Andrews University
Digital Commons @ Andrews University
Dissertations
Graduate Research
1983
Androgynous Coping Behaviors: a Test of Bem's
Sex-Role Theory
Roy Lucas Lukman
Andrews University
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/dissertations
Part of the Gender and Sexuality Commons, and the Psychology Commons
Recommended Citation
Lukman, Roy Lucas, "Androgynous Coping Behaviors: a Test of Bem's Sex-Role Theory" (1983). Dissertations. Paper 535.
This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Research at Digital Commons @ Andrews University. It has been accepted
for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Andrews University. For more information, please contact
[email protected].
Thank you for your interest in the
Andrews University Digital Library
of Dissertations and Theses.
Please honor the copyright of this document by
not duplicating or distributing additional copies
in any form without the author’s express written
permission. Thanks for your cooperation.
INFORMATION TO USERS
This reproduction was made from a copy o f a document sent to us for microfilming.
While the most advanced technology has been used to photograph and reproduce
this document, the quality o f the reproduction is heavily dependent upon the
quality o f the material submitted.
The following explanation o f techniques is provided to help clarify markings or
notations which may appear on this reproduction.
1.The sign or “ target" for pages apparently lacking from the document
photographed is “ Missing Page(s)” . I f it was possible to obtain the missing
page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This
may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages
to assure complete continuity.
2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark, it is an
indication o f either blurred copy because o f movement during exposure,
duplicate copy, or copyrighted materials that should not have been filmed. For
blurred pages, a good image o f the page can be found in the adjacent frame. I f
copyrighted materials were deleted, a target note will appear listing the pages in
the adjacent frame.
3. When a map, drawing or chart, etc., is part o f the material being photographed,
a definite method o f “ sectioning” the material has been followed. It is
customary to begin filming at the upper left hand comer o f a large sheet and to
continue t'rom left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. If necessary,
sectioning is continued again-beginning below the first row and continuing on
until complete.
4. For illustrations that cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by xerographic
means, photographic prints can be purchased at additional cost and inserted
into your xerographic copy. These prints are available upon request from the
Dissertations Customer Services Department.
5. Some pages in any document may have indistinct print. In all cases the best
available copy has been filmed.
Universi^
Micronlms
International
300 N. ZeetJ Road
Ann Artxjr. Ml 48106
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8401802
L u k m a n , Roy Lucas
ANDROGYNOUS COPING BEHAVIORS:
THEORY
A TEST OF BENTS SEX-ROLE
A n dre w s University
Universi^
Microfilms
Int©rn3.ti0nâl
Ph.D.
1983
300 N. zeeu Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Andrews U n i v e r s i t y
School of E d u c ati on
ANDRO GY NOU S COPING BEHAVIORS:
A TEST
OF HEM'S S E X - R O L E THEORY
A Dissertation
Presented in Partial
of the R e q ui rem ent s
Fulfillment
for the Degree
Doctor of Ph i l o s o p h y
by
Roy Lucas Luk m a n
August
1983
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
AN DROGYNOUS C O P I N G BEHAVIORS:
A TEST
OF HEM'S S E X - R O L E THEORY
A dissertation
presented in p a r t i a l fulfillment
of the r e q u i r e m e n t s for the degree
Doctor of P hil os o p h y
oy
Roy L u c a s
APPROVAL
Chairman:
BY THE COMMITTEE:
W.
bolofEducation
Peter
ilfred G.
commi
"Vv-*
A.
Futcher
i
i/d-g/ej
ei^çjme T h a y e r
^ommi
yi-t'Uc/c^ AC o m m i t t e e Member:
Exterp^l
Lukman
Date ap pr oved
IcCcly^
Derr ic k L.
Proc tor
Examiner : John F. S t o u t
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CO NTENTS
LIST OF T A B L E S ........................................
iv
AC K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
vi
......................................
Chapter
I.
I N TRO DU CTI ON
...................................
...................
S t a t eme nt of the P r o ble m
P u r p o s e of the S t u d y ........................
D e f i n i t i o n of Terms ..........................
Impor ta nce of the S t u d y .....................
L i m i t a t i o n of the S t u d y .....................
O r g a n i z a t i o n of the Study ...................
II.
III.
IV.
L I T E R A T U R E REVIEW
1
1
3
4
5
7
7
...............................
9
I n t rod uct io n
.................................
T he ore tic al Persp ect ive s of Sex-Role
D e v e l o p m e n t .................................
Psychoan aly tic A p p r o a c h ...................
S oci al- Le arn ing A p p r o a c h
.................
Cog ni tiv e Developme nt al A p p r oac h
. . . .
N ature vs. Nurture Issue
...................
Hi sto ri cal Pe rsp ectives .....................
Tradi ti ona l Sex-Roles ........................
T heo ret ic al Construct of An dro gy ny
. . . .
Co rre la tes of An d r o g y n y .....................
C opi ng Behaviors
............................
Te nta ti ve C onclusions ........................
9
10
10
13
15
17
23
25
31
34
41
M E T H O D S ...........................................
43
Sa mple Gro up
.................................
Ins tr ume nta ti on ...............................
Field P r o c e d u r e s ............................
Sta tem ent of Null H y p o t h e s e s ..............
Data A n a l y s i s .................................
43
43
47
48
49
R E S U L T S ...........................................
60
Introduction
.................................
C ate gor ic al Scaling of Burke's Items
. . .
60
60
11
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
V.
Testing of the H y p o t h e s e s ...................
Null
H y p o t h e s i s 1 ..........................
Null
H y p o t h e s i s 2 ..........................
Null
H y p o t h e s i s 3 ..........................
Null
H y p o t h e s i s 4 ..........................
Add it i o n a l F i ndi ngs ..........................
66
66
68
69
70
71
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLI CAT ION S AND
R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S .................................
79
S u m m a r y .........................................
P u r p o s e ......................................
O v e r v i e w of Rela ted L i t e r a t u r e
.........
Sam pl ing and In s t r u m e n t a t i o n
............
Null H y p o t h e s e s .............................
C o n c l u s i o n s ....................................
I m pli cat ion s and R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
.........
A P P E N D I C E S .............................................
A.
B.
The Two I n s t r u m e n t s of the S t u d y ............
Instrument for the J u d g e s ......................
B IBL IOGRAPHY
...........................................
V I T A .......................................................
111
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
79
79
80
81
82
82
84
90
91
96
99
107
LIST OF TABLES
1.
2.
C o e f f i c i e n t Alpha for the F e m i nin ity Score,
the M a s c u l i n i t y Score, and the F-M D i f f e r ­
en ce S c o r e .............................................
46
Te st- R e t e s t R e l i a b i l i t i e s for the Femi ni nit y,
Masculinity, and F-M D i f f ere nc e Sc or e s
........
47
3.
Bern's Sex-Role P rofile
.............................
50
4.
Bern's Norm M e d i a n S c o r e s ...........................
52
5.
E x amp le s of F l e x i b i l i t y Indices
.................
54
5.
Cate go ric al S caling of Burke's Coping
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Items
...............................
51
O r d e r e d Scale Va l u e s of Burke's C op i n g
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Items
...............................
63
B urke's Coping Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Ma s c u l i n e
I t e m s ................................................
64
B urke's Coping Q u e s t i o n n a i r e Feminine
I t e m s ................................................
65
Sa mp l e Group A c c o r d i n g to Sex-Role C l a s s i f i c a ­
tions and th eir R e s p e c t i v e Coping F l e x i b i l i t y
M e a n s ................................................
66
Test of S i g n i f i c a n c e between the M e a ns of Coping
F l e x i b i l i t y Indices for An dr og y n o u s and M a s c u ­
line G r o u p s .........................................
67
T est of S i g n i f i c a n c e between the M e ans of Coping
F l e x i b i l i t y Indices for And rog y n o u s and
Femin in e Gro u p s
....................................
68
T est of S i g n i f i c a n c e between the M e a ns of Coping
F l e x i b i l i t y Indices for A n d r o g y n o u s and U n d i f ­
f e r e n t i a t e d G r o u p s ..................................
69
T est of S i g n i f i c a n c e between the M e ans of Coping
F l e x i b i l i t y Indices for An dro g y n o u s M a l e s and
F e m a l e s ..............................................
71
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
IV
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
T e s t of Significance betw ee n the Mea ns of C opi ng
F l e x i b i l i t y Indices for M a s c uli ne a n d F e m i n i n e
Groups
.............................................
73
T e s t of Significance b e twe en the Me a n s of Coping
F l e x i b i l i t y Indices for Mas cul in e M a l e s and
F e m i n i n e Females ....................................
74
Tes t of Si gnificance betwe en the Me ans of C op ing
F l e x i b i l i t y Indices for U n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d Males
a n d F e m a l e s ........................................
76
T e s t of S ign ificance betwe en the M e a n s of C o pin g
F l e x i b i l i t y Indices for An dro g y n o u s and M a s c u ­
lin e M a l e G r o u p s ....................................
77
T e s t of S ign ificance betwe en the M e a n s of C o pi ng
F l e x i b i l i t y Indices for An dro g y n o u s and
F e m i n i n e F emale G ro ups .............................
78
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
AC K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
First and foremost,
I rededicate my life to t he
A l m i g h t y G od for His love and grace.
and p r a i s e s be.
To Him all h o n o r
He has given me the strength and e n d u r ­
ance to c a r r y out this r e s e a r c h project to the finish.
I thank Him e s p e c i a l l y for my beautiful w i f e
W i t h o u t her,
I would never be where I am now.
stant p r a y e r s on my behalf,
h er
her e m o t i o n a l and financial
support,
Her c o n ­
tireless e n c o u r age men ts ,
and her p a t i e n c e
ing the tr ying times are m u c h mo re than I deserve.
has m a d e
sacrifice after sacrifice,
in her list of priorities.
Indeed,
d e s e r v e s at least 80 percent of
Becky.
She
always p u tti ng m e
in every way,
dur­
first
she
the degree.
I am most grateful to the chairman of my d i s s e r t a ­
tion committee.
g u i d a n c e and
versity
W. Peter Blitchington,
technical a dvice
d iss er t a t i o n .
and p e r so nal
Dr.
in the preparation of
this
He has been a cons tan t and true p r o f e s s i o n a l
friend to me s inc e my arrival at A n d r e w s
Uni­
in 1977.
For the members of m y doctoral
G . A.
for his c a r e f u l
Futcher,
Proctor,
gr ateful.
who
Dr. Jerome D.
Thayer,
committee.
and Dr.
Wilfred
D e r r i c k L.
have set high st an dar ds for my work,
They have shown g e n u i n e concern
Dr.
for my
I a m very
success.
VI
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
I thank them for their
that w orked
"instant"
like a symphony,
services.
you r
To a c o m m i t t e e
to g e t h e r n e s s
is m u c h
appreciated.
Man y t ha nks go to t hos e
Mich iga n State,
U niversity of Michigan,
and Indiana University,
providing data
me on my toes,
for your
who p a r t i c i p a t e d and assi st ed
like to a c k n o w l e d g e
the computer,
b reakdowns and p e r i o d i c a l
in
whose
tantrums have kept
so to speak.
Finally,
Son,
Purdue University,
for this study.
I would
unp re dic tab le
i n d i v i d u a l s at W e st ern
I am g r e a t l y
i n d e b t e d to my son Joshua.
spontaneous and h u m o r o u s ways of
"coping w i t h
s t r e s s , " and your amusing d i s p l a y s of
frustrations at
failures to me et
expectations,
stereotypic
se x - r o l e
God's word be your guide always.
may
For all those hours that
you p e r s i s t e n t l y insisted on r u n n i n g the computer a n a lys es
for daddy,
and
for all those pages of
rough draft that you
decided to edit wit h your b r i g h t crayons,
to you I d e d i c a t e
this research.
vii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
ABSTRACT
AN D R O G Y N O U S COPING BEHAVIORS:
A TEST
OF BEM'S S E X - R O L E T H E O R Y
by
Roy Lucas L u kma n
Chairman:
W . Peter Blitchington,
Ph.D.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
A B S T R A C T OF G R A D U A T E STUDENT R E S E A R C H
D i s ser tat io n
Andrew s Univer sit y
School of Education
Title:
A N C R O G Y N O U S CO PING BEHAVIORS:
B EM'S S EX-ROLE T HEO RY
Name of researcher:
Roy Lucas
Lukman
Name and d e g r e e of facul ty advisor:
Date completed:
August
A T E S T OF
W. Peter Blitchington,
Ph.D.
1983
P r obl em
Bern con ten ded that sex-typing can s e r i o u s l y
restrict the range of b e h a vio rs av ail abl e to an individual
as he or she moves
from one situation to another.
purpose of this study was
to investigate the v a l i d i t y of
Bem's t h eo ry of a n d r o g y i n o u s
behaviors
The
flexibility in terms of coping
to deal wit h e v e r y d a y stress.
Me t h o d
This
study e m p loy ed two obje ct ive
instruments,
the
Bern I n v e n t o r y and Burke's q u e sti on nai re of c op ing behaviors
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3
The data w h i c h were computed and a n a l yze d to test the
four null hypotheses were p r o vi ded by a p u r p o siv e
sample
group of 616 subjects.
Findings
1.
bility
There is a s i g n ifi ca ntl y higher me an f l e x i ­
index of coping strategies among an d r o g y n o u s
in dividuals than that among m a s c u l i n e individuals.
2.
T he mean flexib ili ty
gies am on g androgynous
index of coping s t r a t e ­
individuals
is not s i g n i f i c a n t l y
higher than that among feminine individuals.
3.
There is a si gni fi c a n t l y higher mean f l e x i ­
b ility index of coping strategi es among a n d r o g y n o u s
individuals than that among i ndi ff e r e n t i a t e d
4.
individuals.
There is a si gni f i c a n t l y higher mean f l e x i ­
bility index of coping strate gie s among a nd rog yno us
females than that among a ndr og y n o u s males.
5.
There is a sig ni fi c a n t l y higher mea n f l e x i ­
bility index of coping strateg ie s among
uals than
6.
that among m a s c u lin e
feminine
individ­
individuals.
