had to pass an admission test to
be admitted into this program. The participants were twenty-one females and three males. Their
ages range from nineteen to twenty-four years old. Regarding their English learning background,
this population attended an average of 3.6 years of English instruction at primary school level, 5
years at secondary school level and, approximately, 1 year of English instruction at the higher
education level. This study was carried out during the first school cycle, 2012.
Instrument
To collect data, the authors designed a questionnaire based on identified learning strategies
in writing from the literature review. This instrument was elaborated by using Oxford‘s
taxonomies for cognitive and compensatory learning strategies. The questionnaire included open
ended and closed ended questions to identify students‘ writing strengths and weaknesses. The
instrument also had a couple of checklists for students to tick the cognitive and compensatory
language learning strategies that they, as EFL learners, use to overcome their writing difficulties.
11
Chaves, Olga, Guzman, Natin, Jiménez, Ivannia, Patterson, Myrna, & Ramírez, Jimmy. Rediseño oferta
académica diplomado en Inglés. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras Escuela de Literatura y Ciencias del Lenguaje,
Universidad Nacional, 2008.
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The data obtained serve as the foundations for the researchers to come up with the analysis and
suggestions to solve such problems.
Data Analysis
The next section aims at presenting the results of the research conducted to determine the
learning strategies used by the participants to develop writing skills. To achieve this, the data
gathered from the questionnaire administered to a group of EFL learners from the Associate‘s
Program in English were analyzed.
Students’ perception of their writing performance
Table 1 depicts data provided by students about the most difficult linguistic skill to attain
when learning EFL, and the linguistic skills in which they obtain the lowest grades in different
evaluations.
Linguistic skill
Most difficult
% of
% of
with the lowest
linguistic skill to participants‘
participants‘
academic
attain
responses
responses
performance
Writing
46%
Writing
29%
Reading
4%
Reading
8%
Listening
38%
Listening
54%
Speaking
8%
Speaking
0%
No answer
4%
No answer
8%
Table 1. Students perceptions on their linguistic skills
The table discloses that 46% of students considered that writing was the most complicated
linguistic skill to acquire. The complexities of this skill lie in the fact that learners need to
internalize and revise discursive, linguistic, and stylistic aspects to polish their written products.
As a matter of fact, writing is the last linguistic skill to be learned. Likewise, some students
usually performed with more problems in the courses that place emphasis on writing skills.
Actually, in 29% of the cases, students obtained the lowest grades in such courses. Therefore,
students need to be provided with different kinds of learning strategies, especially the
compensatory and cognitive ones, for these techniques are recommendable to write effectively.
As a matter of fact, once learners have been taught about language learning strategies, they, as
EFL learners, can resort to them to facilitate the writing process.
Students writing Problems and the Possible Solutions
The information obtained from the EFL learners‘ questionnaires regarding their writing
problems are shown in Table 2.
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% of participants’
responses
26%
26%
26%
13%
5%
5%
Main difficulties
Grammar
Mechanics
Organization
Vocabulary
Content
Lack of interest
Table 2. Students’ problems when writing
Students stressed that they show weaknesses in different aspects of writing, such as
grammar, mechanics, organization, vocabulary, and content; some of them (5%) also remarked
that they are not interested in writing. Unfortunately, students did not display much awareness of
how to solve the aforementioned problems. In addition to this, the participants mentioned only a
few techniques to deal with writing difficulties, such as consulting words in the dictionary and
paying attention to the teachers‘ explanations and feedback. In fact, students ignored most of the
learning strategies that the authors of this paper want to emphasize. Hence, students need to be
more familiar with the solutions of the writing problems, some of which are discussed in Table 3.
Cognitive Strategies
Rewriting spelling patterns
Solving cloze tests to practice grammar
Writing formulas or phrases down for later
use
Looking for different ways to combine
punctuation patters and parts of speech in a
text
Writing texts for enjoyment or for the
purpose of performing a task
Consulting textbooks and dictionaries
Writing sentences with the structures newly
studied
Using expressions and rules in different
contexts
Direct Translation and transfer
Note-taking
Summarizing
Highlighting
% of participants’
responses
75%
29%
71%
13%
50%
83%
29%
63%
58%
58%
46%
83%
Table 3. Cognitive learning strategies used by students
to assist the writing process
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The most conspicuous cognitive learning strategies used by students were highlighting,
consulting textbooks and dictionaries, rewriting spelling patterns, and writing formulas and
phrases down for later use; these techniques were used by more than 70% of learners.
