Chemistry Review
Matter is _____________________________, an element is ______________________, an
atom is ____________________________, an ion is __________________________.
Ions come in two forms, _____________ that are positively charged and _____________ that
are negatively charged.
ATP is _____________________________________. It stores energy in the
_______________ bonds. Energy is released when ATP looses a ____________ and
becomes _________.
Carbohydrates are made up of _______________, _______________, and
_______________. They are used as ______________________ ______________________
in the body. There are three major forms: sugars, starches and cellulose.
Proteins are made up of a series of _________________ held together with __________
bonds. They bond together in primary (________________________), secondary
(________________________), tertiary (____________________________), and quartinary
(________________________) structures. They are used to make organelles, muscle fibers.
They also make up enzymes. Enzymes are ________________________ that make reactions
more efficient, NOT faster by ____________________. They bind and break down
________________ in the ___________________. This is the induced-fit model.
Competitive inhibitors bind ________________________________________.
Non-competitive inhibitors bind in an ___________________, changing the shape of the
enzyme, preventing it from doing its job.
Lipids are ______________________ and insoluble in water. There are many types of lipids
including ___________, ___________, ______________ and _______________.
________________ contain a glycerol head group and ____ fatty acid tails. They are the
primary component in _____________________. The fatty acid tails can be __________
(having only single bonded carbons) or ____________________ (containing one or more
double bonded carbon). ______________ contain ring structures and are ____________
throughout the body. They include cholesterol, testosterone and progesterone. Fats are used
to create ________________ tissue, which is _______________________________ of
energy.
Nucleic Acids are used to make _______ and _______ within the body. They contain
________________, ________________, ________________. Thymine, Adenine, Guanine
and Cytosine are found in _______, which has a _________________ structure and is the
___________________________. Uricil, along with ____, ____, and ____ are found only in
the single-stranded _______.
The pH scale ranges in values from _____ to _____. Acids range in value from _______,
Bases range in value from _______. A neutral pH is _____. As a pH of solution
_____________, the concentration of hydrogen ions ______________.
Water is ________________, meaning that it can act as both an acid or a base. It also has
some unique properties. Water has a high specific heat capacity. This means _________
______________________________________________. Water also employs adhesion,
which is _______________________________________ and cohesion which is _______
__________________.
Cell Review
______________ are cells that contain no organelles, no nucleus, some have cell walls and
are found only in the kingdom Monera (______________).
______________ are more complex. They contain a nucleus, membrane bound organelles
are are usually multicellular.
Organelles are specialized structures within the cell.
Plasma Membrane: ___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Nucleus: ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Ribosomes: _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Rough Endplasmic Reticulum: _________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: ________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Golgi Apparatus: ____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Mitochondria: _______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Lysosome: _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Vacuole: ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Peroxisomes: _______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Chloroplast: ________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Cytoplasm: _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Cell Wall: __________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Cytoskeleton: _______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
The fluid mosaic model explains ____________________________________________.
The membrane contains _______________________, _______________________ and
_________________ proteins. These proteins allow ___________________ and
______________ molecules to pass through into the cell. There are four methods for this to
occur. ____________________ is movement of molecules down their ____________
_________ directly through the membrane. ____________ is the movement of water.
___________________ diffusion uses the proteins to allow molecules to move ________ the
concentration gradient. ____________________, requires energy in the form of ______,
allowing molecules into the cell ______________ the concentration gradient.
__________________ allows molecules in, _____________________ allows molecules out.
Respiration Review
Cellular respiration produces ______________. There are two kinds of respiration:
____________________ uses oxygen and produces __________. ________________ are an
example of an organism that primarily uses this type of respiration. _________________
requires no oxygen and produces __________. ________________ are an example of an
organism that primarily uses this type of respiration.
________________ is the first step in both types of respiration. It occurs in the __________
of the cell. Glucose is converted into _______________ and 2 NADH. This conversion
requires _______ but produces _______. In ALL cells, glycolysis never requires
________________.
The Krebs cycle, also known as __________________________, is the second stage of
respiration. It occurs in the ____________________ of the mitochondria. The Krebs cycle
occurs twice of each glucose molecule, once for each pyruvate. The first step in the Krebs
cycle converts pyruvate to ________________ creating ________ and ___________. The 2Carbon molecule then gets added to oxaloacetate to make citrate. Several more intermediate
molecules are created, generating ___________, ___________ (which is the same as ATP),
and ___________ for each pyruvate. In total, the Krebs cycle makes _________, ________,
and __________ for each glucose molecule.
The final step is the electron transport chain, also called _____________________________.
The electron carriers, ________ and ________ generated by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
deposit the electrons to a series of proteins on _____________________________________.
As the electron moves along, ________ is pushed into the inner membrane space, creating a
proton gradient. At the end of the chain, __________ combines with _________ to accept
the electrons and make ___________, regenerating __________ and __________ in the
process. (If there is no _______, then the electrons are stuck in the ETC, stalling ATP
production). Separate proteins (kinases) bring _______ and ______ into the matrix. ATP is
formed when H+ moves into the matrix using the __________________________. Energy is
transferred to create the bond between _______ and ______ when H+ travels down its
concentration gradient. 3 ATP are made for every _______ and 2 ATP are made for every
_______. In total, __________ ATP are formed for every glucose molecule.
Chemiosmosis is defined as the coupling of the movement of electrons down the _______
with the formation of _______ using the driving force of the ______________________. It
occurs in both respiration and photosynthesis.
There are two types of fermentation: _______________ that is used by ____________ and
_______________ that is used by ____________ when there is not enough oxygen present.
Both fermentation processes start with glycolysis. The pyruvate generated is converted into 2
ethanol and _________ in _______________. NAD+ is regenerated in the process. In
_______________, pyruvate in converted into ____________ and CO2, again regenerating
NAD+ so __________ can continue. Fermentation occurs in the _______________ of the
cell and produces __________ net ATP.