There is a si gn if i c a n t l y higher me an f l e x i ­
bility index of coping s tra teg ie s among feminine
females
than that among masculine males.
7.
Masculine females obt ai ned
significantly
higher fl e x i b i l i t y indices of coping strategies th an
feminine males.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
4
8.
The m e a n flexibility index of coping s t r a t e ­
gies among
i n dif fe ren tia ted females
is not signi fic ant ly
higher than that among u ndi ff e r e n t i a t e d males.
9.
The f le xi bil ity of coping strategies among
androgynous m a l e s
is not si gni f i c a n t l y higher than that
among m a s c u l i n e males.
10.
The f lex ibi lit y of
androgynous
femal es
among feminine
coping s trategies among
is not s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher than that
females.
Conclusion
Bem c o n t e n d e d that a n d r o g y n y a l l o w s one to be m o r e
flexible
in his or her behaviors.
analyses of the da ta gathered
port Bem's t he ory
However,
statistical
for this study did not s u p ­
in terras of coping behaviors.
C o n s i s t e n t wit h the p o s t u l a t i o n that women are
more e n c o u r a g e d to display c r o s s - s e x be hav ior s than men,
females were
found to obtain higher coping
indices than males.
androgyny
fl exibility
Among m a l e s and females separately,
showed no significant a d v a n t a g e over a p p r o p r i a t e
sex-type.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAP TER
I
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Sta te men t of the Problem
Qu estions about the psychological nature of men
and women have been c o n t i n u a l l y
investigated since the
field of p s y c h o l o g y began.
More specifically,
the topic
of sex-role d e v e l o p m e n t a nd
its d i f f e r en tia tio n has
re ceived en th us i a s t i c a t t e n t i o n especially w i t h i n the
last decade.
Originally,
these psychological
largely been p r e d i cat ed on
inq uiries have
the supposition that the re
is
a signifi can t i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n between bio lo gic al gender,
the p s y c hol og ica l
femininity,
That
is,
id en ti f i c a t i o n with m a s c u l i n i t y or
and m a s c u l i n e or feminine se x-role b e h a v ior s
those b e l o ng ing
cally expected
to e xhi bit
ality ch a r a c t e r i s t i c s
behaviors.
to a specific gend er are t y p i ­
sexually a p p r o p r i a t e p e r s o n ­
and the ap propraite se x-role
It can thus
be assumed that a d i s p l a y of
cro ss -se x beh avi ors and attributes
pathological,
is to some d e g r e e
ha ving n e g a t i v e implications for that
individual's general a d j u s t m e n t and life sat is fac tio n.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
2
In e very society from early reco rd ed h i s t o r y to
the present,
m e n and women have been a s s i g n e d s e p a r a t e
behavior roles
(Schaffer,
1980).
Beyond the o b v i o u s
physical and reproductive differences,
the two sexe s
been g e n e ral ly assumed to d iffer in personality,
dimensio ns of intelligence,
aspects of human behaviors.
leads to expectations,
ability,
have
some
and v a ri ous o t h e r
This a s s u m p t i o n n a t u r a l l y
which in turn,
leads
to a p r e s c r i p ­
tion and requirement for a ppr op r i a t e conduct.
Sex-typing has c o n s e q u e n t l y become an i n e v i t a b l e
human act.
One of the p r i m a r y c oncerns of a p r o s p e c t i v e
m oth er or father is whether the newb orn will be a b o y or
a girl.
Following the e s t ab lis hme nt of gender,
the n e w ­
born is treated ac cordingly wi t h his or her o wn b l u e or
pink blanket,
and he or she begins a process of a c q u i r i n g
ch a r a ct eri sti cs that are deemed a p p r o p r i a t e
for its
sex.
Cult ure and biology combine in this process of b e c o m i n g
ma s c u lin e or feminine.
in a manner
The child is r e w a rde d a n d p u n i s h e d
that encourages sex-typed b e h a vi ors a n d d i s ­
courages sex-inappropriate
Recently,
however,
behaviors.
the Women's L i b e r a t i o n M o v e ­
ment and the lately emerging Men's Lib era t i o n M o v e m e n t
have insisted that this st rin ge nt s y s t e m of s e x - r o l e
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n serves onl y to preve nt b o t h m e n a n d w ome n
from becoming complete
individuals.
S u p p o r t e r s of
the
mo v e m e n t posit that individuals need not c o n f o r m to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
3
outdated social sta nda rds of m a s c u l i n i t y and
femininity,
but that they s h oul d be encouraged to be androgynous.
Sandra
L.
Bem
(1974)
ad v a n c e d the h y p o t hes is that
sex-role t r a in ing can seriously r e s t r i c t
the range of
behaviors a v a i l a b l e to an individual as he or she moves
from one s i t u a t i o n
a masculine
self-
concept leads to the suppression or i nhi bi t i o n of
femi ­
nine behaviors,
to the
suppression or
contrast,
to another.
Thus,
a n d a feminine s e l f - c o n c e p t
leads
i nhibition of m a s c u l i n e behaviors.
the a n d r o g y n o u s
individual
masculine nor f e m i n i n e behaviors.
conception d e n o t e s
In
e x c l u d e s n e i the r
An a n d r o g y n o u s
self­
the integration of b o t h m a s c u l i n i t y
and femininity w i t h i n a single i n d i v i d u a l
This leads to g r e a t e r
flexibility,
(Bem,
a l l o w i n g the
ual to e ngage f r e e l y in either m a s c u l i n e
behaviors d e p e n d i n g upon situational
1977).
individ­
or feminine
co n t e x t s and demands,
Purpose of the Study
The u n d e r l y i n g purpose of this
study was to
investigate the v a l i d i t y of Bem's t h e o r y of a n d r o g y n o u s
flexibility.
of behaviors
This
study a tt empted to seek out e v i d e n c e
that combine both f e m i n i n e and m a s c u l i n e
characteristics.
An drogynous f l e x i b i l i t y was i n v e s t i ­
gated in terms of coping strategies u t i l i z e d
with the tensio n and strain of d a i l y
cally,
stress.
in d e a l i n g
Specifi­
the f o l l ow ing questions wer e r a i s e d for study:
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
4
1.
Are a n d r o g y n o u s
individuals m o r e
likely to
report higher f l e x i b i l i t y of coping s t r a t e g i e s than m a s ­
culine individuals?
2.
Are a n d r o g y n o u s
individuals m o r e
likely to
report higher f l e x i b i l i t y of coping s t r a t e g i e s than femi­
nine individuals?
3.
Are a n d r o g y n o u s
individuals m o r e
likely to
report higher f l e x i b i l i t y of coping s t r a t e g i e s
undifferentiated
4.
than
indivi du als ?
Is t h e r e a diffe ren ce in f l e x i b i l i t y between
androgynous ma l e s and a n dr ogy nou s femal es ?
D e f i n i t i o n of Terms
Gender
is the biological
usually either m a l e or
Sex-typ ing
sex of t h e
individual,
female.
is defin ed as the p r o c e s s
by w h i c h a
person acquires a set of attributes c u l t u r a l l y prescribed
as desirable
for that person's gender.
Sex-role r e fer s
to those b e h a v i o r s
s t ere ot ype d to
characterize a p e r s o n of a given b i o l o g i c a l
soci ety .
sex within a
S t e r e o t y p e d behaviors c o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d with
being a biological m a l e are sex-typed as mascu lin e.
Stereotyped b e h a v i o r s
c o m m on ly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h being a
biological
sex-typed as femi nin e.
female a re
Androgyny
defined as having
both masculine and
is a person's sex-r ol e
i d e n t i t y that is
s o m e w h a t equally high e n d o r s e m e n t of
feminine qualities.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
5
Flexibilitv r e f e r s to one's level of sex-role
endorsement that r e f l e c t s bot h ext ens ity and b a l an ce of
ma sculine and feminine dimens ion s.
Un dif fe ren tia te d
s e x - r o l e refers to an equal
endorsement of m a s c u l i n e and feminine characteristics,
but of low magnitude,
Stress
w i t h i n a person.
is d e f i n e d by Selye
(1976)
as the no n ­
specific response of the bo dy to any demand.
demand,
However,
whether phy sic al
all agents of
or psychological,
stress
they increase the de m a n d
Every
is unique.
share one thing
for readjustment,
in common;
for p e r f o r ­
mance of adaptive f u n c t i o n s w h i c h r ees ta b l i s h normalcy.
Cooing
is d e f i n e d as efforts,
oriented and intrapsychic,
internal demands,
to m anage e n v i r o n m e n t a l and
and c o n f l i c t s
exceed an individual's e x i s t i n g
Launier,
both acti on -
among them,
resources
w h i c h tax or
(Lazarus &
1978) .
Im por ta nce
Traditionally,
p s y c h o l o g i s t s were in ag ree men t
in accepting pre scr ibe d
ality de velopment and
s e x - ro les as essential
function.
uncr iti ca lly con sid e r e d
personal adjustment.
of the Study
Sex- ro le i d e n tit y was
to be a crucial
Recently,
to p e r s o n ­
however,
factor
in one's
several
invest i­
gators have ex pressed t h e i r conce rn over p o s s i b l e d e t r i ­
mental effects of s e x - r o l e st andards upon an
individual's
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
6
devel op men t and p sychological
h e a l t h as a whole.
feminist m o v e m e n t strongly a t t a c k e d
patterns.
traditional
The
sex-role
It is the curren t c o n v i c t i o n of ma ny p s y c h o l ­
ogists that existing s ex-role
pressures upon
Furthermore,
s t a n d a r d s exert real
individuals to b e h a v e
these behavioral
in p re scr ibe d ways.
properties stereotypcially
associ ate d w i t h men and w o m e n are p e r c e i v e d to p r e d o m i ­
nate each other.
qualities,
That is,
o n e w h o a c q u ir ed m a s c u l i n e
or those beh av i o r a l p r o p e r t i e s
associated w i t h men,
nine qualities,
stereotypically
is e x p e c t e d to be de ficient in f e m i ­
or those b e h a v i o r a l
typically as soc i a t e d with w o m e n .
acquired femin ine qualities
in m a s c u l i n e qualities.
properties
Likewise,
stereo­
one who
is e x p e c t e d to be d e f i c i e n t
This
y i e l d s a theoretical m o d e l
of a single bipolar d i m e n s i o n w i t h m a s c u l i n i t y at one
extreme and femininity at the other.
Bem
(1974)
posited an a l t e r n a t i v e
t heoretical
model of sex -ro les which c o n c e p t u a l i z e s m a s c u l i n i t y and
famininity as two
independent d i m e n s i o n s within an i n d i ­
vidual's potential.
for an individu al
This m o d e l
p e r c eiv es
to be mas cul i n e ,
feminine,
the latter of w hic h is t ermed an d r o g y n o u s .
(1977)
the p o s s i b i l i t y
or both,
Later
Bem
o f f e r e d a fourth p o s s i b i l i t y where an in div i d u a l
acqu ire s b o t h masculine and
of low magnitude,
feminine characteristics
which is t e r m e d u n d i f f e ren ti ate d.
but
It
is the a n d r o g y n o u s potential w h i c h has received m u c h
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
7
attention.
A c c o r d i n g to Bem
fle xi b i l i t y that frees
exp ect ati on s.
ards r e su lts
enables the
(1974),
an dro gyn y o f fer s the
individuals f r o m rigid sex-role
L ib era tio n from traditional
sex-role s t a n d ­
in a broader r e p e r t o i r e of behaviors w h i c h
individual
a v a r i e t y of
to respond m o r e appropriately to
situational demands.
The resul ts of this study w o u l d provide useful
infor ma tio n
for
sex-roles.
To the best of the resea rch er 's knowledge,
published
individuals i nte re ste d
in a theory of
no
inv est i g a t i o n has been co n d u c t e d and r e p o r t e d
where Bem's
t tur ry is tested in terms of a systematic
be hav io ral r e p e r t o i r e within an individual,
such as o n e ' s
r e p e r t o i r e of coping strategies to dea l with the s t rai n
and t e n s i o n of eve ry day stress.
Limitation of the St udy
The p o p u l ati on
dents of c o l l e g e level.
were those e n r o l l e d
midwestern
for this study was limited to s t u ­
The subjects
in introductory psychology cours es
state colleges and born
It is necessary,
in the sample g r o u p
therefore,
in
in the United States.
to limit the findings of this
study to the above men tio ned group.
Orga niz at ion of the Study
Thi s
study was or gan iz ed as follows:
includes the s tatement of the problem,
study,
d e f i n i t i o n of terms,
C h a pte r
I
purpose of the
imp or t a n c e of the study,
and
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
8
its limitations.
Chapter
II reviews the literat ur e and
lists the te ntative co ncl usions.
the sample group,
Chapt er
instrumentation,
lists the null hypotheses,
III describes
field procedures,
and methods of analysis.
Chapter IV p r es ent s the data and the st at ist ica l analyses.
Chapter V summar iz es
conclusions,
the study,
and pr e s e n t s the findings,
i m p l i c a t i o n s of findings,
and recommendations.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER
II
L I T E R A T U R E REVIEW
Int rod uct io n
For ma ny reasons,
including the i n f l u e n c e of the
feminist m o v em ent and the interest created by M a c c o b y and
Ja cklin's
1974 analyses of sex d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e t o p i c of
sex-roles has received i ncr ea s i n g l y e n t h u s i a s t i c a t t e n t i o n
from r e s e a r c h e r s and theorists.
Bem ra ised a s i g n i f i c a n t
issue w h e n she i nv est iga ted the concept of a n d r o g y n y and
reported her findings to the field of p sy cho l o g y .
literature regarding
relevant
Related
Bem's theory of a n d r o g y n y a n d o the r
studies are r e v i e w e d in this chapter.
dis cu s s i o n of the d e v e l o p m e n t of sex-roles and
Since a
stereo­
types is appropriate to enha nce the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
these d if fer e n t i a l
women began,
s t a n d a r d s of behavior for m e n
and
some h i s t o r i c a l and theoretical p e r s p e c t i v e s
are also briefly s u m m a r i z e d .
tional
how
Although the m a j o r
tradi­
theories may have o n l y limited a p p l i c a b i l i t y
explaining androgynous development,
they p r o v i d e
for
the
fra mew ork for studying the development of p s y c h o l o g i c a l
sex.
