Running head: STUDENT ENGAGEMENT
Student Engagement and Academic Performance
Stephanie L. Watts
Virginia Commonwealth University
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STUDENT ENGAGEMENT
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………..……………………………….….……..3
COGNITIVE/ACADEMIC ENGAGMENT …………………………………….....................….3
Designing Effective Lessons …………………………………………….…………....….4
Utilizing High-Yield, Research-Based Strategies ………………………….…….…...….5
Measuring Success ………………………………………………….……………....……6
Section Summary ………………………………………………………………………...7
EMOTIONAL ENGAGMENT………………….…….……….....................………………....…8
Learning Environments …………………………………………………………………..8
Positive Teacher-Student Relationships …………………………….………………....…8
Enthusiasm ………………………………………………….………………………….…9
Section Summary …………………………………………………………………………9
CONSTRAINTS …………………………………..……………….………………………..…..10
CONCLUSION ………………..……………………………………….………………………..11
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………….…………….………...12
LITERATURE REVIEW
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Student Engagement and Academic Performance
Literature Review
Student engagement is a multi-faceted, dynamic concept. Educational researchers (Park,
Holloway, Arendtsz, Bemperchat and Li, 2012) suggest students who are engaged and motivated
to learn, most often experience increased academic achievement while in school. Teachers strive
to incorporate instructional strategies, which motivate students to learn, as measured through
achievement on classwork, homework, assessments and standardized tests. Students who are
motivated to learn and remain engaged throughout instruction are more equipped in finding
meaning and value from the learning objectives presented.
Researchers (Sagayadevan and Jeyaraj, 2012) have identified three distinct subtypes of
engagement, which include: cognitive, behavioral and emotional engagement. The purpose of
this literature review is to analyze articles, research studies, and professional literature in relation
to increased cognitive and emotional engagement with the identification and use of high-yield
instructional strategies. Keywords and phrases such as student engagement, academic
engagement, cognitive engagement, highyield instructional strategies, designing
Student Engagement
Subtypes:
effective lessons, measuring student success,
motivation, motivated to learn, increasing
student engagement, school engagement,
Cognitive
Behavioral
Emotional
emotional engagement, positive teacherstudent relationships, learning environments, and teacher enthusiasm were used for researching
in the following databases: Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), Elton B. Stephens
CO (EBSCO), ProQuest and Science Direct.
Cognitive Engagement
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT
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Cognitive or academic engagement is often defined as the level of curiosity, degree of
attention and participation students invest during instruction (Decker, Dona, and Christenson
et.al, 2006). Authentic academic engagement is a result of careful teacher lesson planning and
effective classroom management.
Designing Effective Lessons. In 1976, Dr. Madeline Hunter and Doug Russell described
essential elements of a lesson plan designed to both motivate students to learn and improve
learning, which was established from research. In 2004, Dr. Hunter’s book, Mastery Teaching
was revised and updated to recharge the efforts of teachers, while also stressing the need “to
become knowledgeable about, and skilled in the use of, professional techniques that have high
potential for increasing student motivation” (Hunter, 2004, p.13). The Madeline Hunter model
included the following components: anticipatory set, objective/purpose, instructional input,
modeling, checking for understanding, guided practice, closure and independent practice. Each
component was included in the lesson as a tool to keep students interested in the lesson and
engaged as they increased their own understanding of the content being taught.
The revised edition of Hunter’s earlier work now includes a chapter on Benjamin
Bloom’s higher-level thinking. Bloom’s research from 1956, emphasized six levels of cognition,
which Hunter (2004) stated, “higher levels of thinking make it possible for students’ minds to
soar” (p.108).
Hunter (2004) suggested teachers keep the Bloom’s taxonomy in mind as units of
instruction were being planned. Bloom introduced a hierarchy of levels of comprehension that
began with knowledge and advanced through comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis
and reached the highest level with evaluation. More recently the hierarchy has been redefined
with a new set of verbs (Green, 2010). The new Bloom’s model begins with remembering and
LITERATURE REVIEW
progresses through understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating and is completed with
creating.
Teaching so students remember, teaching for transfer, and teaching for independent
learning were the overall goals of Hunter’s (2004) model. During instruction, teachers are
advised to raise and lower the academic bar as needed in order for students to experience
success. This differentiation creates classroom flexibility in grouping, instruction, and practice.
Personalizing learning while providing frequent feedback to students may keep them engaged
throughout the lesson as it increases student achievement.