Photosynthesis Review
Only organisms containing _________________ can go through photosynthesis. This is
primarily plants but can include some _____________, _____________ and _____________.
The majority of chloroplasts within a plant are found in the _____________. Photosynthesis
occurs in two steps: Light-Dependent Reactions and Light Independent Reactions.
Light-Dependent Reactions (LDR) require __________ and ___________ to occur. They
produce ________, ________, and ________ (an electron carrier). The grana or granum
(singular) of the chloroplast contains _____________________, the reaction center for LDR.
Photosystem ____ captures light at ________ in the chloroplast, causing photolysis (the
breaking of water) releasing an ___________ which combines with the light to become
______________. This process also releases ________, a major product or photosynthesis.
Once excited, the electron travels down a series of proteins (ETC) to ___________________,
where more captured light, this time at a wavelength of _________, excites it again. The
electron then travels to the ______________ where NADP+ is converted to _____________
by accepting the electron.
As the electron travels down the ETC between _________________ and _______________,
ATP is produced in a process called ______________________________________. If there
is insufficient energy for the _____________________, the electron can be sent back to PS II
to generate more ATP in this chemiosmotic process. This is also called _________________
_________________.
Non-cyclic phosphorylation allows the electron carriers _____________ generated at the end
of the LDR to move on to the second stage of photosynthesis, Light-Independent Reactions
(LIR) or _____________________________. LIR occur in the ______________, the open
space between the grana inside the chloroplast. Here __________ and the electrons combine
with intermediate molecules to produce organic molecules, primarily sugar. The _________
open to allow CO2 to enter the plant cell. The CO2 combines with _____________________
(RuBP) in a process called __________________________. Several chemical changes occur
creating intermediates requiring the input of _____________ and ____________. In turn, an
organic precursor, ________________, is created. This molecule can be turned into glucose,
_______________ or _________________.
Different plants use alternate forms of photosynthesis. Most plants go through ___________
_______________, described above. Plants such as _________________ that live in warm,
tropical climates use ______________________. This type of photosynthesis occurs in areas
that have photorespiration, the process of oxygen binding to RuBP instead of CO2 because
there are high concentrations of oxygen. These plants create ______________________, a 4Carbon molecule in the ___________________ cells. The C4 molecule is moved into the
___________________ cells where the LIR are completed. This occurs so that CO2 is used
instead of O2 binding (which prevents photosynthesis). Areas that have high concentrations
of oxygen have photorespiration. Oxygen binds to RuBP instead of CO2. Desert plants such
as ____________, use ________ photosynthesis. In this process plants close their stomata by
day preventing _________ loss through ___________________. CO2 is collected at night
when stomata are open and stored as organic acids until morning. LDR occur during the day,
collecting light and LIR can proceed since the necessary CO2 has been stored as organic acids
Cell Division Review
Cell Division produces cells. There are three major types of cell division ________________
which occurs in prokaryotes, _________________ which repairs and replaces somatic cells
and ________________ which produces gamete cells.
Prokaryotes _________________ their DNA and elongate until they are double their original
size. The cell will pinch, creating two ___________________________ cells. This process
is used for _____________________.
Eukaryotic cell division is more complex. The cell cycle, which includes division, has four
phases: __________, __________, __________, and __________. The first three phases are
referred to as ____________________ collectively. In the first phase, _________________.
The second phase ________________________. The third phase ____________________.
The final phase is when the cell divides.
The cell cycle is controlled by _______________ and _________________. If these
molecules are present, then cell division will occur. Cells also contain __________________
___________________, which causes cell division to stop once cells come in contact with
one another. If either of these fail to work properly, then the result is _________________,
an uncontrolled growth of cells. These growths can be benign (______________________)
or malignant (______________________). The uncontrolled growth spreads through a
process called _________________________. This occurs when it reaches the blood,
enabling the __________ to come in contact with every type of cell.
_______________ is composed of five distinct phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
Telophase and Cytokinesis. It produces ___________________ which are ______________.
Prophase ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Metaphase _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Anaphase __________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Telophase __________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Cytokinesis _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
In animal cells, a ________________ pinches the cell and completes cytokinesis. In plant
cells, a _______________ is used instead to complete cytokinesis to help generate the cell
wall. When chromosomes line up for cell division they do so randomly in a process called
__________________________________. The allele can be in a different position for each
cell division event, creating ___________________________________.
Meiosis produces _____________________ used in sexual reproduction. These cells are
_____________, allowing the chromosome number to remain constant when fertilization
occurs. _______________________ cells are produced, increasing genetic variation.
Meiosis is divided into two parts. Prior to the first cell division._______________________
creating ____________ chromosomes. These pair together in Prophase I creating ________.
Crossing over, which is __________________________ occurs, increasing genetic diversity.
In metaphase I __________________________________________________ and the spindle
fibers attach. In anaphase I, __________________ move to opposite poles. Telophase and
cytokinesis complete the separation. The newly formed daughter cells are ______________.
Between Meiosis I and Meiosis II, no ____________________ occurs. Prophase II breaks
the ______________________ apart and chromosomes condense. In metaphase II,
________________________ line up on the metaphase plate. Anaphase separates the
_______________ and they are called chromosomes as they are pulled toward the poles.
________________ forms in Telophase and cytokinesis completes the division producing __
______________ gamete cells. In human males, ________________________ produces
_______ usable sperm. ___________________ in females produces _______ usable egg and
_______ polar bodies.
Once fertilization occurs, the zygote goes through several ____________ divisions. Once
there are 16 cells, it is now referred to as a ____________, which quickly becomes the
_______________. (This stage is when it implants in the wall of the uterus). The inner cell
mass becomes the ___________ and the trophoblast becomes the ______________. The
embryo develops into three germs layers: the endoderm, which becomes ________________
__________________, the mesoderm which becomes _______________________________
and the ectoderm which becomes the ____________________________________________.