This review is d i v i d e d into six mai n a rea s:
1.
Theoretical
ment
p er sp ect ive s of s e x - r o l e d e v e l o p ­
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
10
2.
Nature vs.
nurture
issue
3.
Historical p er spe c t i v e s
4.
Tradi tio na l
5.
Theoret ic al c o n s t ruc t of androgyny
6.
Correlates of a n d r o g y n y
sex-roles
Theoretical P e r s p e c t i v e s of
Sex-Role D e v e l o p m e n t
The re are three major t rad it i o n a l
theories
that
offer e x p l a n a t i o n s of sex-role development.
T h e s e thr ee
a p p r o a c h e s — psychoanalytic,
a nd c o g n i ­
social-learning,
tive d e v e l o p m e n t a l — have r e c e i v e d the majority of a t t e n ­
tion from r e s e a r che rs in their
ex ami n a t i o n of
investigations.
Thus,
these various p o p u l a r expla na tio ns
an
for
the d e v e l o p m e n t of feminine a nd m a s c u l i n e p e r s o n a l i t y
at tri b u t e s a n d behavior i ncreases
the unde rst an din g of
ps y c h o l o g y ' s app roa ch to s e x - rol e development.
Ps v c h o a n a l v t i c Approach
Fr e u d ' s p sy ch oan aly ti cal
ences b e twe en
di f f e re nce s
genitals.
the sexes was b as ed on the anatomi cal
(Strachey,
soon d i s c o v e r
explan ati on for d i f f e r ­
1964).
similar p l e asu re
Soon,
however,
Early in life,
from m a n ip ula tin g
consequently,
devel­
in different d i r e c ti ons .
The m a l e child focuses
tion t o w a r d
their
they r e al ize that the g e n i t a l s
of boys and gi r l s are d i f f e r e n t and,
opment p r o c e e d s
b o t h sexes
his ps ych osexual a t t r a c ­
his mother and e n t e r s
into a rivalr y a g a i n s t
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
11
his father for the mother's af fe cti on.
the Oedipal Complex.
father,
who
However,
the b o y
he is,
that
is,
the fear that the
the boy's g e n i t a l s
has some
giv e her up r e a d ­
This r e a l i z a t i o n leads to the b o y ' s
anxiety,
is called
real ize s that the
is m u c h more powerful t h a n
attachment to the mother and will not
ily.
This
castration
f a t h e r will remove
to end his p l e a s u r e s .
This fear is
reinforced w h e n the boy notices that t h e penis is miss ing
from the girl,
ap par e n t l y a v ic tim of
order to r e d u c e this anxiety,
castration.
the b o y
the stronger
force,
the father,
attributes.
By being masculine,
In
identifi es with
thus a c q u i r i n g ma scu lin e
the b o y qu ells his
as well as n u r t u r e s his qualities
fears
so t h a t one day he can
possess a w o m a n of his own.
For
the female child,
pleasure c om es
a larger,
and
to a halt when she n o t i c e s
supposedly superior,
develops pen is
Seeing the mo t h e r
from clitoral
that boys have
The girl then
psychosexual
also known as the
feelings
E l e c t r a Complex.
as the more p o w e r f u l
rival,
the girl
identifies with her in h o p e s of sharing some
of the m o t h e r ' s
is this
organ.
envy and focuses her
toward the father,
co nse q u e n t l y
the e n j o y m e n t
success at w i n ni ng t h e
fath er' s love.
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n with the m o t h e r that accounts
It
for
the girl's d e v e l o p m e n t of her f e m i n i n e attributes.
Ac c o r d i n g
to Freud
(1925),
t h e norm al
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by jealousy and f e e l i n g s of
female is
i nferiority as
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
12
a result of her r e a l i z a t i o n that she la cks a penis.
Passivity is another ch aracteristic of f e m i n i n e p e r s o n ­
ality as she accepts
the passive sexual r o l e
she mu st
adopt because of her inability to i n i ti at e an active
sexual role for the absen ce of the penis.
woman's perso nal ity
Thus,
a
is unstable in m a n y r e s p e c t s due
her inferiority complex,
to
being envious of the m a n ’s
sexual parts.
This lack of a penis,
results in an inner
sense,
acc ording to E r ik so n
the feminine;
ence results in an ou ter sense,
its p r e s ­
the m a s c u l i n e .
sense is comm it ted to r eso urcefulness
and devotion in healing,
while
(1964),
The inner
in p e a c e keepi ng
whereas the o u t e r sense is c o m ­
mitted to a m a s c u l i n e fondness for w h a t w o r k s and for
what man can make.
In terms of androgyny,
Freud w r o t e that eve ryo ne
is born with a bisexual potential,
the p o t e n t i a l
to
develop in both m a s c u l i n e and feminine p s y c h o l o g i c a l
directions.
Freud noted that every i n d i v i d u a l displays
a mixture of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b elonging
opposite sex.
Every individual
sivity
1905).
(Freud,
to his own and the
shows a c t i v i t y and p a s ­
Thus the a n d r o g y n o u s
theme was
suggested.
Freud's a p p r o a c h to explain human
b e ha vi or in
general has been w id el y criticized for b a s i n g his c o n ­
ceptions on clinical wor k with neur oti c adult s.
Mor e
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
13
specifically,
his d i f f e r e n t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n s
for female
and male develop men t have not wi t h s t o o d m a n y em pirical
analyses.
In many c a r e ful ly co ntr o l l e d
studies,
r es e a r c h ­
ers failed to find e v i de nce of c a s t r a t i o n a n x i e t y or penis
envy among normal ch i l d r e n
(Conn,
Kreitler 4 Kreitler,
Sherman,
1966;
pite his shortcomings,
1940;
Friedman,
1971).
1952;
However,
des­
Freud has been c o n s i d e r e d the
pioneer who opened up a whole new way of u n d e r s t a n d i n g
human behavior and development.
biological,
neurology,
His a p p r o a c h is heavily
a p p a r e n t l y i nfl uen ce d by his
training
in
and contains a hint at an a n d r o g y n o u s p o t e n ­
tial within individuals.
Social-Learning A p p r o a c h
S o c ial -le ar nin g the orists
and Mischel
analysis
(1970)
such as B an d u r a
(1965)
o ff e r e d an a l t e r n a t i v e to p s y c h o ­
in e xpl ain in g
the d e v e l o p m e n t of
sex-roles.
Basic to the concep ts of this a p p r o a c h is that the c on­
sequence of a behavi or det erm ine s
the p r o b a b i l i t y
for
that behavior to reoccur when the s t i m u l u s
is present.
Based on this position,
s ex - r o l e
behaviors
the a c q u i s i t i o n of
is the result of reinforcement,
imitation,
and modeling.
S o c ial -le ar nin g theo ris ts a s s u m e
th at children
learn from o b s er vin g the beha vio r of o t h e r s
imitation and o b s e r v a t i o n a l
essential
learning,
and that
or modeling,
in the d e v e l o p m e n t a l pro cess of
are
sex-role
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
14
a cquisition
(Bandura,
1965).
this explanation further.
Mischel
(1970)
e x p an ded
He proposed that t h e r e are
two distinct aspects in the learning of a p p r o p r i a t e sexrole behavior,
acquisition,
and performance.
Acquisition
refers to the learning p r o c e s s which o ccurs p r i m a r i l y
through observation of models.
Pe rformance
is wh en the
b ehavior can be o b s e r v e d and such an o b s e r v a t i o n can be
made only when the p e r f orm er
(1970)
discussed m o t i v a t i o n
is motivated.
Mischel
in terms of reinforcement,
which increases the p r o b a b i l i t y for the b e h a v i o r
recur;
and punishment,
of recurrence.
Thus,
to
whi ch decreases the p r o b a b i l i t y
se x-a ppropriate b e h a v i o r s are
learned because they are reinforced.
Likewise,
sex-
inappropriate behaviors a re punished,
thus d e c r e a s i n g
the probability of learning to take place.
Some empirical evi den ce has been p r e s e n t e d
support of social-learning theory.
in
L a b o r a t o r y findings
led to the conclusion that children are more
li kely to
imitate the behavior of m od els who are p e r c e i v e d as
powerful
(Grusec & Brinker,
behavior
(Bandura,
child
(Rosenkrans,
1965),
1972),
r ewarded
for their
or who are similar
to the
1967) .
The implication of s oci al-learning
t h e o r y for
a n d r ogy ny is that ea ch chi ld has access to m o d e l s
both sexes.
The child acqu ir es both m a s c u l i n e
feminine behaviors ea rly
in life.
Thus,
most
from
and
individuals
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
15
have a c q ui re d the n e c e s s a r y
However,
due to societal
skills to be androgynous.
rules,
an individual's m o t i v a ­
tion to p e r f o r m sex-role b e h a v i o r s
is limited to the
ones learned as s e x- app rop ri ate .
Co gni ti ve D evelopmental A p p r o a c h
Jean Piaget
(1952)
r e p o r t e d on his work w i t h the
de v e l o p m e n t of thinking p atterns,
c h i ld ren go through s e ve ral
ment.
As a child de v e l o p s
limit at ion s of the c h il d's
and theorized that
s tages of cog nitive d e v e l o p ­
f r o m stage to stage,
the
t h i nki ng powers change,
these change s affect the w a y a child as si mi l a t e s
and
infor­
m ati on fro m and about the environment.
On the basis of P i a g e t ' s theory,
offered an explanation of
nitive phenomenon.
According
she
learnes
or herself,
follows,
The
is male or female.
the labels
identity.
identity,
(3) g e n d e r consistency.
he or
to Kohlberg,
"boy"
and others,
and
w h i c h is the c h i l d ' s
The three stages
(2) gender stability,
ch il d first r eco gn i z e s
and
that
The child c o n s e q u e n t l y
"girl" and refers to h i ms elf
a p p r opr ia tel y.
iably become men and g i r l s
ch i l d r e n go
in the process of a c q u i r i n g
se x-a p p r o p r i a t e behavior a n d
(1) gender
(1966)
s e x - r o l e d evelopment as a c o g ­
through three major s tag es
include:
Ko hlberg
Gender
stability
realization that boys
b e c o m e women.
invar­
This s c he ma of
gender p erm ane nce a p pe ars to moti vat e chi ldr en to learn
how to b ecome competent as m a l e or female.
Finally,
when
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
16
the child arri ves at the g e n d e r co n s i s t e n c y stage,
or she r eco gn i z e s
he
that the a t t r i b u t e s of being either
male or f emale do not us u a l l y change,
expected
to,
ations.
This consis ten cy
and are not
even with c h a n g i n g env ir o n m e n t s and s i t u ­
is the motivational force in
the a c q u i s i t i o n of s e x - a p p r o p r i a t e
behaviors.
That
is,
s e x - a p pro pri ate behaviors are p e r f o r m e d to maintain the
s e l f- ide nti ty that was
initially
established,
as a boy
or a girl.
F i n d i n g s reported by M o n e y and his colleagues
(Money & Ehrhardt,
the c o n c e p t i o n
a vital rol e
1972;
Money
& Tucker,
support
that an e s t a b l i s h e d gender identity pla ys
in the d e v e l o p m e n t of
logical self.
1975)
Money pr e s e n t e d
the sense of p s y c h o ­
e v i d e n c e which indicated
that g e n d e r can be r e a s s i g n e d up to about age fifteen
months w i t h o u t apparent p s y c h o l o g i c a l
gender
harm.
However,
r e a s s i g n m e n t after the a g e of about three years
has been
shown to be d a m a g i n g p sy cho logically.
finding has
tical p e r i o d
led to the c o n c l u s i o n
that there is a c r i ­
for the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of sex-role,
between the ages of eight een m o n t h s
(Money,
1961).
By that time,
This
roughly
and three years
the child has well e s t a b ­
lished his or her s e l f - c a t e g o r i z a t i o n as male or female,
and this
sense of g e n d e r - s e l f c a n n o t be shifted w i t h o u t
undermining
the sense of self.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
17
Kohlberg's cognitive a p p ro ach c a r rie s an im pli ­
cation toward androgyny.
conceptions,
plex,
an individual's t hinking bec om es more co m ­
less egocentric,
matures
Ac cording to its theoretical
and more flexible as he or she
chronologically.
Kohlberg
(1966)
ch i ldr en were found to be more s ter eo typ ic
thinking than older adults.
sively m o r e
flexible thinking pattern,
then be encourag ed
identity,
perhaps,
in their
w i t h this p r o g r e s ­
an individual can
to develop a n o n s t e r e o t y p i c
self-
w hic h in turn may lead to less stereo ty pic and,
more androgy nou s behaviors.
Nature vs.
The
vs.
Perhaps,
r eported that
Nurture Issue
study of sex-roles cannot
environment
ignore the heredity
issue of its development.
The heredity
view ho lds that men and women are born with d i s t i n c t l y
di f f e r e n t
and,
features and different p s y ch olo gi cal
thus,
life tasks.
structures
are d e s ti ned to fulfill s p ec ifi ca lly di ffe re nt
It was hypothesized that the diff er ent p e r ­
son ali ty s t r u ct ure s of men and women are g e n e t i c a l l y
d e t e r m i n e d to some extent.
Thus,
men fulfill genetic
p o t e n t i a l s that are somewhat d i f fer ent
from women.
Some b io log ica l c ha rac ter is tic s are comm on among
all humans,
while others vary as a function of one's
In particular,
sex hormones have been
sex.
found to play a
major r o l e in the prenatal de ve lo p m e n t of the physical
characteristics
that distin gu ish ma les from females.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
18
The role of the sex hormones d u r i n g p renatal
development
Tucker,
is known as the "Adam Princip le "
1975).
