All organic compounds contain what
element?
Carbon
What are the two other elements most
commonly found in organic compounds?
Hydrogen and Oxygen
Nitrogen and Phosphate are also
commonly found
Differentiate between covalent and ionic bonds.
Covalent= sharing of electrons
Ionic= Electrons are donated or accepted.
Structure of the Compound
Functional Group(s)
Monomers
Polymers
-what do we call them?
-what are some examples?
-what do we call them?
-what are some examples?
Function of the Compound in the
Human Body / Cell
Carbohydrate


Carbonyl
Hydroxyl


Monosaccharides
-glucose, fructose,
galactose


Polysaccharides
-cellulose, starch,
glycogen

Energy
Protein


Carboxyl
Amino


Amino Acid
-glycine

Polypeptide



Enzymes – speed up
reactions
Structure of your body
Antibodies


Carboxyl
Hydroxyl

Glycerol & Fatty
Acids




Triglycerides
Wax
Phospholipid
Steroids



Store Energy
Insulate the body
Protect the body

DNA & RNA

Store and Express the
instructions for life
Lipid
Nucleotide
Nucleic Acid
X
Compound
Monomer or
polymer
function
Cellulose
Carbohydrate
Polymer
Cell wall stability/fiber
Polypeptide
Protein
Polymer
Once folded it will be
a protein
Polysaccharide
Carbohydrate
Polymer
Complex sugar-Energy
Glycerol and fatty acid Lipid
Monomers
Building blocks of fats
Starch
Carbohydrate
Polymer
Complex sugar storage
in plants
Phospholipid
Lipid
Polymer
Cell membrane
Glucose
Carbohydrate
Monomer
Energy storage for
animals
Simple sugars
Carbohydrates
Monomer
Quick energy
5. Differentiate between hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis.
Include which one makes bonds and which one breaks bonds,
and also which one stores energy and which releases energy.
Hydrolysis adds water to a
substance, which allows bonds to
be broken. The previously bonded
monomers bond with pieces of the
H2O instead of each other.
Dehydration Synthesis removes
water from a substance and allows
bonds to then be formed between
monomers.
H
O
+
H
-
8. List definitions for the following terms:
cohesion, hydrogen bond, non-polar
Cohesion- The tendency of water to stick to itself
and form droplets due to hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen Bond- A weak bond formed by a negative
and positive charge, the positive charge being a
hydrogen atom, attracting each other.
Non-Polar- A molecule which is equally charged on
both sides and does not hydrogen bond with itself.
9. What is an example of an organic
compound that is “non-polar”?
Oils and Fats are non-polar
10. Explain acids and bases using the
PH scale.
Acids are on the lower side of the PH scale.
If it’s lower than 7 than it’s an acid; if it’s higher than 7,
it’s a base.
Acid < 7 More H+
Neutral=7
Base > 7 More -OH
11. What is the function of enzymes? List some
specific names of enzymes – what do the names
have in common?
Enzymes are known as biological catalysts, speeding up
chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.
• Amylase
• Lactase
• Ligase
• Helicase
The names have the same –ase ending.
12. Define a catalyst.
A catalyst is described as something that speeds
up a reaction.
13. What environmental factors
influence enzyme activity?
•
•
•
•
•
Temperature
PH
Enzyme concentration
Substrate concentration
Inhibitors
substrate
Active Site
14. How do changes in the environmental
factors listed above impact the activity of the
enzyme?
All of these factors can denature an enzyme, or make it
stop working by changing the structure. The enzyme
works best at their optimum temperature, PH, etc.
Element= basic building blocks of all matterfound on the periodic table- pure
Molecule= multiple elements together.
Molecule is larger in comparison to the
elements it is made of.
Question 16
• List the three parts to the cell theory
1. Cells are the basic unit of structure
and function in living things.
All organisms are comprised of one or
more cells.
All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Unicellular and
Multicellular
Unicellular
Example: Bacteria
Primitive
No Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
DNA
Cell
Membrane
Example:
Plants/Animals
Complex