The different types of cells are all generated through a process called __________________.
Three things influence the development of different types of cells. Cytoplasmic distribution
has ___________________________. Induction is when one group of cells _____________
______________. Homeotic genes _____________ the development of organisms.
In humans, two gamete cells (__________ and _________) combine during _____________
to form a diploid ______________. Mitosis leads to the formation of __________________
organisms. Eggs are produced from _____________ to _____________________ in
females, but are only released after __________________. Sperm are produced from
______________ to _________________ and are released after __________________.
When chromosomes fail to separate properly, a ________________ results. This can occur
in either meiosis I when _________________ fail to separate or meiosis II when
_______________ fail to separate.
Fungi have a different life cycle. They produce gamete cells, but are ____________
organisms unlike human. Fertilization yields a ______________ zygote that divides through
meiosis producing _____________ cells. Gamete cells are then made through the process of
______________.
Plants have the most complicated life cycle of the three major groups. They employ an
__________________________________________. This is because the plant alternates
between ____________ and ____________ form during their life cycle. The dominant form
is determined by the species of plant. ____________________ are sporophyte dominant,
while __________________ are gametophye dominant. Gamete cells combine to form a
diploid zygote, which divides through _______________ to make ___________ sporophytes.
The sporophyte undergoes ______________ to produce spores. The spores go through
______________ to produce ___________ gametophytes. The gametophyte undergoes
______________ to produce gametes that combine in fertilization to produce a diploid
zygote.
Heredity Review
Gregor Mendel is the father of genetics. Through his study of genetics, he introduced three
laws: ______________________________, ______________________________, and
______________________________. Genetics focuses on the inheritance of ___________,
different versions of genes located on chromosomes. Individuals that contain two of the
same allele are called ___________________. Individuals that contain two different alleles
are called ___________________. Genes are located on ______________________ that are
made up of ________. In humans there are _______ pairs of chromosomes, ____ autosomal
chromosomes and _____ sex chromosomes. Human females have _____ chromosomes,
males have _____. A picture of the chromosomes, lined up as pairs is called a ___________.
It is a way to show if a ____________________, such as Down Syndrome has occurred. The
combination of genes that an organism has is the ____________. The physical traits
expressed are the organisms _______________.
Genetics relies heavily on _____________. Questions can be solved using a _____________
square. This is a way to predict the possible outcomes of genetic offspring. In this prediction
the parental generation is given the notation of ______, while the offspring are referred to as
_____________, or F1. The probability of getting an allele is always _______. Genetics has
NO MEMORY, so what happened before has no influence on the future.
Alleles can be ____________ or ____________. Fatal alleles can be transmitted through a
population because most are ________________ and masked by a ________________ allele.
Alleles can have incomplete dominance. This is where _____________________________.
A good example of incomplete dominance are ____________ snap dragon offspring from red
and white parents. Codominance is where ________________________________________.
It is different from incomplete dominance because _________________________________.
A good example of this is _______________ blood in humans or _______________ coloring
in calico cats. Blood type is also an example of _______________. Most alleles have only
two options, but blood type had three alleles ______, ______, and ______. This produces
______ combinations than the simple two allele relationship. ___________________ is a
trait that is affected by more than one gene. Human skin pigment and height are examples
because ___________________________________________________________________.
Epistasis is when the expression of one gene ______________________________________.
An example of epistasis is coat color in mice because ______________________ that
controls the pigment deposits (ability to show pigment). In _________________, a single
gene has multiple affects on an organism. A good example of this is sickle-cell anemia. The
allele causes changes to the ________________ only, but in turn affects the heart, the lungs,
and the kidneys.
Some information is found on sex determining chromosomes. This information is always
located on the ______ chromosome but affects males more often because _______________
____________. Thomas Morgan discovered sex-linked traits in his experiments with
_______________________. In these experiments the _________________ is the common
phenotype while the __________________ is the alternate (typically recessive) phenotype.
Sex-linked alleles are ALWAYS passed from father to ___________ and NEVER from
father to _________ because _____________________. Sex-linked alleles are ___________
passed from mother to son and are _____________ passed from mother to daughter.
In certain organisms, an X chromosome can be turned off in a process called ____________.
This creates a ________________ whose genes are not expressed. This process occurs
__________________ in each cell, creating a random pattern.
There are very few genes on the Y chromosome. Those genes are referred to as __________
traits. They are only expressed in __________ because _____________________________.
Genes found on the same chromosome that are inherited together are called ______________
genes. A genetic map called a ________________ can be used to show how often crossing
over occurs between certain genes. This only works with genes on ____________________.
The higher the percentage of crossing over, the ________________ on the chromosome the
genes are.
Pedigree charts show inheritance patterns for __________________ in humans. A circle
represents a ___________ while a square represents a ___________. A completely shaded
individual is __________________, while an un-shaded individual is ___________________
or _________________ for the disease. An individual with a slash (/) through is
________________.
Common disorders: (Know the following!)
Tay-Sachs disease is _______________ and _______________. In this condition, ________
accumulate in the brain causing blindness and brain damage. Fatality occurs within a few (23) years.
Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is _______________ and _______________. In this condition,
_______________ is secreted into the lungs and the digestive tract. This makes it
_____________________________. Left untreated, it is fatal at a young age.
Sickle cell anemia is _______________ and _______________. In this condition, the red
blood cells, specifically the _______________, deform and make it difficult to bind oxygen.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is _______________ and _______________. In this condition, the
amino acid ______________________ cannot be broken down. The accumulation can cause
mental retardation.
Huntington’s Disease is _______________ and _______________. In this condition, the
nervous system breaks down. It typically shows itself at age ________________ and is
passed on because ____________________________________.