This p r i n c i p l e states
that
(Money &
in the
absence of a suffici en t c omp lem en t of androgens,
fetal
development pro cee ds a c c o r din g to the female pattern.
In other words,
influence,
in the absenc e of early an dro g e n i c
femalene ss prevails.
However,
al t h o u g h the
male sex hormones are ne ces sa ry for m a l e development,
female de ve lo p m e n t does not requ ire the p r e s e n c e of
female sex hormones.
Furthermore,
observations,
experimental
clinical
data g a t her ed from etholo gic al
field o bse rv a t i o n s of p r e s c h o o l children,
inv est i g a t i o n s with animals,
and re cent
studies of girls who w e r e a n d r o g y n i z e d pre-
natally or early in life have led to the general p o s t u ­
lation that hormonal dif fe r e n c e s b e tw een
resulted
females
in grea ter a g g r e s s i v e n e s s
(Goldberg,
1973;
1974; Money & Ehrhardt,
Postnatally,
Hutt,
1972;
the sexes have
in ma le s
1972;
Wilson,
Maccoby
than in
& Jacklin,
1975).
r e s ea rc h e v i d e n c e indicates
that
the sex hormones p r e d i s p o s e m e m b e r s of e a c h sex toward
specific kinds of behavior.
levels of and rogens
In particular,
higher
have been shown to incr eas e the
tendency for a g g r e s s i v e behaviors,
of p rog estérones and est rog ens
for c are-taking b e h a v i o r s
and h i g h e r levels
increase the t e n den cy
(DeVore,
1965).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
19
It is wi thin t h e s e realms of a g g r e s s i o n and nurturance that r esearch findings have been m o s t consistent.
Out of fifty-seven s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ign ifi can t d iff er e n c e s
in aggression between the sexes reviewed by M a c c o b y and
Ja c k l y n
(1974),
the males.
than males
fi fty -t wo showed the d i f f e r e n c e
favoring
Females w e r e reported to be more a g g r e s s i v e
in the rem ai nin g
five comparisons.
In an
ear lie r review of f o r t y- fiv e studies d e a l i n g wi th nurtu rance,
Maccoby
higher
(1966)
r e p o r t e d that only two studies found
scores among males.
significant d i f f e r e n c e s
Thirty -ei gh t studie s found
in favor of females.
The r e m a i n ­
ing five studies found no significant d i ffe re nce .
Studies
of sex di fferences on scores of other d i m e n s i o n s of b e h a v ­
ior were reviewed by M a c c o b y and J a c k l y n
dimen si ons
ing,
(1974) .
The se
include such variables as d i s c r i m i n a t i o n l e a r n ­
general
i nte lle c t u a l ability,
ibility,
self-esteem,
ability,
etc.
sociability,
achiev eme nt motivation,
Gender diffe ren ce s were
directi ons with no con sis t e n t pattern.
a ggr ess io n and nurturance,
suggest­
analytical
found in both
Thus,
next to
conflicting e v i d e n c e exists
in investigating sex differences.
R e c ent ly however,
some
good evidence has been reported with some co n s i s t e n c y of
gender difference
in t erms of cognitive abilities.
m a j o r i t y of the studies reported findings of
among p os tpubertal females
in verbal ability,
A
s upe ri ori ty
and among
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
20
postpubertal males
(Kenner,
in s p ati al and q u a n t i t a t i v e a b i l i t y
1982).
Oppos ed to the bio log ic al view is the e n v i r o n ­
mental view,
which ho lds
the o b vi ous anatomical
socialization.
Mea d
that sex di ffe r e n c e s ot h e r than
ones are entirely the p r o d u c t of
(1935)
wrote on three N e w G ui nea
tribes wh ic h were q u i t e di f f e r e n t with r e s p e c t to their
feminine and m a s c u l i n e qualities.
both sexes
exhibited t r ait s commonly a s s o c i a t e d with
femininity.
tribe,
In the A r a p e s h tribe,
The o p p o s i t e was observed a m o n g the M u n d u g u m o r
w here both m e n a n d w om en were found to be e q ual ly
aggressive.
The r e v e r s e was observed am on g the T c h a m b u l i
tribe wh ere women w e r e
with the men adop ti ng
found to be the a g g r e s s i v e ones
the passive role.
ences a m o n g the three cultures.
F r o m these d i f f e r ­
Mead was r e p o r t e d
clude that the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of males and
to c o n ­
femal es
in any
society are solely the r e s u l t s of social c o n d i t i o n i n g and
are i nd ependent of any b io log ica l
Wesley,
in heritance
(Wesley &
1977).
M ead's o b s e r v a t i o n a l methods have not been spared
from criticisms.
Piddington
sample of headhunters,
ermen,
etc.,
was too
were biased.
In all
(1957)
wrote that Mead's
m e d i c i n e men,
ex otic dancers,
fish­
small and that her r e c o r d i n g m e tho ds
her cultures,
ho micidal v i o l e n c e was
evident and most of the v i o l e n c e occurred at the hands of
men
(Konner,
1982) .
T c h a m b u l i men may have been p e r c e i v e d
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
21
as f e m i ni ne in compar iso n w i t h Ame ric an stereotypes.
However,
the Tchambuli men w e r e very much devoted
their traditional head h u n t i n g activities.
further
to
Konner
(1982)
stated that the M u n d u g u m o r men allowed their
women to provi de for them b e c a u s e it freed them to plot
and fight.
Mu r d o c k
(1949)
c o n d u c t e d a study of over
200
cul tu res a nd reported that
in al most all of them,
are e n g a g e d in hunting and
fishing,
r e s p o n s i b l e for the c o o kin g and
more,
K on ne r
recorded
(1982)
m en
and the women a re
flour grinding.
Further­
wrote t h a t there is no society
in history in w h i c h me n were involved in as
muc h baby and child care as women.
In their r e s ea rch w i t h pseudohermaphrodites.
Money and
Ehrhardt
(1972)
r e p o r t e d that children r e are d
in a sex con tra dic tin g the ir predom in ant external g e n i ­
tal ap p e a r a n c e were able to e s t a b l i s h a gender role that
is e n t i r e l y in ag reement w i t h the assigned sex a nd r e a r ­
ing practices.
Hampson and H a m p s o n
a person wit h male sex c h r o m o s o m e s
raised as a girl usual ly w a n t s
engages
(1961)
rep or ted
(XY) who has been
to dress like a girl,
in activities that a r e common to girls,
to m a r r y a man someday.
that
and wants
The basic point is that t h e r e
a very close r e la tio nsh ip b e t w e e n the assignment of
is
sex
and r e a r i n g practices and the e sta bl ishment of a m a s c u l i n e
or femi nin e
sex-role.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
22
As Dia mon d
revealed
(1965)
concluded,
research e v i d e n c e
that d ue primarily to ho rmonal influences,
human
beings are d e f i nit ely p r e d i s p o s e d at birth to a m a l e or
female g e n d e r orientation.
po si tio n
this innate p r e d i s ­
serves only as a p o t e n t i a l i t y that is g r e a t l y
modifiable
pos tna tal
the
However,
by postnatal e x pe rie nce s.
Additionally,
experi enc es are r e g a r d e d as a powerful
t hese
force
in
f o r m u l a t i o n and e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a cu lt ura lly a c c e p t ­
able sex-role.
It is apparent that b o t h heredity and e n v i r o n m e n t
pla y s i g n i f i c a n t roles in a l m o s t every aspect of hu man
d e v elo pme nt .
This has led so me
o f - t h e - r o a d approach,
between
pr o p o s i n g
scholars to ado pt a middlea dependent r e l a t i o n s h i p
h e r e d i t y and environment.
is not w i t h o u t
to d e t e r m i n e
However,
its own shortcomings,
to what degree
this a p p r o a c h
since it is d i f f i c u l t
it is influenced by e n v i r o n ­
ment .
In ter ac tio n of h e r e d i t y and environment can o c c u r
in severa l
dif fer ent ways.
found that
boys and girls r e a c t e d diffe ren tl y to both
breast, f e e din g and bottle
fed
showed more
boys,
but had
For example,
feeding.
fears,
ences
than
than br e a s t - f e d
fewer fears a nd b et ter appetites.
better appetites,
formula-fed girls.
held c o n s t a n t and variance w a s
(1963)
Boys who we re fo r m u l a -
bed-wetting o c c u r e n c e s
showed the o p p os ite tendencies.
fewer
H e i ns tei n
Girls
Breast-fed gi r l s r e p o r t e d
a nd more be d- we t t i n g o c c u r ­
Here,
the e n v i r o n m e n t w as
found in heredity.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
23
He r edi ty and e n v i r o n m e n t m a y also covary.
It has
been observed that m o t h e r s tend to inte ra ct more of te n
with newly born boys,
h o ld ing th e m for longer p e ri od s and
stressing their m u s c u l a t u r e m o r e o f t e n
(Moss,
1967).
These m o t h e r s
in physical p l a y
r e p o r t e d that they did this
in order to quiet their more ac t i v e a n d more fussy boys.
However,
in actuality,
it m a y have the opp osi te effect.
That is,
the add iti on al p h y s ic al and
social cont ac ts m a y
act ual ly m a k e the boys mor e a c t i v e t h a n girls.
covariance
indicates that h e r e d i t y varies,
Such
and w i t h it,
en vir onmental c ond it i o n s also vary.
H ist ori ca l
A c c o rd ing
three domi na nt
Perspectives
to a r e cen t s u r v e y
(Hunter,
images of w ome n have e m e r g e d from the
ancient G r e e k and Roman c i v i l i z a t i o n s .
the i nferiority of women
objects,
1976).
to men,
These
include
w o m e n r egarded as
and wo men as mo re evil
love
than men.
The anci ent G re eks wer e e s p e c i a l l y co nvinced
about the inferi or ity of women
is evident
(Pomeroy,
in most themes of G r e e k
women were exc lud ed
women had less
literature.
from social and p olitical
were tolerated becau se
of the civilization.
1975),
they we re
needed
which
Although
life,
they
for p r o p a g a t i o n
It was A r i s t o t l e who sug ges ted that
in trinsic
"soul
heat"
than men,
and
thus
could not proc ess their m e n s t r u a l
b l o o d to the final
stage of semen
Therefore,
(Whitbeck,
1976).
in the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
24
creation of children,
women were thought to co ntr i b u t e
only the ma te ria ls that formed the embryo wh ile the soul
came from the father.
The society of the a n ci en t Romans a w a rde d
to women that was less
Greeks.
status
inferior than that of the anc ien t
Roman w o m e n were gi ven access to education,
property,
and independence.
However,
it w as the e m a n c i ­
pation of women that was b e lie ved to be r e s p o n s i b l e
the decadence in ancient Rome,
family system,
(Hunter,
for
the b r e a k d o w n of the Roman
and the fall of Rome to the B a r b a ri ans
1976).
Among the anci ent Hebrews,
social p r a c t i c e s
reflected the e s tab lis hed m a l e s u p e r i o r i t y and
inferiority
(Hunter,
1976).
female
Double st an dar ds existed:
i.e. a woman who was not a v i r g i n at m a r r i a g e cou ld be
stoned to death,
whereas a m a n who raped a v i r g i n was
expected only to re imburse her father
for d a m a g e s of his
property.
The a dv ent of Jesus was regar de d as
of teachings and d octrines that
equals.
Jesus,
treated men and w o m e n as
who a p p a r e n t l y did not m a k e much d i s t i n c ­
tions between the sexes,
a p p e a r e d to have had a hig h
opinion of women as well as men,
tual equality wi t h men
Nielsen
preindustrial
the b eginning
(1978)
(Faxon,
exam in ed
and g r a n t e d women
spiri­
1973) .
sex-roles a n d status
in
societies and c o n c lud ed that there were
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
25
re lat iv ely clear sexual divisions of labor.
The men
were involved in hunt ing and subsistence w o r k while
women were c o n fi ned to household work.
tion to
Si n c e c o n t r i b u ­
food pr o d u c t i o n affected one's o v e r a l l
status
within the society,
m en consistently were a w a r d e d higher
status than women.
Even when women began to join the
labor force in large numbers during p o s t i n d u s t r i a l times,
society was not so willing to award wo men equal
status.
The perc eiv ed i n f e r i o r status of females g e n e r a l l y p e r ­
sisted.
Thus,
a w o m a n who decided to jo in
the labor
force had to pay the price of being r e s p o n s i b l e
jobs,
for two
her chosen career and her expected h o u s e h o l d duties.
Tradi ti ona l Sex-Roles
Although cultu res differ in the d e g r e e
they pres cr ibe
stan da rds of behavior,
mote different
st and ar ds
for males and
behavioral and p s y cho log ica l areas.
ture,
tra ditional
widely.
A c c o r din g
all
to which
c u l t u r e s pr o­
females
in certain
In the Amer ica n c u l ­
expectations of men a n d w o m e n differ
to Keller
(1974),
the c o r e elements of
the female role c u r r e n t l y include:
1.
A c o n c e n t r a t i o n on marriage,
home,
and
ch i ldr en
2.
A r e l i a n c e on a male p r o v i d e r
for survival
and status
3.
An e m p h asi s on creation of
life and
nu r t u r a n c e
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
26
4 . A stress on personal a p p e a r a n c e
5.
A ban on the direct e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s ­
sion,
assertion,
and p owe r striving.
The core elements of the male role c u r r e n l t y include
(Pleck,
1974):
1.
Physical
s t r en gth and a c c o m p l i s h m e n t
2.
Emotional
3.
A v o i d anc e of intimacy w i t h s a m e - s e x others
4.
P rovision of susten anc e and p r o t e c t i o n
control
for
women and children.
Acc ording to Parso ns and Bales
(1955),
has been associated w i t h an i ns tru m e n t a l
masculinity
o rie ntation.
This orien tat ion
focuses on g e t t i n g
the j ob d o n e or the
problem
On the ocher hand,
f e m i n i n i t y has been
solved.
ass oc i a t e d with an e x p r e s s i v e orientation,
an a f f e c tiv e
concern
for the we l f a r e of o thers and the h a r m o n y of the
group.