Nucleus
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic
• Nucleus- the cell’s genetic control center;
stores DNA, makes ribosomes, and directs the
synthesis of proteins through RNA
• Plasma Membrane- composed of lipids and
proteins that hold together the cell and
regulates what enters/leaves
• Ribosomes- make proteins
• Mitochondrion- where cellular respiration
occurs; food->energy
• Chloroplasts- where photosynthesis occurs;
sunlight->energy
• Lysosomes- enzymes break down food,
damaged organelles, and bacteria
• Golgi Body- distributes proteins to various
parts of the cell; “shipping center”
• Vacuoles- stores pigment, poison, food, and
water
• Cell Wall- protects cell and gives it a rigid shape
• What organelles are found in most prokaryotic
cells?
• Ribosomes, the plasma membrane, the cell
wall, and the cytoplasm are all found in
prokaryotic cells.
• What organelles are present in a plant cell that
are absent in an animal cell?
• The cell wall, chloroplasts, and large central
vacuole are not found in animal cells.
Simplest
Levels of Organization
• Cell
• Tissue
• Organ
• Organ System
• Organism
Most
Complex
• Create a table comparing passive and active
transport. 1) What direction is the concentration
gradient? 2) Is ATP required? 3) What is the
goal of this process?
Active
Passive
Low to High
High to Low
Yes
No
Moves molecular substances that the cell
needs to function against the concentration
gradient- Goal: to create a concentration
gradient
Moves molecular substances that the cell
needs to function with the concentration
gradient- Goal: to reach equilibrium
Question 23
Define the following terms and classify them as either passive or active
1. Diffusion: The tendency of molecules to spread out into less
concentrated space (Passive)
2. Osmosis: The diffusion of water over the cell membrane (Passive)
3. Facilitated Diffusion: Diffusion with the assistance of a protein
(Passive)
4. Endocytosis: The process in which a cell absorbs a molecule into itself
(Active)
5. Exocytosis: The process in which a cell disperses a molecule from
Question 24
Label a cell membrane:
Carbohydrate
Chain
Phospholipid Bilayer
Cholesterol
Protein
More Accurate
model
Question 25
Label a Phospholipid Bilayer:
Hydrophilic
(Exposed to
Water)
Hydrophobic
(Away from
water)
Question 26:
How do substances affect cells?
Question 27:
Define Homeostasis:
Homeostasis is the constant maintenance within an animal that occurs in order to
compensate for disrupting changes. In a sense, it is the force that keeps an animal
in a stable condition.
Question 28
• Plants and some photosynthetic bacteria can
use photosynthesis to create energy (sugar).
• Autotrophs
29.
ATP
Nitrogen Bases
Tri-Phosphate
sugar
29. ADP
Di-phosphate
29. Differences
• ATP
– Tri-phosphate
– Primary energy used to
power living things
– High amount of chemical
energy
– Universal Power Source
• ADP
– Di-phosphate
– Less commonly used
then ATP
– Still contains energy, but
less so due to fewer
bonds
30. What is a pigment.
• A pigment is a substance that absorbs light in
photosynthetic organisms
• Chlorophyll is the primary pigment found in
plants.
• Chlorophyll is green because it reflects green
light.
• Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplasts in
plants.
31. Chemical equation for
photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H20  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Reactants
Products
32. Chemical equation for cellular
respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP
Reactants
Products
Question 33
• Chloroplasts
– Used to convert sunlight
into energy
– Found in plants Only
– Double Membrane
– Where photosynthesis
takes place
• Mitochondrion
– Convert chemical
substances into energy
– Found in animal and
plant cells
– Has a double membrane
– Site of cellular
respiration
Question 34
• Cellular respiration releases energy for the cell
in the form of ATP.
• ATP does not “store” well and must be used
quickly.
Question 35: Two steps to
Photosynthesis
Light Dependent Reaction
• Takes place in the
thylakoid membrane of
the chloroplasts