Down syndrome is a ______________ nondisjunction on chromosome ________. It is an
example of an ______________. It is the most common nondisjunction, characterized by
________________________________ individuals survive, but are usually sterile.
Patau syndrome is a ______________ on chromosome ________ characterized by serious
brain and circulatory defects. Children rarely survive beyond five years old.
Edwards syndrome is a ______________ on chromosome ________ characterized by major
organ problems. Children rarely survive beyond five years old.
Klinefelter syndrome is a ______________ on chromosome ________. Individuals are
sterile and are medically ________ but have _____________ secondary characteristics.
Turner syndrome is a ______________ on chromosome ________. Individuals are sterile
__________ with sex organs that fail to mature.
Cri-du-chat syndrome is a ___________ in the DNA of chromosome 5.
Chromosomal translocations is when __________________________________, specifically
a ____________________ chromosome.
A chromosome duplication is a ____________________________________________.
Molecular Genetics Review
DNA stands for _________________________ and is used as ________________ in the cell.
DNA contains a _______________ structure held together by _______________ bonds
across the two _____________ strands. The bases bond together on each strand using
phosphate. DNA uses __________________ rules, bonding _______ with _______ and
_______ with _______.
The structure of DNA was discovered by ____________ & _____________ in ______. In
1952 Hershey and Chase proved DNA was made of ___________________ and not
________________ by adding radioactive _______________________________________.
The bacteriophages were allowed to infect E.coli cells, and then separated. The E.Coli
contained ___________________ while the bacteriophage contained __________________.
Meselson and Stahl marked DNA with _______________. They transferred the DNA to
medium containing _______________. They learned that DNA is copied in a process called
___________________________________.
In the first step of replication, _____________ unwinds the DNA and opens the helix
creating a ___________________. There are several ______________________________
on eukaryotic chromosomes. Promotors are ________ ________________________
allowing _______________________ to bind to the DNA and adding nucleotides to the
growing strand in the _____________ direction. The _______ ___________ copies in one
complete piece. The ___________________________ creates pieces called
_______________________. These fragments are linked together using the enzyme
_______________. The polymerase double checks the copy of DNA to make sure it matches
the original template and repairs it by _____________________________________.
Mutations can occur in the DNA. These are ____________ to the DNA sequence. ________
_____________ are where a single nucleotide is changed. These include ________________
where a nucleotide is added, a ________________ where a nucleotide is taken out and a
__________________ where one nucleotide is traded for another. Substitutions of the wrong
nucleotide into the sequence that still codes for an ______________ in the ___________
strand generates a missense mutation. If the mutation causes a premature stop in protein
synthesis this is called a ______________ mutation. More than one nucleotide can be
altered. If the number altered in not a multiple of three, a ______________________ will
occur. This changes the __________________ used to make proteins.
_________________________ is the process used to create RNA from DNA. There are
three types of RNA: _________, _________ and _________. RNA is __________________
and created in the ________________________ of the cell. _______________ attaches to
DNA at a _______________________. DNA is used as a template, bonding _______ with
_______ and _______ with _______. There is no _____________ in RNA. RNA will be
created until the polymerase come to a _______________, signaling the end of transcription.
mRNA contains both __________ and __________ when first created. The RNA needs to be
processed, removing the __________, or non-coding sequences in ____________________.
Before the mRNA can leave the nucleus, a __________ cap and a ____________ tail must be
added. These prevent the mRNA from being broken down and becoming unusable.
________________________ is the process in which RNA creates proteins. It occurs in the
__________________ of the cell. A complex containing all three types of RNA is formed at
the __________________ of the mRNA. The _________________ binds to the mRNA and
the initial tRNA binds to the ______________. Then the __________________ binds to
complete the complex. The rRNA create the ___________ bonds between the amino acids
that the tRNA bring. _______ on the mRNA are matched with _____________ on the tRNA
to ensure the correct amino acid is added to the sequence. The ______ site in the RNA holds
the active tRNA and creates the bond between the aa. The ______ site is where the amino
acids enter the complex and prepare to be added to the growing chain. The ______ site holds
the exiting tRNA, which has given up its amino acid. The process continues until a
_________________ is reached. There is no amino acid associated with this codon. The
codon signals the __________________ complex to break apart, releasing the newly
completed protein.
Operons are ________________________________ that can be turned on or off. Operons
can be __________________ or _________________. The Lac operon, which produces an
enzyme to break down lactose, is ________ until lactose is present. Lactose binds to the
___________________, removing it and allowing transcription to occur. This is an example
of a _________________ operon. The Trp operon creates the amino acid tryptophan. It is
__________ unless tryptophan is consumed. If consumed, tryptophan binds to the
____________________, causing it to bind to DNA, preventing transcription. This is an
example of a _______________________ operon.
Bacteria contain ____________, _____________ chromosome that is copied in a similar
process to eukaryotic replication. Bacterial conjugation is a method of genetic exchange.
______________ create a cytoplasmic bridge and allow information to be transferred. This
is the bacterial version of _________. Bacterial genetics can also be changed through
__________________ and _____________________. Both processes alter the chromosome
by adding additional DNA. Plasmids, _________________ added through transformation,
contain genes that can be expressed. The plasmids typically contain a region containing the
desired gene and a region containing _________________________. This allows only those
bacteria containing the gene to be isolated. The process can be used to produce ___________
and ____________________ medications for humans.
Viruses contain some kind of genetic material. It can be ___________________, _________
____________, _______________ or ______________________. Viruses typically have a
__________, or protein shell that surrounds the genetic material. Some viruses have a
_______________, which protects the virus and helps it attach to the cells it infects. Viruses
are ______________ of reproduction without a ______________. The virus infects the cell
and inserts its ________ directly into the DNA of the cell. If the virus has RNA, it also
contains the enzyme __________________________________, which creates DNA from the
RNA template. Once DNA is inserted into the host, the virus will go through one of two
cycles: the _______________ cycle where the host survives or the _______________ cycle
which results in the host cell death. Viroids are ___________________________________.