An expres si ve o r i e n t a t i o n
internal affairs of the
system,
is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the
wherea s
the
instr ume nta l
orientation is c o n c e r n e d with exter nal goals.
Bakan
(1966)
has suggested that m a s c u l i n i t y
associated with an a g e nti c o r i e n t a t i o n and
a communal orientation.
A ge ncy m a n i f e s t s
ass ert ion and self-expansion;
itself with the sense of
ness;
isolation,
communion w i t h contact,
f e m i n i n t y with
i tself
in self-
communion manifests
in the sense of being one w i t h others.
itself
A g e n c y concerns
alienation,
openness,
is
and alone-
and union.
Agency
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
27
involves the desire to master:
c o n t r a c t u a l cooperation.
communion i n v o l v e s n o n ­
A g e n c y is com mit ted to the
r e p r e s s i o n of feeling a n d impulse;
communion
is c o m m i t t e d
to the lack and removal of repression.
As Kelley
line an d
roots
(1974)
feminine roles
reported,
the t r a d i t i o n a l m a s c u ­
in A m e r i c a n society h a v e
in the p atriarchal
system,
of the ancient Greeks and Romans.
a r e f l e c t i o n of man's p h y s i c a l
their
dating back to the time
The m a s c u l i n e
r o l e is
strength and h is a b i l i t y
to p r o t e c t his family a g a i n s t attack from o uts id e r s .
t y pic al young American mal e values physical
T he
s t r e n g t h and
a t h l e t i c achievements.
The traditional m a s c u l i n e role also c a l l s for
dominance
in other areas of
the po lit ica l world,
dominance
life.
economic
is also e x p ect ed
Men c o m m o n l y rule
sphere,
and re lig ion .
in family life.
leaders hi p.
The h u sb an d plays the a g g r e s s i v e role in sexual
ships while the wife is c o n s i d e r e d the passi ve
is also expe cte d
economic
role in the family.
the m a i n
source of family
Finally,
munity
a man's
respect
relation­
partner.
to carry out the m a j o r
He is the chief
breadwinner,
income.
status and p o s i t i o n
is basic to his fam ily 's social
f e s s i o n or his l eadership
This
W i v e s and
c h i l d r e n are expected to f oll ow the m a s c u l i n e
The male
in
in the co m ­
status.
His p r o ­
in the community d e t e r m i n e s
his family receives.
Clearly,
the
men h o l d the d o m i ­
nant ro le in family and c o m m u n i t y life.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
28
The traditional
f e m i n i n e role is e s s e n t i a l l y to
c o m p l e m e n t the m a s c ul in e r o l e
active,
women
so woman is pas siv e.
(Kelley,
1974).
Man
is
Men marched off to war,
so
kept the home intact a n d awaited the return of
their men.
The traditional w o m a n
and a c c o m p l i s h m e n t
finds her greatest p r i d e
in the r o l e of wife and mother.
is to
love her husband and m o t h e r his children.
woman
is honored for b r i n g i n g
for her
loving and wa t c h f u l
children,
T he
children into the world,
c a r e as she brings up he r
and her d a i l y e n c o u r a g e m e n t and u nde ma n d i n g
love for her husband.
and
She
She
is the symbol of the s t r e n g t h
s t a b i l i t y of the home.
The traditional w o m a n ' s
economic role is c e n t e r e d
on r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s for the h o m e and the children also.
She
IS to center her a t t e n t i o n on housework and on the
care a n d guidance of the children,
as the husband f u l ­
fills
the home.
his r esp ons ib ili tie s o u t s i d e
she d o e s
not earn cash i nco me directly,
Although
she carries
res­
p o n s i b i l i t i e s that e nab le the husband to go out and
ful­
fill his.
The social role of the
mu ch r e s t r i c t e d pattern.
to e n g a g e
(Kelley,
1974).
is a
M e n are granted o p p o r t u n i t i e s
in social a c t i v i t i e s
the w o m e n are expected
traditional woman
outside the home,
while
to be at home with the c h i l d r e n
It is not,
therefore,
uncommon for
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
29
groups of men to congregate for their own social a c t i v i ­
ties,
a p p a r e n t l y unconcerned ab o u t the par ti cipation of
their wives.
A l t h o u g h the Women's M o v e m e n t
ficant
influence toward
has been a s i g n i ­
i ncr eas ing d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n wi th
existing prescribed roles
for men a nd women,
have been shown to remain pervasi ve.
There is little
ev idence to suggest that the r e c e n t chang es
have resu lt ed
in significant c h a n g e s
Recent
Martin,
1975;
studies
(O'Leary
Parelius,
1975;
stereot ype s
in attitude
in behavior.
& Depner,
Steinmann,
1975;
1975)
Osmond
&
inve st i­
gated the sex-role a ttitudes of m en a n d women u n d e r g r a d u ­
ates.
The results indicated that a l t h o u g h both sexes
agreed on a basic division of labor w i t h the woman c o n ­
tinuing her primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of home and child
care,
and
the man as the chief breadwinner,
shifts away
there were
from traditional a t t i t u d e among college
women wit h increasing em phasis on t hei r own achie vem en t
and le ade r s h i p roles.
However,
despite
this new emphasis,
the w o m e n revealed that they s e r i o u s l y distrust
male a t t i tu de s and are still c o n v i n c e d
women to remain
in the t rad iti on al
that the men want
roles.
The male a t t i ­
tudes are c o ns ist en tly p e r c e i v e d as unwi lli ng
equal
liberal
to accept
status with women.
The men also
should be competent,
indicated that
adventurous,
their ideal woman
an d
successful.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
30
However,
further q u e s t i o n i n g revealed that
more willin g
the m e n were
to a c c e p t changes that are not thr eat e n i n g
to their own pos ition.
In addition,
the m e n als o
revealed that they we re overstating their b e l i e f s
order to av oid bei ng
Komarovsky
in
labeled as chauvinists.
(1973)
studied the e f f e c t s of sex-role
attitude c h ang es a m o n g college men and
found that,
although t hese men exp ressed preference for wo men who are
bright and who can c o mpe te with them intellectually,
revealed that
and inferior.
such w o m e n made them feel anxious,
Upo n
further questioning,
nervous,
these apparent
supporters of sexual equality indicated that t her e
substitute
they
is no
for a m o t h e r during a child's g r o w t h years and
were not w i l l i n g to be involved in such tasks as laundry,
cleaning,
or c h a n g i n g diapers.
attitudes
toward trad iti ona l
but its em ot ion al
that both male a n d
study
(Peplau,
to be unchanged.
1979),
it was
found
female college stud en ts o v e r w h e l m ­
ingly r e j ec te d m a l e dominance
favo re d
sex-roles m a y be weak eni ng
all eg i a n c e appears
In a n o t h e r
ship and
K o m a r o v s k y c o n c l u d e d that
in a dyadic d a t i n g r e l a t i o n ­
"equal partnership."
small p o rt ion of the
However,
sample reported that
only a
they had a c t ua lly
achieved this d e s i r a b l e equal-power r e l ati on shi p.
Thi s lack of observable b eha vio ral c h a n g e s to
accompany s e x - r o l e a t t it ude changes has been s u g g es te d
by some i n v e s t i g a t o r s
to be the result of a t t i t u d e shifts
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
31
being
specific s i tua tio na l
significant changes.
One
factors rather
study reported that w h e n in
the company of d e s i r a b l e m a l e partners,
trayed themselves
by the partners,
(Zanna & Pack,
changes
than lasting
the w o m e n p o r ­
in se x - r o l e terms that w e r e exp ect ed
either
1975) .
tr aditional or n o n t r a d i t i o n a l
The
inv est igators
suggested
that
in attitude among wo men may be l a r g e l y due to
their efforts to be what
they perceive the
in their lives want them to be.
reinf or cin g existing
i m p o r ta nt men
This m a y a c t u a l l y be
s e x - r o l e stereotypes by remaining
d e p e nde nt on the d e sir es of men.
Th eoretical
Co n s t r u c t of A n d r o g y n y
Sex-role identity has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been c o n c e p t ­
uali zed as bipolars of tr ait s and behaviors.
m a s c u l i n e c har ac t e r i s t i c s
ones,
the
and vice versa.
e s s e n t ial ly p r e d o m i n a t e
Thus,
set of c h a r a ct eri sti cs
The un idi me n s i o n a l
in the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
the continuum.
conception of
sex-roles,
femininity,
femin ini ty with the lack of masculinity,
ta rget of much c r i t i c i s m recently.
(1974),
Co n s t ant ino pl e
Block
(1973)
feminine
found at one end of the con­
m a s c u l i n i t y is equated w i t h the lack of
such as Bem
is,
an individual wh o ac quires
tinuu m IS expected to be d e f i c i e n t
found at the other end of
Th at
(1973),
has
Scholars
Ca r l s o n
where
and
been the
in the field
(1971),
and
q u e s t i o n e d this c o n c e p t i o n and for­
m u l ate d an alterna ti ve m o d e l
in which m a s c u l i n i t y and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
32
f e m i n i n i t y a r e per cei ve d as separ ate di men s i o n s w h i c h
vary i n d e p e n d e n t l y of each other.
That
is,
en d o r s e m e n t of certain m a s c u l i n e qualities,
m a s c uli ne
certain
aggressiveness,
a p e r s o n ’s
such as
does not predict the
f e m i n i n e qualities,
lack of
such as feminine s e nsi ti vit y.
T r a d i t i o n a l c on cep ti ons of sex-roles a r e no
longer p e r c e i v e d as a p p r o p r i a t e
m ode rn s o c i e t y of today.
a l t e r n a t i v e model,
to the con di t i o n s of
A leading proponent of t h i s
Sandra Bem
(1974),
su ggested that
it
is the c u l t i v a t i o n of both sex- rol e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that
makes a p e r s o n whole.
Such an
e q u i ppe d to enhance his or her
individual
life exper ie nce s
demanding
society.
se x-roles
have restricted hum an behavior
ways.
Several
High f e m i n ini ty
in
has been shown c o n s i s t e n t l y to be c o r r e l a t e d with
(Cosentino & Heilbrun,
(Gail,
Sears,
1969;
Webb,
in m a l e s
1963).
1970),
However,
1964),
low s e l f - e s t e e m
and low social a c c e p t a n c e
On the othe r hand,
(Gray,
high m a s c u l i n i t y
has been shown to corr ela te with high p s y c h o l o g ­
ical a d j u s t m e n t during a dol es c e n c e
d ur ing adulthood,
(Mussen,
and low social adjust me nt
Furthermore,
1961).
h i g h m asc uli nit y has
shown to c o r r e l a t e with high anxiety,
1962).
in i m p o r t a n t
studies have shown that a high level of
high a n x i e t y
1957;
in today's
It is Bern's position that t r a d i t i o n a l
s e x - t y p i n g m a y not be desirable.
females
is b e t t e r
be en
low self- acc ept anc e,
(Hartford et al.,
1967;
sex -ty ped boys and girls w e r e
Mussen,
found
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
33
to have lower overall
intelligence,
and lower creativity,
while c r o ss
quite c o n sis ten tl y with g re a t e r
(Maccoby,
lower spatial ability,
sex-typing c o r r e l a t e s
intellectual d e v e l o p m e n t
1966) .
More recent studies,
significant dif fe ren ce was
however,
f o un d be t w e e n sex-typed and
cross sex -typed subjects in so cia l
Steffen & Longmeyer,
Anderson,
1981).
1981)
competence
and c r e a t i v i t y
(Campbell,
(Harrington
&
No s ign if ica nt d i f f e r e n c e be tween the
two groups was also reported
health
reported that no
(Henrichsen,
in s e l f - e s t e e m and m e n t a l
Follansbee,
& Ganellen,
1981).
Thus,
evidence prese nt ed by i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on the d i f f e r e n c e s
between cross sex-typed and
been consistent.
However,
s e x - t y p e d individuals has
c r o s s sex-typing,
no t
wh ere an
individual displ ays those g e n e r a l
c h ar ac ter ist ic s c o m m o n l y
associated w i t h the opposite sex,
should not be c o n f u s e d
as the e qui val en t of androgyny.
An a ndrogynous c o n c e p t i o n of sex-roles mea ns
that
each sex cul tiv ate s general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s usu all y a s s o ­
ciated with the other
in t r a d i t i o n a l definitions,
addition to its own.
This m e a n s
expressiveness
that tenderness and
should be c u l t i v a t e d
approved in men,
in
in boys and s o c i a l l y
so that a m a l e of any age would be
p s y c h o l o gi cal ly and socially f r ee to express these q u a l i ­
ties,
in a d d iti on to his o t h e r
attributes,
t rad it ion al
in his daily functions.
sex-appropriate
It means that
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
34
achievement
cultivated
need and c ons tru ct ive a g g r e s s i o n should be
in girls and a p p r o v e d
in women,
so that a
female of a ny age would be e q u a l l y free p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y
and s o c i a l l y to express these qualities,
her oth er
traditional
in add iti on
se x - a p p r o p r i a t e qualities,
to
in her
d ail y functions.
Correlates of A n d r o g y n y
R e s e a r c h findings in dicate that sex-role s t e r e o ­
typing tends to limit the p o t e nt ial d eve lo pme nt of
vidual m e m b e r s of both sexes
1971).
(Bardwick,
N e i t h e r the macho-male,
n u r t u r a n c e and
interpersonal
s u b m i s s i v e - f e m a l e , lacking
and sel f-reliance,
of t o da y's
Schaeffer,
a g g r e s s i v e but lacking
sensitivity,
in
nor the
in i n s tru men ta l
i n de pen den ce
is well p r e p a r e d to meet the d e m a n d s
ra p i d l y changing society.