Nevertheless, the checklist included twelve strategies, eight of which are employed to a low
extent. The poor use given to most of the strategies lies in the lack of awareness of their benefits
to manipulate the target language and boost the learning process. In addition, very few of these
strategies were mentioned as actions to solve writing problems. This fact discloses that learners
know little about the existence of such helpful tools for cognitive stimulation.
In Table 4, students responded about the compensation strategies that they use to facilitate
the writing learning experience.
Compensatory Strategies
Selecting the topic
Adjusting the message to your knowledge by
omitting items of information
Making ideas less precise
Using long explanatory phrases for specific
words (what you use to wash the dishes for
dishrag)
Using synonyms
% of participants’
responses
46%
50%
13%
12%
83%
Table 4. Compensation learning strategies used by
students to assist the writing process
The data reveal that these strategies were hardly ever used by students since three out of the
four techniques were put into practice in less than 46% of the cases. The only strategy with
which students were familiar is the use of synonyms to compensate the meaning of unknown and
difficult words. These results also indicate that most students do not take advantage of the array
of compensatory learning strategies to write effectively.
On the other hand, when students were asked how often they use cognitive and
compensatory learning strategies to surmount their difficulties when writing in English out of the
classroom, only 54% of them answered that they always do. This situation is worrisome
inasmuch as 33% percent of them ascertained that they never employ such helpful tool to
enhance the learning process. For students to comprehend the utility of the cognitive and
compensatory learning, it is necessary to implement and promote them in the English classroom.
Table 5 depicts the result obtained after asking students the extent to which EFL teachers
implement cognitive and compensatory learning strategies in the classroom.
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% of participants’ responses
17%
Frequency
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
42%
38%
4%
Table 5. Extent to which EFL teachers implement
learning strategies for writing in their classes
As made evident in Table 5, students agreed with the fact that most EFL professionals who
teach writing instruct students on the language learning strategies to overcome writing problems
often or always. However, 42% of informants considered that instruction takes place once a
month or never. This result reflects that there can be more efforts to implement learning
strategies in the classroom. The analysis of the data gathered from the informants‘ responses
serve as bases to draw the next conclusions and recommendations.
Conclusions and recommendations
The next conclusions could be drawn from the analysis carried out to the data garnered
from the informants. Accordingly, the researchers of this study give recommendations for EFL
learners and educators to overcome the complexities of writing. First, since writing is the most
complicated linguistic skill for learners to master, the authors of this study strongly recommend
the use cognitive and compensatory learning strategies. Likewise, some EFL learners usually
performed with more problems in the courses that stress writing skills. To improve their
academic performance, teachers have to foster the use of the aforementioned learning strategies
inside and outside the classroom for students to resort to them and facilitate the writing process.
The results of this study indicate that students have weaknesses in distinct writing aspects
such as grammar, mechanics, vocabulary, and content; this situation can be associated with the
fact that they barely know about the existence of cognitive and compensatory learning strategies.
In the light of these considerations, the next series of cognitive and compensatory learning
strategies to assist EFL learners in the development of writing skills are suggested. To surmount
grammar difficulties, students can employ strategies like recognizing and using formulas and
patterns, as well as recombining. For instance, students may complete structures and distinguish
chunks as they solve cloze tasks to identify different speech parts. Learners can also reason
deductively and apply the rules learned in different contexts by solving error analysis exercises.
Regarding mechanics, the problems can be solved by writing the same words and punctuation
patterns several times to internalize them. Sometimes, students present problems because they are
not familiar with the target language writing systems. When this situation arises, they need to
copy the letters and words of the target language in a visible place to recall the patterns when
needed.