______________ are incorrectly folded brain proteins that __________________________
causing brain dysfunction, dementia, muscle control, etc.
Genetic Engineering includes recombinant DNA, gel electrophoresis, cloning and
polymerase chain reaction. Review these ideas!!!!!
Evolution Review
_____________________ is the father of evolution. His book, _______________________,
developed his theory based upon evidence collected during his journey on the ____________
____________. The most significant place visited was the _____________________ islands.
Here evidence for evolution was abundant in the ________________ and _______________
species. Evolution, by definition is __________ _______________________________.
The different islands illustrated the ideas of evolution because ________________________
__________________________________________________________________________.
The ability of an organisms to survive and reproduce refers to its ______________________.
___________________ between generation increase the ability of the species to survive over
long periods of time. Evolution has four major modes: ___________________ which is a
change in alleles due to chance, ___________________ which is the change in allele
frequencies when individuals migrate in or out of a population, ___________________
which is a random change in DNA that can create new alleles and ___________________ the
change in allele frequencies due to the differential survival and reproductive success of an
organism.
Darwin was influenced by several other individuals at the time.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
James Hutton and Charles Lyell ________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Thomas Malthus _____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Carolus Linnaeus ____________________________________________________________
Most evolution occurs because of _______________________________. Predators hunt the
weak or easy to find, creating three types of natural selection. _______________ selection
occurs when one end of the spectrum is less fit, causing a phenotype shift to one extreme. An
example of this is _________________________________________________.
___________________ selection is when the mean of the population is the most desirable,
causing both extremes to be unfavorable. An example of this is _______________________
______________________________. ___________________ selection is when the
intermediate/mean is the least desirable, causing those individuals to be selected (and die)
while those on the extremes survive. Sexual selection occurs because __________________
______________________. This selection focuses only on mating opportunities but
influences allele frequencies. Artificial selection __________________________________.
This is common in domesticated crops and animals to produce the greatest yield possible.
Allele frequencies can be monitored over time using the _____________________________.
This is a mathematical equation that measures the _________________ an allele appears in a
population. In order for a measurement to be taken, five conditions must be met:
1. ____________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________________________
In a population, the dominant (p) and recessive (q) alleles must add up to ____. The p2
represents the ______________________, 2pq represents _____________________, and q2
represents _______________________. Together, the must add up to ____________. The
_______________ cannot be determined strictly by looking at organisms that exhibit the
_____________________ allele. Instead, to calculate allele frequencies, start with the
_________________________ individuals (______). Turn the percentage into a decimal.
From here ______ can be determined. Then using p + q = 1, you can determine ______ and
from there separate out the _________________________ and _______________________.
Since the environment significantly influences evolution, there are four major patterns to
consider: _________________________ which is a mutual evolution between two species
and is exemplified by predator-prey relationships, _________________________ which is
when two genetically unrelated species evolve in response to the same types of
environmental pressures and look/act similar, _________________________ when two
genetically related species evolve making them less similar, this can lead to ___________,
(the formation of a new species) and _________________________ similar evolutionary
changes that occur in response to similar environmental pressures, organisms can be
genetically related or unrelated.
_______________ is the process by which new species evolve. It can occur in several forms.
____________________________ is when inbreeding of organisms stops due to some kind
of barrier. These barriers can be _______________________, _______________________,
or _______________________ in nature. The second major form is ___________________
_________________, when inbreeding stops even though there is no physical barrier
between organisms. This includes ____________________, a condition in which the
individual has more than the normal number of chromosomes. This is unusual, but occurs in
some ___________________. Balanced polymorphism is a condition that ______________
________________________________. Last, but not least ________________________, a
rapid series of speciation events like those exhibited by Galapagos finches, can create new
species.
Evidence for evolution comes in many forms. Physical evidence has been used to explain
evolutionary links through ________________ and ______________________________.
By examining the bones, scientists draw conclusions about the relationships of organisms.
Embryology, the ____________________________, examines the similarities of organisms
in early developmental stages. Vestigial characteristics are __________________________.
Darwin used this evidence in the formulation of his original ideas.
_____________________________, a relatively new area, examines the DNA sequences as
well as protein sequences for similarities. Since DNA has changed between organisms,
similarities can imply evolutionary links.
Macroevolution is ____________________________________________. This is an overall
view of evolution. By examining the patterns of evolution, two theories emerged. The first,
_______________________, states that evolutionary change is a slow and steady process.
The second theory, ___________________________ states that change is sudden and rapid,
followed by long periods of no change. There is evidence for both in the _______________,
but because it is incomplete, neither can be proven absolutely.
Human Physiology Review
Homeostasis is the ___________________________. This includes maintaining ________,
_______________, and __________________________. ___________________________
is the process by which temperature is maintained in the body. The major body organ
involved in regulation is the ______________. The process by which heat moves from areas
of higher temperature to lower temperatures is _________________________. The transfer
of heat through airflow is ___________________. Sweat is a type of __________________,
the process by which water turns to vapor. _____________________ is the loss of heat
through ejection of electromagnetic waves. ___________________, such as reptiles, have a
body temperature that is affected by the surrounding environment. ___________________,
such as humans, are organisms whose body temperature is not affected by the environment.
The circulatory system is responsible for _______________________________. The main
components include ____________, ____________, ____________, and ____________.