The concept of a n d r ogy ny
sible for an
implies that it is p o s ­
individual to be bot h ma scu lin e and
both
i n s t r u m e n t a l and expressive,
nal,
depending
feminine,
both agentic and c o m m u ­
upon the s it ua tio nal a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s at
any g i v e n time.
w ithin
1971;
indi­
It is those
ind iv i d u a l s who combine
their own personalities
those
traits t r a d i t i o n a l l y
s t e r e o t y p e d as masculine and f e m i n i n e that are found most
likely to be high in c r e a t i v i t y
1968,
1969).
(Barron,
This type of ind ivi d u a l s
shown to have achieved more m a t u r e
opment
than other sex types
(Block,
1969;
Helson,
has also been
levels of moral d e v e l ­
1973) .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
35
Research e v i d e n c e has also r e v e a l e d that an
androgynous view of onese lf has been found to be a c c o m ­
panied by a higher
level of s e l f - e s t e e m than se x- typ ed
or und ifferentiated se lf -c o n c e p t i o n s
1980;
Heilbrun,
1981).
(Kaplan & Sedney,
It was also found that a n d r o g y ­
nous individuals were able to p e r f o r m c r o s s - s e x beha vio rs
with little r e l u c t a n c e or discomfort.
Furthermore,
they
were able to p e r f o r m e ffe ct i v e l y those b e h a vi ors r e q u i r ­
ing either m a s c u lin e
in dependence or f e m in in e nurturance,
depending on what a gi v e n situation c a l l e d for
Bern's u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d g r o u p was
The subjects
and,
less s elf -disclosure
(1930)
in se l f ­
in the u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d g r o u p d i s ­
played si gn ificantly less r e s p o n s i v e n e s s
in the experiment,
1975) .
found to score
lower than sex -typed and and rog yno us g r o u p s
esteem.
(Bern,
among men,
(Hem,
1977) .
toward a k itt en
reported
si g n i f i c a n t l y
F l a h e r t y and Dusek
reported that the a ndr ogy no us g r o u p in their
study
scored sig ni fic ant ly higher than the u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
group on p s y ch olo gi cal
it,
adjustment.
As
Bem
(1974)
has put
both m a sc uli nit y and femininity mus t be a v a i l a b l e
within the person
in order
for fully e f f e c t i v e and
heal thy
human functioning to be achieved.
However,
due to the d i f f e r e n t i a l
child-rearing p r a c t i c e s
for both sexes,
st and ar ds of
a look into sex-
differences in a n d r o g y n y appears warra nte d.
The q u e s t i o n
is whether males w o u l d tend to d e m o n s t r a t e g r e a t e r
androgyny than females,
or vice versa.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
36
Brown
(1958)
p o i nt ed out that in the A m e r i c a n
culture males are exposed to stricter c o n s t r a i n t s
in
their sex-role behaviors d u r i n g d e v e l o p m e n t than
females.
The boy is given little o p p o r t u n i t y
in
for e n g a g i n g
passive play a ctivities u s u a l l y as so ci a t e d w i t h girls,
or for any uncontrolled e m o t io na l d i s p l a y of fear,
or affection.
results
Vi ola tio n of these co nst r a i n t s
in the boy earning the
joy,
usually
label of a sissy w h o then
becomes the object of r i d i c u l e among his peers.
On
the
other hand,
girls are expose d to less strict c o n s t r a i n t s
than boys.
Girls engaging
in agg re s s i v e and p h y s i c a l
play activities usually a s s o c i a t e d with boys ea rn the
label of a tomboy.
However,
the label of a t o m b o y doe s
not c ar ry with it as h eav y a stigma as a sissy.
further pointed out that,
ard persists.
am ong adults,
Brown
this d o u b l e
Females are a c c o r d e d g r eat er
stand­
f r e e d o m to
d i s p l a y feminine or m a s c u l i n e qua lit ie s while m a l e s
cross­
ing over stereotypic lines are more likely to e l i c i t
strong negative reactions.
at titudes
Thus,
these mor e r e l a x e d
being e xe rcised to ward the females
should
itate development of a n d r o g y n o u s q u a l it ie s among
facil­
the
female sex.
However,
Lynn
(1969)
site should be the casedevelopment,
the mother,
p o in ted out that
That
is,
the o p p o ­
in the p r oc ess of
boys make an initial i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h
followed by a subsequ ent
identification with
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
37
the father at later years.
Thus
it is app are nt that b o t h
feminine and m a s c u l i n e bases are instilled within the boy.
The girl,
on the other hand,
is view ed to make s uc ces siv e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s w i t h the mother,
thereby reinforcing a
feminine base.
Block
social
(1973)
behaviors,
also p o i nt ed out that training p r o ­
a f eminine quality,
is viewed as one
of several
i m p o rt ant pare nta l r es pon si bil iti es toward the
children.
Thus,
boys,
when such t raining
is carried out to w a r d
it w o u l d seem that it should facilitate a ndr og y n o u s
de vel opment.
For girls,
training pr o s o c i a l
in contrast,
the emphasis of
b eh aviors would seem to reinforce their
femininity.
He i l b r u n ' s
(1981)
p e r i o d i c a l l y for over
tentions.
a n a l y s e s of his data co llected
two d e ca de s rep lic ate d Block's c o n ­
He re p o r t e d that among a ndr og yno us individuals,
the m a l e s c o n s i s t e n t l y e m er ge d as more androgynous than
the females.
That
is,
a n d r o g y n o u s males were found to
ob t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher
scores than androgynous
females
Coping Behaviors
Every
ences
individual
is faced with stressful e x p e r i ­
in his or her dai ly life.
to m a n a g e or m a s t e r
Each p erson seeks ways
these trying experie nce s so that a
state of p s y c h o l o g i c a l and phy si o l o g i c a l
euilibrium is
reestablished
These m a n ag ing
and g e n e r a l l y maintained.
effo rts are r e f e r r e d to as coping behaviors.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
38
Each individual,
experiences,
from his or her past learning
has a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d st ructure of a d a p t a ­
tion to deal w i t h environ me nta l d e m a n d s
(White,
1974) .
This structure consists of s yst em a t i c responses r e a d i l y
available for the individual.
The c o pi ng process
attempt to deal w i t h stressful
s i t u a t i o n s which a p e r s o n
feels he must do something about,
but wh ich exceed his or
her existing a d a p t a t i o n res pon se patterns.
coping behaviors may range
most irrational,
is a n y
Although
from the m o s t rational to the
all are u t i l i z e d w i t h the same u l t i m a t e
objectives w h i c h are to prevent,
reduce,
or resolve the
stress and its consequences.
Stress
is viewed as a p e r s o n - e n v i r o n m e n t p r o b l e m
resulting from p erceptions and a p p r a i s a l s of one's e n v i ­
ronment
(Lazarus
& Launier,
1978).
Therefore,
mental events a r e not of t h e m s e l v e s
stressful.
events must be p er ceived by the person,
appraisal process,
environ­
These
subjected to an
and ev alu at ed as a threat to his we ll-
being p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y or ph ysi ol o g i c a l l y ,
before they can
fall under the rubric of stress.
Stress
body to prepare
stimulates hormo nal
c h an ge s within the
it for some action.
be evoked by som ething u n p l e a s a n t
This response can
like an argument,
or
something that is pe rc eived as t h r e a t e n i n g like being
called to face a d i s c i p l i n a r y c omm it t e e .
response uses up energy w h i c h n e e d s
The stress
to be restored a f t e r
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
39
the particular c h a l l e n g e has been met.
an individual
when
is p l a c e d wi thin a s tre ss-inducing e n vir on ­
ment for a long p e rio d of time,
office,
Therefore,
such as a busy day in the
it is not s u r p r i s i n g that this individual seeks
to fall into bed at the end of the day.
most people,
However,
for
there are other re sponsibilities which
require them to keep f unc ti o n i n g beyond the hours of a
working day.
In or der
the various stressful
individual devise s
to preserve energy to deal with
eve nts one is met wit h daily,
an
his or her own collection of coping
strategies.
R e s ea rch e v i d e n c e revealed that,
in the highly
tensed at m o s p h e r e of a c o r o na ry- car e unit,
the patient
who chooses to ignore or d e n y the diagnosis and shuts out
the p os si bil ity of s ud den death,
the best,
Foster,
was indicated
both p h y s i c a l l y and p syc ho log ica lly
& Harvey,
1972).
to fare
(Gentry,
In a study of a g r o u p of finan­
cially successful men,
those who had the least access
coping strategies were
the
psychological
h e al th
Stress,
be of tremendous
Mo individual
(1976)
Thus,
least adjusted in overall
(Vaillant,
as a u n i v e rsa l
in intense and d i s t r e s s i n g
1977).
human phenomenon,
experiences,
i n f l u e n c e on behavior
complete
how one copes w i t h
results
and appe ars
(Lazarus,
is c o m p l e t e l y free from stress.
has put it,
to
to
1966).
As Selye
freedom from stress is death.
stress evidently a f fec ts his
overall ps yc ho l o g i c a l health.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
40
In view of the fact tha t
sex-typed
individuals
have been shown to behave in c e rta in pr esc rib ed ways,
appears logical that m a s c u l i n e
coping
individuals wo u l d a d o p t
strategies that are d i f f e r e n t from f e m i n i n e
viduals.
Since m asc ul i n i t y
it
indi­
is associ ate d wi th g e t t i n g
the job done or the pr o b l e m solved,
it appears
likely
that m as culine individuals d e v o t e their coping e f f o r t s
to changing their own p r o b l e m - m a i n t a i n i n g b e h a v i o r or to
changing the environmental
c o n d it ion s
1978).
w i t h femini nit y a s s o c i a t e d
On the other hand,
with an expressive orientation,
(Lazarus & Launier,
it appears l i k e l y that
feminine individuals d e v o t e t h e i r coping e f for ts to the
express ion of stressful e m o t i o n s
tory internal state
(Lazarus
to maint ain a s a t i s f a c ­
& Launier,
th ere fo re unlikely that a f e m i nin e
1978).
It
is
individual w i l l
be
able to cope effectively w i t h stressful events th at
demand masculine
strategies.
vidual will be equally
Likewise,
ineffective
ful events that demand fe m i n i n e
a n d r o g yno us
individual
in coping w i t h s t r e s s ­
strategies.
Thus,
an
s tra te gie s should be m o r e
e f f e cit ve in dealing w i t h v a r i e d
stressful events.
Con­
this wider r e p e r t o i r e of coping s t r a t e g i e s may
explain the obtained h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e e m and social
ment
indi­
who th e o r e t i c a l l y should be c ap abl e
of both patterns of coping
sequently,
a masculine
reported to be found am ong androg yn ous
adjust­
individuals.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
41
Te ntative C o n c l us ion s
Fro m the preceding l it era tur e
evident that an a nd ro gyn ous sex- rol e
the d ev el opm ent
of potentials.
that a n d r o g y n y results
iors.
Sex-typed
restricted
review,
i d e nti ty e n h a n c e s
Bem and o th ers
su gge ste d
in g r e at er f l e x i b i l i t y of b e h a v ­
individuals are m o r e
li kely to be
in their behavioral r e p e r t o i r e
day to day demands.
it is
However,
in d e a l i n g wit h
androgynous behavioral
flexibility has not been vali dat ed
in terms of a s y s t e ­
matic be h a v i o r a l repertoi re such as c o pin g behaviors.
Furthermore,
h i g h s e lf- est eem and high a d j u s t m e n t
reportedly found among an d r o g y n o u s
merely c o r r e l a t i o n a l
strate be hav i o r a l
In this study,
s u b je ct s h a v e been
studies with no a t t e m p t s
B e m 's c o n c e p t i o n s of a n d r o gyn y
to va l i d a t e
in terms of c o pin g
to m a nag e eve ryd ay tens ion and
The p r e c e di ng
literature r e v i e w also
there is a m p l e
support for s e x - d i f f e r e n c e s
However,
sex-diff ere nc es were
these
to d e m o n ­
flexi bil ity as the d e p e n d e n t variable.
empirical evide nc e was sought
tegies e m p loy ed
sex-role scores,
scores
found
with males a c h i e v i n g
higher scores than females.
validate s e x - d i f f e r e n c e s
stra­
stress.
shows
that
in androgyny.
in t erms of
significantly
This study a t t e m p t e d
to
in a n d r o g y n y in terms of b e h a v ­
ioral f l e x i b i l i t y of coping behaviors.
following h y p o t h e s e s were a d v a nce d
Hence,
the
for test ing and
validation :
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
42
1.
T h e r e is a significantly h i g h e r mean f l e x i ­
bility index of coping
that among m a s c u l i n e
2.
T her e
bility index of
individuals.
is a significantly h i g h e r mean f l e x i ­
coping
that among fem ini ne
3.
Th ere
strategies a m o n g androg yno us than
strategies a m o n g androg yno us than
individuals.
is a significantly h i g h e r mean f lex i­
bility index of coping strategies a m o n g a n dro gy nou s than
that among un d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
4.
individuals.
Th e r e is a significant d i f f e r e n c e in the mean
flexibility index of coping strat egi es
betw een a n d r o g y n o u s
males and a n d r o g yno us females.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER III
ME THODS
Sample Group
The s a mpl e g r o u p providing dat a
was made up of A m e r i c a n born students
western state c o ll eg es .
for this study
f ro m four mid-
This p u rpo siv e samp le g r o u p
consisted of t h o s e en ro ll e d in i n t r o d u c t o r y p s y c h o l o g y
courses
year.
study
in the Fall and Winter of the
A total of
198 2- 19 83 academic
615 subjects p a r t i c i p a t e d
(males = 308,
females = 308).
in this
All m e a s ur i ng
instruments a d m i n i s t e r e d to the s ubj ect s were returned.
Careful
i n s p e c ti o n of ea c h instrument r ev e al ed
que st io nn ai re s w e r e
were included
filled out completely.
that all
Thus,
all
in the analyses.
I nstrumentation
This s t u d y empl oy ed
two o b j e c t i v e
instruments,
the Bem In v en t or y and Burke's coping b eh a vi or q u e s t i o n ­
naire
(see a p p e n d i x A ) .
these i n st r um e nt s
The pr actical a d v a n t a g e s of
lie in their clarity,
brief
simplicity of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and scoring,
form,
and e c o no m y
of time on the p ar t of the respondents.