A number of school divisions across the state of Virginia have incorporated checklists
into lesson plan templates as an expectation of teachers to include Hunter’s lesson plan
components as well as to identify the level of Bloom’s hierarchy being taught for each lesson.
School divisions have also incorporated research-based strategies checklists as an additional
element embedded into lesson plans. Division leaders are encouraging and expecting teachers to
use identified high-yield strategies within their daily plans as a tool to increase student
engagement on the road toward increased student achievement as measured by standards-based
SOL assessments.
Utilizing High-Yield, Research-Based Strategies. Marzano, Norford, Paynter
Pickering, and Gaddy (2001), identified “nine categories of instructional strategies proven to
improve student achievement” (p.1):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Identifying similarities and differences
Summarizing and note taking
Reinforcing effort and providing recognition
Homework and practice
Representing knowledge
Learning groups
Setting objectives and providing feedback
Generating and testing hypotheses
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9. Cues, questions, and advance organizers
Their research presented suggestions for classroom practices in the above general categories of
instructional strategies “based on a survey of thousands of comparisons between experimental
and control groups” (p.1).
Classroom walkthroughs, brief administrative visits to classrooms, monitor instructional
practices including identification of Marzano’s strategies as they are observed. Walkthrough
documentation may be collected and analyzed to reveal strategies, which are used least and most
frequently. Professional development may be scheduled based on this data.
John Hattie (2009), an educational researcher, wrote Visible Learning, a book analyzing
over 800 meta-analyses of strategies relating to achievement. Hattie believes excellence is
achievable in schools and shares his research findings on topics based on the child, home, school,
curricula, teacher and approaches to teaching. “A major purpose of his book is to generate a
model of successful teaching and learning” (p.237). One hundred thirty-eight meta-analyses were
reported in rank order to assist teachers in identifying powerful influences of learning. Hattie’s
strategies have become the latest in the line of high-yield strategies in which school divisions are
including as a focus to look for as administrators complete classroom walkthroughs.
School divisions are inundated with research-based strategies from which to choose as
they seek to find the “Holy Grail” of teaching and instructional success. It is tempting to include
the most recent strategies presented and call them cutting edge. However, it is important to note
teachers and school division must measure the efficacy of the chosen methods in order to find
validity in the strategies selected as they continue to seek and maintain accreditation.
Measuring Success. Hattie’s (2009) Visible Learning revealed collected evidence, which
supported specific instructional strategies held greater effect sizes. The most important
conclusions gained from his research advocate teachers must measure the strategy chosen as an
LITERATURE REVIEW
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indicator of success. In essence, there is no “Holy Grail” of teaching in that specific strategies are
better than other strategies. The secret lies in choosing a strategy, lesson planning, utilizing the
strategy and measuring student academic success. It is not the strategy chosen that holds the
power. The power remains in measuring success after the lesson has been taught. Hattie (2009)
confirms each student brings with them their own prior knowledge, expectations, degree of
openness, beliefs, investment in learning and degree of engagement willingness. Teachers must
then choose strategies that appeal to each student, which will best appeal to their unique ability
to emotionally engage to the content presented.
Section Summary. School divisions are actively searching for specific strategies on how
to increase student engagement on the way to increase SOL achievement scores, for example, the
incorporation of lesson plan templates and classroom walk-through checklists which include
some form of Blooms Taxonomy, Madeline Hunter’s lesson plan components, Marzano’s
instructional strategies and now Hattie’s Visible learning. Using structured checklists creates a
narrow view of effective instruction. Successful teacher’s have the ability to create and deliver
lessons that not only engage learners but also assist students in understanding at the highest
levels of knowledge.
Marzano, Norford, Paynter Pickering, and Gaddy’s (2001) shared with readers what was
more importantly required of teachers remained in examination of the use of the instructional
strategies used within the nine categories, testing the effectiveness of current practices, and
consideration of new practices. In other words, choose a method, measure it and decide if it
worked or if there is another strategy that may work better. This handbook was created as a tool,
and not as the only method towards increasing student achievement.
Hattie (2009) asserted, “It is not a particular method, nor a particular script, that makes
the difference; it is attending to personalizing the learning, getting greater precision about how
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students are progressing in learning, and ensuring professional learning of teachers about how
and when to provide different or more effective strategies for teaching and learning” (p.245).
Hattie encourages teachers and principals to collect data, analyze it and make decisions from the
findings to improve instruction and increase
achievement.