Erythrocytes, or _______________, contain __________________, a protein that binds and
carries oxygen throughout the body. _________ oxygen can bind to a single hemoglobin
molecule. The heart contains _____ chambers, ______ atrium and ______ ventricles. The
right and left side of the heart are separated by the _______________. De-oxygenated blood
enters the heart in the _____________. It travels to the ________________, where it exits
toward the lungs through the ___________________. Here __________________________
through the __________, the small air pockets surrounded by capillaries. Oxygen is allowed
into the lungs when the ________________ contracts, while ___________ is exhaled through
the _________________ when it relaxes. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart from the
lungs via the _____________________. It enters the heart at the ________________ and
travels to the _________________. It exits the heart to the body through the
______________. Blood travels to the body, distributing oxygen through gas exchange in
the ____________________. De-oxygenated blood then returns to the heart through the
______________. The pacemaker of the heart is the _____________, located on the
_____________________. It ensures the heart pumps the correct number of times
(________________) and generates blood pressure (normal bp is _______________). Blood
helps transmit __________ through the body, as well as collecting ______________. Blood
is filtered through the _______________ to eliminate excess ___________ and waste. Blood
can carry CO2 on the hemoglobin, but it is primarily transported as ____________________.
The purpose of the digestive system is to _________________________________________.
This is achieved through ________________ and _________________ digestion. Digestion
begins in the _____________ with the enzyme ______________. Food, once masticated
travels down the _________________ by muscle contractions called _______________ to
the stomach. Once in the stomach, the enzymes _____________ and ______________ juices
are released to further digest food. Food travels through the ____________________ into the
small intestine. This is where _____________________________________ occurs through
the wall. To neutralize the acidic nature of the ___________ as it enters the small intestine,
enzymes are released from the pancreas. ____________ breaks down fats and works with
___________ from the liver. _____________ and other similar enzymes break down
carbohydrates while _________________ works to break down proteins. The ____________
increase the absorption by _________________ the surface area. Once completely digested,
the remaining material travels to the __________________________ where _____________
must be reabsorbed. Salts are excreted with the waste if _____________________________
_______________. The solid waste will be removed through excretion in the rectum.
The kidney contains two regions, the _____________ or the inner region and the _________
or the outer region. The two regions contain ____________________, the functional unit of
the kidney. Blood pressure causes solutes such as ___________, _________ and _________
to move into the Bowman’s capsule. Fluids pass through the _________________________
and into the ____________________ tube, which dumps into the collecting duct. As blood
travels through the loops it is ______________________. Any waste goes into the collecting
duct where it merges into the _______________ and the _______________ where it remains
until it is excreted.
The nervous system is divided into two parts: the _____________________________ (CNS)
and the _______________________________ (PNS). The CNS contains the ____________
and the ___________________. It controls _____________ movement such as skeletal
muscle. The PNS contains two divisions: the __________________ and the
________________________ nervous systems (ANS). It controls ____________________
movement and activity such as glands and _______________ muscle. The ANS is divided
into two parts, the ___________________________ division that increases heart rate,
breathing, etc. and the ___________________________ division that decreases heart rate,
breathing, etc. The functional unit of the nervous system is the _____________. It contains
_______________ that receive signals from another cell. The signal travels through the
__________________ and down the ___________ to the _________________________
where ______________________ are released, sending the signal across the gap to the next
neuron. The axon is covered in ____________________, a layer of insulation that protects
the neuron. The signal travels through the neuron through the _____________ of ion
channels causing a ___________________ of the membrane triggering an _______________
____________. The cell then __________________ by ______________ the ion channels.
Signals can be received through the _____________ organs such as ________ and ________.
These neurons, __________________, receive information from the external environment.
____________________ make connections between the information received from the
external environment and the __________________ that take commands from the CNS.
Some signals do not travel to the brain before a response is generated. These are called
______________ and travel to the ______________ and back, decreasing response time.
The human brain contains several important regions. The ______________ controls
conscious thought and memory. The Cerebrum controls _____________________________.
The _________________ and _________________ control the release of hormones
monitoring temperature, hunger, and thirst. The __________________ and the ___________
form the brain stem and control _____________________________________.
There are three types of muscles: ______________, ______________ and ______________.
When an action potential reaches the _______________, _____________________ is
released. This activates the muscle cell to release _________________. The Ca 2+ binds to
___________________which causes ___________________ to shift and opening binding
sites for contraction. Muscles contract through movements between _____________ (thin
filaments) and ______________ (thick filaments). ________ is converted to ADP and
changes the shape of the myosin head, which allows it to bind to actin forming a
___________________. As myosin looses its ADP releasing energy it slides toward the
center of the __________________. When ATP binds to myosin, actin is released.
The immune system consists of ___________________, ___________________,
___________________ and ___________________. The immune system has a two-tiered
defense mechanism: ___________________ immunity and ___________________
immunity. The first lines of defense are the _____________, _____________ and ________
_______________. These trap and prevent pathogens from getting into the blood stream. If
pathogens do get through the first line of defense, they are met by __________________ and
____________________, non-specific cells that roam the body in search of infection. They
are called to the site of infection by the presence of _______________, a chemical signal. It
causes __________________, swelling and redness. The chemical reactions cause increased
_______________, dilatation and permeability in infected tissues. The phagocytic cells will
_______________ and breakdown foreign pathogens. The specific immune response
contains two types of lymphocytes, _________________ which create antibodies and
______________ which have two forms, _________________ and __________________.
All lymphocytes come from stem cells and are created in the ____________________. BCells mature in the _________________, while T-Cells mature in the __________________.
Mature lymphocytes are stored in _____________________, until a pathogen enters the
body. Lymphocytes recognize foreign infection through __________________.
_________________________ immunity, using B-Cells, focus on infection
_________________________. B-Cells will create ____________________, which make
thousands of ______________ specific to the antigen and _____________________, which
maintain a memory of the antigen for later use. If a secondary infection occurs ___________
are activated _________________ the time it takes for the immune system to respond. CellMediated Immunity involves T-Cells and focuses on ________________________________.