43
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
44
Every individual m e e t s wit h stressful
in his or her d a y- t o - d a y living.
to rely on certain m e t h o d s
situations
Each individual
t end s
to m a na g e the tension and
strain that usually follow.
Several
i nst ruments h av e
been c on structed to m e a s u r e c o pin g behaviors.
However,
most of these in st ruments p u r p o r t to measure c o p i n g
stra­
tegies toward a specific
sit uat io n such as m a n a g e r i a l
stress
death
in organizations,
illness,
ation.
in the family,
or some me di ca l p r o c e d ur es
terminal
such as a m a j o r o p e r ­
To the r es e ar c h e r ' s knowledge,
Burke's c o p i n g
b eh av io r q uest io nn ai re was the only one a v a i l a b l e tha t
was
shown to mea su re an i n d i v i d u a l 's typical c o p i n g
b eh a vi or s under stress
(Burke,
1979).
t hi rt y -s ev e n
f ro m gen era l everyday t e n s i o n
The o r i g in a l q ue st io n na i re c o n s i s t e d of
items w h i c h w e r e poo le d from s ev er a l s o u r c e s
(Burke,
1971;
& Cady,
1969).
Burke & Belcourt,
In order to v a l i d a t e
1974;
Sidle,
the instrument,
Moos,
Adams,
subjects
in
Bu rke's pilot study wer e a sk e d to list ad di ti o na l c o p i n g
s tr at eg ie s that they c o n s i d e r e d had been omitted.
A l t h o u g h some s u gge st io ns w er e added,
were judged as similar
The one exception,
all e x c ep t one
to t he items already in cluded.
p r a y for g ui da n ce and support,
a dd ed to the other items
the evidence indicated
in the questionnaire.
w as
Overall,
that the t hirty-eight items
r ep r es e n t e d the coping d o m a i n adequately.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
45
R e s po n de nt s
to the q u e s t i o n n a i r e are a s k e d
to
indicate h ow likely they are to use each of the t h i r t y eight items
stress.
in mana gi ng the t e n s i o n and strain of d a i l y
Items are r at ed on a 7 -p oi nt scale r a n g i n g
1 (very unlikely)
to 7
f ro m
(very l i k e l y ) .
The Bem Inventory,
d e v e l o p e d by Sandra
Bem
(1974),
was c o n s t r u c t e d upon the c o n c e p t i o n of m a s c u l i n i t y and
f emi ni n it y as two i nd ep e nd e nt d ime nsions.
are as ke d to indicate on a 7 - p o i n t
scale how w e l l
the sixty items d es cr ib es t h ems el ve s.
from 1
(never or almost n e ve r true)
always true)
tinuum.
e a c h of
The s c al e r a n g e s
to 7
(always or a l mo s t
and is l abeled at e a c h point a lon g t h e c o n ­
On the basis of the s u b j e ct ' s responses,
linity and
putations.
the task.
feminin it y scor es
mascu­
ca n be de rived by s i m p l e c o m ­
A Fortran p r o g r a m was wr itten to a c c o m p l i s h
From the d e r i v e d
cation c an be determined.
gories
The r e s p o n d e n t s
include:
scores,
a fourfold c l a s s i f i ­
Sp ec ifically,
masculine,
feminine,
the f o u r c a t e ­
androg yn ou s,
and
undifferentiated.
Bem
(1981)
re po r te d
the p sy ch om et ri c a n a l y s e s
p er f or m ed on two sample g r o u p s
from Stanford U n i v e r s i t y .
The first sampl e included 444 m a l e s and 279 f e m a l e s
723)
who fill ed out the
instrument
ment was a g ai n a d m i n i s t e r e d
476 m a le s a nd
340 females
in 1973.
The
(N =
instru­
to a second sample g r o u p of
(N = 816)
groups c o n s i s t of u n d e r g r a d u a t e
in 1978.
B o t h sa mp l e
students in i n t r o d u c t o r y
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
46
p sy ch ol og y course.
It is the 1978
s a mp l e g r o u p that
c urrently serves to provide n o r m a t i v e data.
In order for Bem to e s t i m a t e the internal c o n ­
sistency of the inventory,
c o e f f i c e n t al ph a was c om p ut e d
s eparately for m al e s and females on b o t h scales and the
F-M d if f er e nc e scores.
pre se nt ed
in table
The o b t a i n e d c oe f fi c i e n t s are
1.
TABLE
1
C O EF F IC I EN T AL PH A FOR T HE F E M I N I N I T Y
SCORE, T HE M A S C U L I N I T Y SCORE,
AND THE F-M D I F F E R E N C E S C OR E
Femini ni ty
Masculinity
D i ff e r e n c e
Males
0.78
0.87
0.82
Females
0.78
0.86
0.82
Bern also emplo ye d P ea r so n' s c o r r e l a t i o n a l p r o c e ­
dures to estima te
the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the scales.
The ob ta i ne d c o rr el a ti o n c o e f f i c i e n t b e t w ee n m a s c u l i n i t y
and fe mi ni nit y scores
females.
is
.00 for males,
and -.05
for
These o bta in ed c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s e m p i r ­
ically e s t a b l i sh ed the in de pe nd en ce of the m a s c u l i n i t y
and f em in in i ty dimensions.
In o rder to esti ma te the c o n s i s t e n c y of the items,
the t es t- r et e st meth od was e m p l o y e d by Bem in 1973.
T he
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
47
instrument was a d m i n i s t e r e d
for a s e co n d time to twenty-
eight males a n d t w e nt y -e ig ht females f r o m the 1973 sample
group.
The tim e be tw e en the first and s e co nd a d m i n i s t r a ­
tions was a p p r o x i m a t e l y four weeks.
B e m ' s o bt a in e d test-
retest r e l i a b i l i t i e s of both m a s c u l i n e a n d feminine scale
scores for b ot h m al e s and females,
and t h e i r feminine-
masculine d i f f e r e n c e
a re s u mm ar i ze d in
(F-M)
scores,
table 2.
TA BL E 2
T E S T - R E T E S T R E L I A B I L I T Y FOR THE
FEMININITY, MASCULINITY, A N D
F-M D I F F E R E N C E S C OR ES
M al es
Females
Ma sc ulinity
.76
.94
Femininity
.39
.82
F-M
.86
.88
Be ca us e of their recent p u bl ica ti on ,
no review
for Burke's c o p in g beha vi or q u e s t i o n n a i r e of Bem's
Inventory is a v a i l a b l e from the Buros M e n t a l Me asurements
Yearbook
Field Proce du re s
Since
s ub je ct s for this study w e r e ma d e up of
students e n r o l l e d
in i n t r od uc t or y p s y c h o l o g y courses.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
48
the instruments were a d m i n i s t e r e d
T ho se
in c l as sr oo m settings.
instructors who a g r ee d to assist in g a t h e r i n g the
data were briefed
t ho r ou g h l y
so that i ns tr uc ti on s and
a dm in is t ra t io n were s ta n da rdiz ed .
during regular class time.
cedures
M o r e specifically,
involved the f o l l o w i n g
1.
the p r o ­
steps:
I n st ru ct or s p a ss e d the instruments to the
pa rt icipating
2.
Data were c o l l e c t e d
students.
I ns tr u ct o rs a s s u r e d
mit y was guaranteed;
that
is,
the students that a n o n y ­
no form of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
was requi re d from the subjects.
However,
those w h o were
interested in their own s c o re s and the ov er a ll
of the study c ou ld so
r es u lt s
i n d i ca t e by giving their st ud e nt
ID numbers on the space provided.
3.
In st ru c to rs
read aloud the i n s t ru c ti on s
found on the first and t hi rd pages.
4.
on all
S ubj ec ts we r e r e m i n d e d not to skip a n y
item
three pages.
5.
S ub je ct s w er e to l d to begin filling o ut the
q ue st io n na i re s with as m u c h time allowed as was needed.
S t a t e m en t of Mull
The foll ow in g null
for statistical
1.
Hypotheses
h yp ot he s es were c o n s t r u c t e d
testing:
The m ea n f l e x i b i l i t y index of c o p in g
gies among a nd r og y n o u s
individuals
higher than that a m on g m a s c u l i n e
is not s i g n i f i c a n t l y
individuals.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
strate­
49
2.
T h e mean fl ex ibility
in de x of coping s t r a t e ­
gies a m o n g a n dr o g y n o u s i nd iv idu al s
higher tha n tha t among feminine
3.
is not s ig n if ica nt ly
individuals.
T h e mean f le xibility
in de x of coping s t r a t e ­
gies a m on g a n dr og y n o u s i nd iv id ua ls
higher than
is not s ig ni f ic an t ly
that among u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
4.
T he r e is no s i g n i f i ca nt
mean f l e x i b i l i t y index of c o p i n g
individuals.
d i f f e re n ce in the
s t ra t eg i es between
a n d r o g y no u s m a le s and a n d r o g y n o u s
females.
Data A n a l y s i s
For dat a recording,
t r an s la t ed
analys es
into a format c o n v e n i e n t
in the computer.
anonymous,
subjects'
re sponses were
for data entry and
S i n c e the re sponses were
e a c h q u es ti on na ir e was
s y s t e m at i ca l ly a s s i g n e d
an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n number.
The
each s u b j ec t
id en tification n u m b e r s a nd r es ponses
wer e entered twice
from
into the computer.
A
simple F O R T R A N p rogram was w r i t t e n to check for the c o n ­
sistency of
b ot h entries on e a c h subject.
one i n c o n s i s t e n c y were detected,
out both e n t r i e s
involved.
The
If at least
the p r o gr a m would pri nt
i de n ti f i c a t i o n n umbers
al lowed q u i c k and easy r e f e r en ce to the specific g r ou p
of r e s p o n s e s
in question.
T hi s
simpl e pro ce dur e e n s u r e d
a cc ur ac y of d at a entry.
The
to d e t e r m i n e
initial
step in the a n a l y si s of the data w as
each subject's m a s c u l i n i t y and femini ni ty
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
50
scores as m e a s u r e d
scores,
by the Bem Inventory.
Based on these
s u bj ec ts we r e then c a te go r i z e d a c c or d in gl y as
masculine,
feminine,
androgynous,
Each of the four categ or ie s
or u nd if fe re nt ia ted .
is i l l us t ra te d in table 3.
TABLE 3
BEM'S SEX-ROLE PR OF I LE
High M a s c u l i n i t y
II
Low
F emininity
H ig h
Femininity
IV
III
Low M a s c u l i n i t y
Category
Category
Category
Category
I
II
III
IV
Masculine
Androgynous
U n di f f e r e n t i a t e d
F e m i n in e
In order to classify a s u b j e ct ' s sex-role identity,
the hybrid m e t h o d as suggested by Bern (1981)
This m et ho d c l a s s i f i e s
m a s c ul i ni t y and
subjects in two steps.
femini ni ty
was employed.
Initially
scale s co re s were derived.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
51
This was done by s i mp ly summing the r a t i ng s
scale and dividing
by twenty,
or the numb er of rated
items if some items w e r e omitted.
converted into T -scores.
basic scores,
for each
T h es e
scores were
Thus ea ch su bj e ct ob ta i ne d two
m a s c u l i n e and feminine T-scores.
T he se
obtained T-scores se rv e to clas si fy s ub j ec ts as masculine,
feminine,
or p o t e n t i a l l y an dr og y no us on the basis of
f emi ni ni ty -m as cu li ni ty d i ff er e nc e score.
score of ±10 was
A d i ff e re n ce
s ug ge s te d by Bem as the c ut -o ff po in t
for separating the t hr ee groups.
Thus,
a p e rs o n w a s c o n ­
sidered m as c ul in e if his or her F-M d i f f e r e n c e score were
less than -10.
Likewise,
a person w as c o n s i de r ed
if his or her F -M d i f f e r e n c e score w e r e g r e at e r
f e mi nin e
than 10.
The rest were c l a s s i f i e d as p o te nt i a l l y a n dr o gy no us .
The second
step was to further
sepa ra te
the p o t e n ­
tially a nd rogynous g r o u p into a n d r o g y n o u s and u n d i f f e r e n ­
tiated groups.
The m e t h o d
suggested by Bem
employ the medi an split method.
Thus,
(1981)
potentially androg­
ynous subjects we re c l as si f ie d as a n d r o g y n o u s
femininity and m a s c u l i n i t y scores
medians.
All o th er
subjec ts
if their
fell a b o v e both scale
in the g r o u p of p o t e n t i a l l y
androgynous were d e f i n e d as u nd if fe r en t ia t ed .
group's median sco re s
was to
The no r m
for both scal es are pr e se n te d
in
table 4.
In order to i den ti fy m a s c u l i n e an d
behaviors,
feminine
coping
a m e th o d c on si s te n t w it h Bem's c o n s t r u c t i o n of
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
52
T à CLE 4
BEM'S NORM M EDI A N SCORES
M a s c u l i n e Scale
4.95
F e m i n i n e Scale
4.90
her inventory was employed.
d omly selected judges,
sionals
19,
c on s is t in g of t e a c h i n g p r o f e s ­
in the B e h a v i or al Sci en ce D e p a r t m e n t s of the
pa rt ic ip at i ng
pation.
A group of t h i r t y - f i v e r a n ­
colleges,
wer e solicited for th ei r p a r t i c i ­
T h i r t y - t h r e e of the th ir ty-five j u d g e s
females = 14)
(males =
r e t u r ne d their q ues ti onn ai re s,
a response rate of ab ou t 94 percent.
yielding
Each p a r t i c i p a n t
was asked to ra t e ea c h copi ng behavior as e i t h e r more
likely m a s c u l i n e or more
the ■•umerican s o c i e t y
Item on a 7-point
to 7
likely feminine as p e r c e iv e d in
(see ap pe n di x B) .
scale,
Judges
rated each
from 1 (most l i k el y masculine)
(most like ly f e m i n i n e ) .