• Light is absorbed by
chlorophyll splits water
and produces O2
• ATP and NADPH (energy
carriers) accept electrons.
• Requires light
The Calvin Cycle
• Takes place in the Stroma
(empty space)
• ATP and NADPH are used
to fuel the cycle.
• CO2 is converted into
glucose (sugar)
• Can happen without light
Question 36: Three steps to cellular
respiration
• 1. Glycolysis- Takes place in the cytoplasm of cell
• Glucose is broken down into Pyruvate
• 2 Net ATP and NADH are created
• 2. The Krebs Cycle- Takes place in the matrix of the
mitochondria
• Pyruvates are converted into 2 more ATP and CO2 is a waste product
(Carbon from Pyruvates attach to O2)
• NADH and FADH2 are created (electron carriers)
• 3. Electron Transport Chain- Takes place in the
mitochondrial membrane
• NADH and FADH2 are used as “fuel”
• 34 ATP are created
37. Compare and Contrast
Aerobic respiration
• When Oxygen IS
present
• Can produce up to 38
ATP
Anaerobic respiration
• When oxygen is NOT
present
• Lactic acid or alcoholic
fermentation
• Produces a net of 2 ATP
38. Describe the shape and composition of a
DNA molecule
• Shape: Double Helix
• Composition:
– Phosphate group
– Deoxyribose sugar
– 1 of 4 nitrogen bases
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics/dna
39. What is the function of DNA?
• The function of DNA is to store heredity
information that will be passed down to
generations. It also contains the code for
generating mRNA; this will lead to tRNA,
rRNA, and eventually proteins.
40) Structure of a Nucleotide
• Sugar
• Phosphate
• Nitrogen base (A,T,C,G)
41) Base Pairing
• A-T (adenine to thymine)
• C-G (cytosine to guanine)
• Bonded by hydrogen bonds
– 2 bonds between A and T
– 3 bonds between C and G
42) DNA vs. RNA
DNA
•
•
•
•
•
A,T,C,G
Deoxyribose sugar
Double helix
More complex
Only in the nucleus
RNA
•
•
•
•
•
A,U,C,G
Ribose sugar
Single Stranded
Less complex
Nucleus, cytoplasm,
ribosome
43 a) mRNA
•
•
•
•
“Messenger”
Instructions for proteins
Made directly off of DNA
Codons always follow mRNA
– Determines amino acid sequence
• Made during transcription
43 b) tRNA
• Transfer RNA
• Carries or transports the amino acid
• Matches anticodon with codon
43 c) rRNA
• ribosome
• Makes peptide bonds that hold amino acid
links together
• Site of Protein synthesis
44) Codons
• Set of three nucleotides on the mRNA strand
• Instructions for amino acids which then leads
to protein production
• Codes for amino acids
• 3 letters make up a codon
45) mRNA sequence
• mRNA: UUC GUU GGA ACC
• DNA: AAG CAA CCT TGG
• Amino acid: Phe-Val-Gly-Thr
46) Gene vs. Chromosome
Gene Mutation
• Mutation of actual DNA
• Example: Substitution
– AAG mutates to
– AAT which changes the DNA
sequence of a gene
Chromosome Mutation
• Physical change of
chromosome
• Example: Trisomy
– Down’s Syndrome
• Extra 21st chromosome
47) Mutations
Point
• Substituting one letter for
another which messes up
the sequence
• Can be silent
• Only happens at ONE point
on the DNA strand so only
ONE amino acid is changes
Frameshift
• Addition or subtraction of a
letter which shifts the
codon sequence one way or
another
• Generally changes EVERY
amino acid AFTER the point
of mutation
48) Transcription vs. Translation
Transcription
• DNA to RNA
• Occurs in nucleus
Translation
• RNA to protein
• Occurs in cytoplasm at a
ribosome
49. Cell Cycle Events
Interphase
• Longest phase of the cell
cycle.
• DNA is in chromatin form
• G1- Growth (organelles
duplicate)
• S- replication (duplication)
or DNA
• G2- Cell Growth
Cell Division
• Prophase- chromosomes
• Metaphase- Chromosomes
align along the metaphase
plate (middle)
• Anaphase- sister chromatids
separate
• Telophase- Cleavage furrow
begins and nuclear envelopes
reform.
• Cytokinesis- division of the
cytoplasm (two new cells)
50. Mitosis
• Prophase- chromatin condenses into chromosomes,
Nuclear envelope disappears, centrioles move to
opposite ends.
• Metaphase- Chromosomes align along the middle.
Spindle fibers attach to each centriole.
• Anaphase- Spindle fibers pull apart the sister
chromatids (each arm of the duplicated
chromosome)