_____________ insert their DNA into the cell, and some other infections get inside. The
immune system monitors the inside of body cells through the _________________________
________________________________. Helper T-Cells use MHC ____ complexes. They
bind to the complex and examine _______________________________________ on
______________ cells. If a foreign antigen is found the Helper T-Cells activate
___________________ and then activate __________________. Cytotoxic T-Cells
(_____________) are activated by MHC ____ on ________________ cells, or by
___________________. They release _______________, a molecule that ruptures the cell
membrane resulting in _____________________. The pathogen inside is then
________________ by macrophages and eliminated. The immune system recognized its
own ________________, when it does not, ___________________________ result. These
include _______________________ where the pancreas is attacked by lymphocytes and no
insulin is produced and ______________________ where lymphocytes attack bones and
joints wearing them down.
Hormones are _________________________________________________________. Each
hormone has a ____________________, that responds to it specifically. Hormones can
through _____________________, where the amount of hormone acts directly or indirectly
to increase secretion of a hormone. An example is __________________________________
________________. Hormones can also act through negative feedback. This is where ____
_____________________________________________. Hormones can be made of proteins
or steroids. Protein hormones are too large and cannot pass into the cell, so they __________
_____________________ and activate ______________________. These messengers
activate proteins in the cell to achieve a desired reaction. Steroid hormones pass into the cell
and combine with cytoplasmic proteins to enter the __________________, directly affecting
________________________.
Hormones Review
There are major hormones that you need to know.
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
FSH: ______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
LH: _______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
TSH: ______________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
STH (or HGH): _____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
ACTH: ____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Prolactin: __________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
ADH: _____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Oxytocin: __________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Adrenal Gland Hormones
Cortisol: ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Aldosterone: ________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Epinephrine: ________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Pancreatic Hormones
Insulin: ____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Glucagon: __________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Thyroid Hormones
Calcitonin: _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Thyroxine: _________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Sex Hormones
Progesterone: _______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Estrogen: __________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Testosterone: _______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Taxonomy & Classification Review
Taxonomy uses a _______________ system in which every organism is given a __________
name. The first describes the _____________, or group the species belongs to. The second
is the particular ______________. Organisms are classified according to the _____________
or _________________ of shared characteristics. The purpose is to discover _____________
_________________between species. _________________ is the broadest classification,
focusing on cell structure or level of specialization. From there, the categories become more
specific. There are five major kingdoms in classification: __________________,
_________________, _________________, _________________ and _________________.
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria are both part of the kingdom _________________, but are
sometimes split into their own kingdom. Kingdoms are subdivided into _______________,
which are divided into _______________ divides into _______________ divides into
________________ divides into _______________ and finally ________________.
Monera can be divided into groups based upon their source of nutrition: Photoautotrophs,
which are _____________________________ and Chemoautotrophs, which produce energy
___________________________. They can also be divided by their reactivity with oxygen:
Obligate aerobes ___________________________, obligate anaerobes _________________
and facultative anaerobes _________________________. Examples of Archaebacteria are
extreme halophiles which _______________________, methanogens which _____________
and thermoacidophiles, bacteria that _________________________. Examples of Eubacteria
are proteobacteria which _____________, gram-positive bacteria who have a ____________
cyanobacteria which _________________________ and chlamydias, bacteria that ________.
Bacteria have three shapes you should know: ________________, also known as bacilli,
________________, also known as spirilla and ________________, also known as cocci.
Endosymbiotic theory states ___________________________________________________.
Evidence to support this claim comes from ________________ and ________________
which both contain __________________________.
Protista are mostly __________________________ that are usually ________________.
They can be ___________ like, ___________ like or ____________ like. Examples include
rhizopoda, actinopoda, zooflagellates, myxomycota, dinoflagellata, diatoms and algae.
Plants have four major categories: _________________, which are mosses and liverworts,
________________, which are seedless vascular plants and include ferns, _______________,
which include coniferous tress and _________________, which are the most complex and
include any flowering plant.
Fungi are _________________ and have a filamentous structure called a _______________.
Fungi include Zygomycota, lichen, molds and yeast.
Animals lack a _________________ and are all _________________. Examples include
______________ which are sponges, ______________ which have radial symmetry such as
jellyfish, ______________ which includes snails, slugs and squid, ______________ are
insects that contain a segmented body and exoskeleton and ______________ organisms that
have a nerve cord and include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
Plants Review
There are three types of tissue found in plants: ____________________ which is the internal
structures that transport water and sugars, ____________________ that makes up most of
the body of the plant, it is the middle layer and _____________________ which is the
protective outer coating including the epidermis.
Roots are _____________________ the surface. Root hairs, located on _________________
absorb _____________ and ______________ because they provide a greater surface area.
The tip of the root is the _____________________ and _____________________________.
The zone of cell division is where the root is _____________________, while the zone of
______________________ is where water is absorbed. The ________________________ is
where vascular tissue develops through a process called _____________________. The
roots connect to the ________________ system. This is the portion of the plant __________
the surface. Meristemic cells cause plants to grow their entire life. The main stem, or
_______________________, generates _______________ growth in the plant. Once size is
sufficient, _______________ meristems, which extend all the way through the plant emerge.
This is due to ____________________. Cutin is a ______________________ that provides
protection for the stem. Inside the stem there are three types of cells: parenchyma, cells that
___________________________, colenchyma, cells that ____________________________
and schlerenchyma, cells that _____________________________. They surround the
vascular tissue. The xylem, which is __________________ that transport _______________
throughout the plant. The phloem transports _____________________ throughout the plant.
The ____________________________ extends along the entire length of the plant and gives
rise to ___________________ xylem and phloem. _______________________ produces a
thick cover for the stems and roots. Leaves are protected by the ___________________.
The ______________ cells are on the exterior and contain _______________ which open to
allow CO2 into the plant for ______________________________. Stomata are controlled by
the ___________________. The cells are connected to the vascular tissue. They will close
to prevent water loss through __________________________ when it is too warm.