Concerning vocabulary problems, students are already using the proper strategies to deal
with these difficulties inasmuch they are using books and dictionaries, highlighting, giving
emphasis to the linguistic patterns or devices that could be used when writing, and using
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synonyms. It is recommended that students use other kinds of learning strategies to complement
what is being done with vocabulary difficulties. In the case of content, it is recommendable that
students take notes on the details that could be useful when writing. Summarize the most
important facts to synthesize a piece of writing is also suitable. It is relevant to point out that
learners use very few of these strategies as actions to solve writing problems.
This study provides evidence about the EFL learners‘ lack of interest in writing. This
disinterest could be overcome by practicing writing through real-life tasks. It is also useful to
select topics according the writers‘ affinities. Finally, for students to comprehend the utility of
the cognitive and compensatory learning strategies, it is necessary to implement and promote
them in the EFL language classroom.
Sometimes, students may not be familiar with the usefulness of cognitive and
compensatory learning strategies in enhancing writing skills. For this reason, these strategies
need to be explicitly taught to assist EFL learners along the development of writing skills. For
instance, if learners have limitations regarding word choice, teachers can take ten minutes of their
lessons to show them a collocations dictionary online so that they can consult hoe, when, and
where to use certain lexical items.
Eventually, this study may address some of the problems that learners of an L2 face in the
writing process and contribute to the development of research carried out in the SLA field.
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Annex 1: Instrument
Researchers: M.A. Yalile Jiménez Olivares/ Bach. Kevin A. Brand Fonseca
Instrument: Questionnaire for EFL learners
Topic: Assisting EFL Learners in the Development of Writing Skills through Cognitive and
Compensatory Learning Strategies
Objective: To gather information about the use of cognitive and compensatory learning strategies for
writing by EFL learners in the composition course at the Associate‘s Program in English at Universidad
Nacional, Pérez Zeledón Campus.
Note: The researchers appreciate your honesty and willingness to fill out this instrument. The information
provided will be used with academic purposes only.
PART I: Select the option that best answers each question according to your experience in learning a
foreign language.
1. How long have you studied English?
Primary school _______years
High school ______ years
University _____ years
Other: _______________________________________
2. What linguistic skill is the most difficult for you to attain?
( ) Writing
( ) Reading
( ) Listening
( ) Speaking
3. Which linguistic skill do you have the lowest academic performance (lowest grades)?
( ) Writing
( ) Reading
( ) Listening
( ) Speaking
4. How often do you practice writing?
( ) Always (5 or more times a week)
( ) Often (3 or 4 times a week)
( ) Sometimes (1-2 times a week)
( ) Never (2 or fewer times a month)
5. What do you do to practice writing?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
6. Which problems do you face when writing?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
7. How do you solve those problems?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
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PART II: Check options that contain the strategies that you use to overcome your difficulties to write.
Afterwards, answer the questions below the checklists.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
Cognitive Strategies
Rewriting spelling patterns
Solving cloze tests to practice grammar
Writing formulas or phrases down for later use
Looking for different ways to combine punctuation patters and parts of speech in a text
Writing texts for enjoyment or for the purpose of performing a task
Consulting textbooks and dictionaries
Writing sentences with the structures newly studied
Using expressions and rules in different contexts
Direct Translation and transfer
Note-taking
Summarizing
Highlighting
Compensatory Strategies
m)
n)
o)
p)
Selecting the topic
Adjusting the message to your knowledge by omitting items of information
Making ideas less precise
Using long explanatory phrases for specific words (what you use to wash the dishes for
dishrag)
q) Using synonyms
1. How often have your teachers of English implemented strategies like these in the writing classes?
( ) Always (In every lesson)
( ) Often (every other lesson)
( ) Sometimes (Once a month)
( ) Never (Less than once a month)
Which ones? Write the letter(s) ________________________________________
2. How often do you implement these learning strategies out of school?
( ) Always (5 or more times a week)
( ) Often (3 or 4 times a week)
( ) Sometimes (1-2 times a week)
( ) Never (2 or fewer times a month)
Which ones? Write the letter(s) ________________________________________
3. Have your teachers ever advised you and insisted on you using these strategies to assist your writing
skills out of school? If so, how often?
( ) Always (In every lesson)
( ) Often (every other lesson)
( ) Sometimes (Once a month)
( ) Never (Less than once a month)
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