Emotional Engagement
“It is not a particular
method, nor a particular
script, that makes the
difference.”
Emotional engagement includes students’
~Hattie
feelings, attitudes and perceptions towards school and
relatedness or sense of belonging. Students emotionally connected often display interest,
optimism and passion for learning. They appear motivated to learn, which results in sustained
effort and attention throughout instruction within the classroom environment.
Learning Environments. Classrooms conducive to learning include consistent routines,
which assist students as they remain on task and fully engaged. Teachers successful with
effective classroom management are equipped in creating learning environments surrounded
with positive school climate (Ryzin, 2011). Greater academic achievement is attainable in
classrooms, which support engagement in learning. Ryzin (2011) holds students who perceive a
sense of belongingness are better able to sustain engagement and hope. Researchers support this
theory in that students active in the learning environment and emotionally engaged are more apt
to engage cognitively. Cognitive engagement results then in higher student achievement. Interest,
concentration, and enjoyment (Park et.al, 2012) provide a sense of relatedness between the
student, learning environment, and teacher.
Positive Teacher-Student Relationships. Decker, Dona and Christenson (2007) suggest
positive teacher-student relationships increase the likelihood of academic engagement as well as
the less likelihood of students to respond with negative, off-task behaviors. Teachers promote
LITERATURE REVIEW
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positive relationships as they offer advice to their students, serving more as a counselor at times
rather than just an instructor of learning. As teachers take an active interest in the lives of
students, the students respond in return with increased emotional engagement while in the
learning environment.
Teachers who offer higher levels of emotional support assist with students’ basic needs
being satisfied to a greater extent. Sagayadevan and Jeyaraj (2012) conclude, students who share
positive relationships with their teachers report higher levels of engagement during instruction,
therefore fulfilling the need for relatedness. Students establish a connection with their teacher
and are more responsive as they accept instruction. Lam, et.al (2012), assert past research reveals
positive student-teacher relationships contribute to increased student motivation. Positive
teacher-student relationships create an enthusiasm for learning which supports increased student
achievement.
Enthusiasm. According to Whitaker (2013), “When you’re teaching students, your
enthusiasm becomes their enthusiasm, and your lack of it becomes their lack of it.” Teachers are
charged with expressing their love of teaching and acting as though everything taught is the most
exciting thing that has ever been taught. Enthusiasm becomes contagious. Students become
excited about content and hence gain a greater understanding of the material.
Pollock (2012) further acknowledges teacher’s enthusiasm renewed as learners show
interest in learning and student achievement reflects positive increases. This student engagement
cycle is one in which enthusiasm begets enthusiasm. Zhang (2014) concludes, teacher
enthusiasm is an effective predictor of academic and emotional engagement.
Section Summary. Emotional engagement, as a relatively new area of research, must not
go unnoticed as a potentially substantial factor towards increasing student achievement. An
STUDENT ENGAGEMENT
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enthusiastic teacher has the ability to create a positive learning environment while establishing
successful teacher-student relationships cultivates a sense of student belongingness.
Constraints
It is impossible to fully determine the effect each student engagement strategy will have
in relation to student achievement because it is difficult to isolate each technique and its
individual effect. Teachers often use multiple influences at once. No one measure can accurately
identify all the factors that work together to achieve an increase in student engagement.
However, teachers may increase the probability of genuine student engagement as they become
aware of influential factors that may assist in their efforts towards increasing achievement.
Researchers have yet to establish a direct link between teacher enthusiasm and engagement
(Zhang, 2014).
Student engagement is a new topic of interest most recently surfacing on the minds of
educational research. Studies are inevitable in connecting student engagement and increased
student achievement as well as in delving deeper into emotional engagement as a relatively new
concept to define and measure. The lack of available studies restricts the amount of implications
that can be made in thinking about engagement as it relates to increased student achievement.
Conclusion
Research-based academic student
engagement strategies are in bountiful
supply. The research available provides
ample support of strategies that increase
student engagement, motivation and
achievement. In light of the research
LITERATURE REVIEW
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provided, high-yield strategies are better labeled high-probability strategies (Jefferson-Williams,
2014). These influences that have been tested have a higher probability of producing the desired
results but are not necessarily strategies that produce a high-yield and may not work every time.
Teachers must strive to create positive learning environments as they plan which
strategies to use enthusiastically while striving to make connections with students on the way
toward increasing cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement which ultimately,
achievement. Measuring the results of their efforts through pre and post-testing will better
identify successful strategies.
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