Plants are controlled by hormones. ________________________ leads to stem elongation, is
important in tropism and is thought to be the main growth hormone. ___________________
assist in stem elongation. _________________________ are hormones that promote cell
division and leaf enlargement. __________________________ inhibits cell growth and
stimulates the closing of the stomata. __________________________ is the hormone that
initiates fruit ripening and causes flowers and leaves to drop from trees.
Tropism is _________________________________________________. There are three
major kinds of tropism. The first works in response to gravitational force. It is called
__________________________. It is influenced by ________________ and ____________
hormones. __________________________ is the plant’s growth in response to light. It is
important to remember that growth occurs ___________ sunlight, meaning cells on the
__________ side of the plant replicate more than those on the __________ side, causing the
plant to bend ____________ the source of light. __________________________ is the
plant’s growth in response to touch and physical contact. An example are _______________
which wind around objects as they grow.
Behavior Review
Behavioral Ecology is the ________________________ focusing on ___________________
________________________. Ethology focuses particularly on ______________________.
Types of behavior involve learning. There are seven forms of learning worth discussing.
__________________________ is a type of associative learning in which organisms are
trained to produce a desired reaction. ______________’s experiments are the most well
known example of this type of conditioning. Fixed-action pattern (FAP) is an innate,
___________________________ to a stimulus. Once begun, _________________________
until it has run its course. __________________________ is the loss of responsiveness to
unimportant stimuli. Over time ________________________________________________.
Imprinting is an innate behavior that ________________________________. Once an
imprint is made, it is __________________. __________________________ is the ability to
do something right the first time with no prior experience. It requires __________________.
Observational learning is the ability of an organism ________________________________,
even if they have never attempted it themselves. __________________________ is a type of
associative learning that is based on trial and error. It is different from classical conditioning
because it is an association made between the animal’s own _________________ and
__________________.
Animals move through three major methods: kinesis, migration and taxis. Kinesis is ______
__________________________________________. Migration is _____________________
_______________________. Taxis is a _________________________________________.
Antagonistic behavior results from _________________ over resources. It often involves
_______________ and _______________. Altruistic behavior is ______________________
_____________________. An example of this are worker bees because they ____________
and produce no offspring but _______________________ to protect the queen bee.
__________________________ is the average proportion of genes that two individuals have
in common. This implies that two animals that have a high COR will __________________
_____________________. A __________________________ among a group of individuals
is a ranking of power among the members. The ____________ is the most powerful
member, while the ____________ is second in command. __________________________
describes the feeding behavior of an individual and is not as random as it may appear.
_____________________ is the ability of individuals to pass their genes on to the next
generation. This includes their ability to pass their own genes on through _______________
as well as the ability of ____________________ to do the same. ______________________
is when natural selection favors animals that choose foraging strategies that take into account
the costs and benefits. __________________________ occurs in organisms with stable
social groups. It is when one, unrelated organism helps another organism in the hope that
someday, the favor will be returned. _______________________ animals defend a physical
geographic area.
Communication between organisms does not always have to be vocal. __________________
uses pheromones, they can be powerful enough to attract mates from miles away. Visual
communication is _________________________________________. _________________
involves sound in the conveying of a message. In many species, this is a song.
__________________________ involves touch. It is similar to a handshake in humans.
Ecology Review
Ecology is the study of ______________________________. A population is a collection of
_____________________________. A community is ___________________________. An
ecosystem is ________________________. The ecosystem is divided into two components: the
biotic, or _______________ components and the abiotic, or _____________ components. Every
organism within an ecosystem has its own ______ which is all of the resources used by the
organism. The distribution of organisms explains how ___________________________. The
___________________ describes how many individuals live in a given area. Individuals can be
_______________________ living in packs that are spaced out from each other, they can be
_____________________ and evenly spaced out over the entire geographic area or they can be
____________________, distributed randomly with no pattern. _________________ is the study
of size, distribution and density of populations and how these populations change over time.
_________________ study the theory behind population growth and decline. ______________
is the number of offspring produced, _________________ is the number of individual deaths.
The sex ratio is _________________________. In addition, scientists study generation time,
________________________ and _____-________________, the comparison of the relative
number of individuals in the population from each age group. Lastly, ______________ (the rate
at which individuals relocate into a given population) and ______________________ (the rate at
which individuals leave a population) are important in demographic study. Eventually a
____________________ is reached, the maximum number of individuals that a population can
sustain. ________________ is limited by a number of factors including diseases, predators, food
supplies and waste produced by organisms. Factors can be grouped into two categories:
___________________ and ___________________. Factors that are related to the carrying
capacity include ________________, _____________, and _________________. These factors
_____________ with a small population and ______________ with a large population. Factors
like natural disasters and weather conditions have _______________________ to the population
size. _____________________, or a J-shaped curve is when populations grow with no limits.
An S-shaped curve is representative of _____________________. __________________ are
responsible for the limited growth.
K-selected populations have ___________ reproductive rates. The offspring ________________
________________. ______________ are a good example if K-selected populations. R-Selected
populations have ____________ reproductive and growth rates and require _________________.
They are often considered as _______________________, and tend to proliferate in regions
where there is significant environmental change. Organisms form interactions between species.
Symbiosis is ________________________. Mutualism is ____________________. Parasitism
is _______________________. Organisms compete for food and resources. Both organisms are
harmed and it can be intraspecific competition (______________________) or interspecific
competition (_______________________).
Animals have created several ___________________ to prevent predators from eating them.
___________________ is coloration that warns predators the species has a chemical defense.
____________________ is coloration that matches a poisonous or dangerous organism but is
harmless itself. ___________________ is a mechanism that is designed to increase the speed
with which predators avoid the species by mimicking another, poisonous species coloration.
_____________________ is the blending in of a species to make it difficult for predators to find
them (camouflage). Last, _____________________ is coloration that confuses the predator such
as spots on wings or tail that resemble eyes.