• Telophase- Two new nuclear envelopes begin to
form around each set of DNA. Cleavage furrow
begins to form.
51. Compare sexual and asexual
reproduction
Sexual
• Meiosis required
• Formation of egg and sperm
– Half if the genetic info
(haploid)
• Egg and sperm will fuse to
create zygote
• Genetic information will be
different from the parents
– Combination
Asexual
• Meiosis is not required
• The organism will “clone”
itself through mitosis or
budding
• No division of DNA
– Diploid-Diploid
• Bacteria
52. Homologous chromosomes vs.
sister chromatids
53. Diploid vs. Haploid
Diploid
• “complete” set of genetic
information
• Somatic cells (body cells)
• 2N
Haploid
• “Half” of the genetic
information usually found in
the organism
• Gametes (egg and sperm)
• N
54.
If a skin cell had 52 chromosomes, how many
chromosomes would be found in an egg cell?
26
55.
Meiosis I
• Tetrads form when crossingover happens in Prophase I
• Homologous chromosomes
align along the center.
• Homologous chromosomes
separate in Anaphase I
Meiosis II
• Remaining chromosomes
along along the middle in
Metaphase II
• Sister chromatids separate
in Anaphase II
56. Karyotype
A picture of an organisms chromosomes- generally grouped in
homologous chromosomes.
Male
Female
57. Non-disjunction
• Nondisjunction is the failure for duplicated
chromosomes to separate
– Generally during Meiosis II
• Down syndrome is also known as TRISOMY 21.
– Three copies of the 21st chromosome
58.) Compare and contrast mitosis and
meiosis
Mitosis
Only once
through
division
At anaphase, cycle
sister
chromatids
separate
At
cytokinesis,
two identical
cells separate
ds
Chromosome #
is identical as the
original cell
Meiosis
Goes through division
cycle twice
Go through
At anaphase 1,
interphase (cell
Homologous
growth)
chromosomes
majority of time
separate
Go through PMAT
(second division of
ds At cytokinesis
1, two haploid
meiosis is similar to
daughter cells
mitosis)
are formed
Chromosomes # is
half of the original
cell and a UNIQUE
combination
#58 a) Include drawings of each type
of cell division using 4 chromosomes
#58 b) What must occur in all cells
prior to the cells dividing?
Cell growth, also known as interphase. This has
three phases. G1 phase is cell growth, S phase
is DNA replication, and finally G2 phase is
preparation for cell division.
#58 c) If a cell starts with 50 chromosomes, how
many chromosomes would there be after mitosis?
After meiosis?
Mitosis: 50 chromosomes because mitosis starts and
ends with the same amount of chromosomes
Meiosis: 25 chromosomes because meiosis ends with
half the amount of chromosomes as the original
amount
59.) Define the following terms:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism
Phenotype: The physical traits of an organism
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a given gene
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a given gene
Dominant: In a heterozygote, the allele that determines the
phenotype with respect to a particular gene (the larger letter)
f) Recessive: In a heterozygous individual, the allele that has no
noticeable effect on the phenotype (the smaller letter)
60. How are the following words
related? DNA, gene, RNA, protein, trait
• Gene (segment of DNA) that is transcribed
into RNA, that is translated into PROTEIN, that
is expressed as a TRAIT
62. Complete the following genetics crosses:
a) Monohybrid Heterozygote Parents (Tt x Tt)
b) Blonde hair is dominant to brown. Two parents are mated one
with blonde hair and one with brown, and some of their children
end up with blonde and some with brown.
C) Dihybrid Heterozygote Parents (TtYy x TtYy)
a)
b)
Parent 1- Bb
Parent 2- bb
TY
c)
Ty
tY
ty
TY
TTYY
TTYy
TtYY
TtYy
Ty
TTYy
TTyy
TtYy
Ttyy
tY
TtYY
Ttyy
ttYY
ttYy
ty
TtYy
Ttyy
ttYy
ttyy
d) A colorblind male with a female carrier.
e) A Red snapdragon with a pink snapdragon.
d)
e)
63. Analyze the following pedigrees. Determine if the type of
inheritance is dominant, recessive, or sex-linked based on the people
that inherit a certain trait.
•
•
•
•
A – recessive
B – recessive
C – x-linked (since only males have the trait)
D- dominant