To a n a l y z e
categorical
ratings of the
sc al i ng m e t h o d was employed.
scaling pla ces
continuum.
the judges'
the
Each
items in an interval
items,
the
Categorical
s c a l e a long a
item is as soc ia te d wit h a scale value
which ind ic ate s that
item's respec ti ve p l a c i n g
in the c o n ­
tinuum be tw ee n m a s c u l i n e at one end and f e m i n i n e at the
other.
T hese sc al e value s are ranked
smallest to lar ge st or vice versa-
in o r d e r
from
In this p a rt ic u la r
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
53
case,
the ranking was o r d e r e d
Thus,
small
scale valu es
fro m smallest
i n d i c a t e items w i t h m o r e m a s c u ­
line ratings and large scale v a l u e s
more feminine ratings.
One
large breaks in the r a n ke d
indic at e items with
is to look for r e l a t i v e l y
s c a l e values to se rv e as the
cut-off points separating t he masculine,
feminine
to largest.
a m b i g u o u s and
items.
Once the m a s c u li n e a n d
be ha vi or s are identified,
can be obtained.
Thus,
t ot a l
feminine
items of c o p in g
scores on the two scales
e ac h s ub je ct o b t a i n e d M a n d F
scores of coping behavior.
The next step was to d e t e r m i n e the m e a s u r e m e n t
of flexibility.
An index of
f l e x i b i l i t y has b e e n f o r m u ­
lated that reflects b o t h c r i t e r i a of a n d r o g y n o u s
bility:
extensity and b a l a n c e
(Heilbrun,
flexi­
1981).
Exten­
sity refers to the h ig h e n d o r s e m e n t of s e x - r o l e c h a r a c ­
teristics.
Balance ref er s
on both the masculine and
de ri v ed
scores
to the e q u a li t y of e n d o r s e m e n t
feminine characteristics.
formula combines m a s c u l i n e and
The
f e m i n in e c o p in g
in the following manner:
(M+F)
The first term
(M+F)
term
repres en ts
(ABS(M-F)
- ABS(M-f)
r e p r e s e n t s extensity,
b ala nc e.
inde: indicates a p e r so n 's
As an example,
cop in g scores of 65 and
Thus,
and the
second
the d e r i v e d
d e g r e e of f le xi bi li ty .
s u b j e c t X m ight hav e M a nd F
50,
and
subject Y m i g h t
have
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
54
scores of
scores
62 and SO,
for b o t h
The flex ibi li ty
subjects w o u ld be:
X:
(65 +
50)
- ABS(65
- 50) = 100
Y:
(62 +
50)
- ABS(62
- 50) = 100
Subject X m i g h t
score
r es pe ct iv e ly .
have o bt ai ned h i g h e r mas cul in e co pi ng
th an s u bj ec t
off l e x i b i l i t y
Y,
but that d o e s not make X's
any higher than
s ub j ec t
e xa mples a r e p re sen te d in table
TABLE
Y's.
degree
Additional
5.
5
E XAMPLES OF F L E X I B I L I T Y INDICES
S ubject
Masculine
F em inine
Index
1
50
60
100
2
60
60
120
3
70
60
120
4
60
50
100
5
60
60
120
6
60
70
120
As e vi d e n t
from tabl e 5 s u b je c ts
1 and 2 h av e
equa ll y h i g h scores on the f e m i n i n e coping scale,
subject
2 has a higher m a s c u l i n e
This g i v e s
subject
1.
but
co pi ng scale score.
s ub j e c t 2 a h ig he r f l e x i b i l i t y index than
S u bj ec t 3 has h i g h e r
scores on both the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
55
ma s cu li n e and feminine coping scales t h a n subject 4.
This o b v i o us l y leads to a higher f l e x i b i l i t y index for
subject 3.
Su bj ec t 6's higher score o n the feminine
coping scale than subject 5,
a higher
d oe s not yield to
f l e xi bi l it y index for s ubject
To test
groups
however,
6.
for di ff erences of the m e a n s between
in fl ex ib il i ty index of cop in g behavior,
s tatistic was employed.
over an ov er a ll
the t
The t s t a t i s t i c was selected
F test for two m a i n reaso ns .
Firstly,
this study i n vol ve d a number of s p e c i f i c questions to be
an s we re d
separately.
m ea n s are a priori.
Thus,
p a ir wi se c om p ar i s o n s of the
The o r d i n ar y a n a l y s i s of variance
and F test r e q u i r e planned c o m p a r i s o n s to be orthogonal.
However,
it is o bvious that the c o m p a r i s o n s in this st ud y
are not o r tho go nal .
In addition,
nonorthogonal compari­
sons p r o p e rl y b e lo ng under a p ost -h oc
priori
category
(Hays,
Secondly,
to c a rry -ou t all
the
of
SIX
1973).
it was not the p u r p o s e of this study
possible p air wis e com par is on s.
p o s s i b l e pairwise comparisons,
interest,
tions.
r at he r than a
and were conducted,
Out of
o n l y three were
to a n s w e r
specific q u e s ­
It was thus decided to e m pl o y the t statistic
for t esting t he s e planned n o no r t h o g o n a l
pair wi se c o m p a r ­
isons .
In the employ me nt of the t statistic,
tions are involved.
two a s s u m p ­
The first one a s s u m e s a normal
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
56
di st ri bu ti on of the sa mp le d p op u la t i o n s .
is us ual ly c o n s i d e r e d the less
typical at ti t ud e
This a s s u m p t i o n
i m p o r ta nt of the two.
is that this a s s u m p t i o n m a y be s e v e re l y
violated w it ho ut r es ul ti ng
in s i g n i f i c a n t changes,
vided the sample siz e is not e x t r e m e l y small
The seco nd a s s u m p t i o n c o n c er ns
variances.
typically c arried o ut a s ep a ra te test
variances prior to the t test itself.
mo de r n a u t h o r i t i e s
In this
for h o m o g e n e i t y of
However,
is that w he n the s a mp le
(Hays,
1973) .
in ve st i ga t or s
is not r e a l l y n ecessary.
v i ol at i on s on both a s s u m p t i o n s
u nim portant
(Hays,
most
suggest that to test w h e t he r this
a ssu mp t io n is u p h el d
large,
pro­
h o m o g e n e i t y of
C o n v e n t i o n a l and c o n s e r v a t i v e
popular a tt i tu d e
The
The c u r r e n t
size is q u it e
b e c o m e r el a ti v e l y
1973).
study,
conserv ati ve ap pr oa ch .
the r e s e a r c h e r c ho se to adopt the
That
is,
an F test of sample v a r i ­
ances was i n it ial ly p e r f o r m e d to test the a s s u m p t i o n of
equal var ia nc es b e t w e e n the groups.
derived by o b t a i n i n g
the ratio of the larger v ari an ce
over the smaller v ar i an ce
be tw e en the two groups.
this a ss ump ti on w e r e upheld,
was employed
T he F- va lu e is
(Cosset.
1908).
the
If
s t u d e n t ’s t s ta ti st ic
If it w e r e not upheld,
an
a ppr ox im at e t s t a t i s t i c was em ployed.
Several
s u gg e st i on s hav e been o f f e r e d for a l t e r ­
native m et h od s of a p p r o x i m a t i o n
include a d j u s t m e n t s
t s t a t i s t i c w hi ch
to be ma d e on the c o m p u ta ti o na l
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
57
fo rm ul a and/or the d e g r e e s of freedom
1957;
Fisher,
1935;
Welch,
is to c ompute s e p a r a t e
(Hays,
The typical a p p r o a c h
s t a n d a r d errors from e a c h sample
in d e r i v i n g the t ratio,
mad e
1938).
(Cochran & Cox,
a n d the pooled e s t i m a t e is not
1973).
The TI ND M EA N p r o g r a m in the Andrews U n i v e r s i t y
STATL computer p r o g r a m s
s t a t i s t i c analyses.
W e l c h ' s procedure
l i b ra r y was emplo ye d in the t
T h i s p r o g r a m gives the a l t e r n a t i v e
if t h e a s s u m p t i o n of h o m o g e n e i t y of
v a r i a n c e were not uph el d.
The W e l c h p r o c e d u r e m a k e s
a d j u s t m e n t s both in the c o m p u ta ti o na l
formula
and the
d e g r e e s of freedom.
For null h y p o t h e s e s
wer e one-tailed,
while a
to test null h y p o t h e s i s
1 to 3,
tests of s i gn if i c a n c e
tw o- ta ile d p r o b a b i l i t y was used
4.
It has been r e c o m m e n d e d by
some s ta ti st ici an s t ha t o n e - t a i l e d tests s h o u l d not be
used
in place of t w o - t a x l e d
r e as o n
is that t her e
ing e xtr e me results
tests of s i gn if ic an ce .
is a l w a y s the p o s s i b i l i t y of o b t a i n ­
in e i t h e r direction.
Thus,
ta il e d tests are e m p l o y e d
and extreme res ul ts
in the opposite d i r e c t i o n
to the one expected,
is o b v i o u s l y place d
Ewen,
& Cohen,
in an aw kward p re di c am e nt
1976) .
Furthermore,
in e i th e r di rection a r e u s u a l l y of
ioral
sciences.
obtained
One
That
is,
whe n o n e ­
are o b ta ine d
a r esearcher
(Welkowitz,
s i gn if i c a n t results
interest
in the b e ha v ­
even if extreme r e s u l t s wer e
in the d i r e c t i o n other than t h e o r e t i c a l
expecta-
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
58
tions,
these m ay op en up n ew questions for study
(Welkowitz et al.,
However,
position
1976).
W e l k o w i t z et al. a d m i t t e d that t h e i r
is a c o n t r o v e r s i a l one.
They a c k n o w l e d g e d
the n a t u r e of their p o s i t i o n concerning o n e - t a i l e d
is not a q u e s ti o n of t h e ir
of p r a c t i c a l v al i d i t y
statistical validity,
(Welkowitz,
et al.,
that
tests
but more
1976).
T h a t is,
the p o s i t i o n simply c o n c e r n s a r e s e a r c h e r ’s p o t e n t i a l l y
a w k w a r d p r e d i c a m e n t a n d p ro f ess io nal e m b a r a s s m e n t
that
sh ou ld be avoided.
It has been argued,
few in st an c es
Huck,
theoretical
d i r ec t io na l .
Cormier,
tion.
t h e re a r e only
is nondirec ti on al
& Bounds,
c o n c e pt io n
1974).
testing
(Fergusson,
T he u n d e r l y i n g
for this re se arc h is o b v i o u s l y
Furthe rm or e,
the e ss e n t i a l q u e s t i o n s
a clear
that
in s c i e n t i f i c research of t he o r y
w h e r e the basic i n t er e st
1976;
however,
in agreement w i t h H a y s
(1973),
to be answered by the d a t a
have
i m p li ca t io n for a d ifference in a s p e c i f i c d i r e c ­
This r e s e ar c h s p e c i f i c a l l y tested t he q u e s t i o n
a n d r o g y n y w ould r es ul t
in higher flexibility.
the m a i n conce rn was not
is,
limited to w he t h e r a n d r o g y n y
m a k e s a difference,
but w he t he r it wou ld
c op i n g
thus
flexibility,
That
if
i n c r e a s e one's
indicating that d i r e c t i o n a l
h y p o t h e s e s were a p p r o p r i a t e .
Null h y p o t h e s i s
4 is
o b v i o u s l y an e x c e p ti o n s i n c e the qu es t io n was b a s i c a l l y
different
from the p r e v i o u s three null h y p o t h e s e s .
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
59
For ail signif ica nc e t esting of the null
eses,
a l p h a was set at the
hypoth­
.05 level of c on fi d en ce .
To
test for the a ssu mp t io n of equal v a ria nce s b e t w e e n groups,
alpha was
set at the
.01 level of confidence.
m u l t i p l e t tests employed,
of type
D ue to the
the e x p e r im e nt wi se p r o b a b i l i t y
1 error for this study was a u g m e n te d to
.14.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
C H A PT E R
IV
RE SU L TS
Introd uct io n
This
c hapter pr es e nt s the findin gs from the
analyses of t he data c o l l e c te d
group of 615
three main
subjects.
sections.
from a purposive samp le
This c h a p t e r
is organized into
The f irst se ct i on reports the
categorical s c a l in g of B urk e 's c o pi ng qu es tionnaire
and the r e l i a b i l i t y of the r e s u l t i n g
scales.
The s e con d
section p r e s e n t s a summary of the sam pl e group,
with each null
i te ms
and d e a l s
h ypothesis c o n s t r u c t e d and stated in the
preceding chapt er .
The third s e c ti o n presents a d d i t i o n a l
in ve st ig at io ns war ran te d by the f i nd in gs
analyses of the null hypotheses.
from s t a t i s ti c al
The results are s u m ­
marized.
C at egorical S c a l in g of
B u r k e 's Items
Categorical
scaling
is a statistical p ro ce d ur e
whereby a g r o u p of stimuli can
ar bitrary continuum,
y ie l di ng
be o r d e r e d within an
i nt er va l values to i n d i c a t e
the r el at iv e p os it io ns of e a c h stimulus.
The C A T S C A L E
p rogram in the A ndrews U n i v e r s i t y S T A T L computer p r o g r a m s
60
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
61
library was e mp l oy e d to serve this purpose.
the thi rt y- th re e judges'
an m by n matrix,
stimulus
(m)
analysis,
in e a c h c a t e g o r y
are pr es en te d
(n).
In this
items we r e the stimuli w h i c h
into seven c a t e g o r i e s each.
(7).
y i e l d in g
consisting of the number of times e a c h
is placed
ranged from most
feminine
rat i ng s we re tallied,
the thirty- ei gh t
were placed
Initially,
likely m a s c u l i n e
(1)
The c a t e g o r i e s
to m os t likely
The obtai ne d s ca l e value s
for all
38 items
in table 6.
TA BL E 6
C AT E GO R I C A L S C A L I N G OF BURKE'S
COPING Q U E S T I O N N A I R E ITEMS
Stimuli
Values
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
-0.9190
1.4950
-0.2779
-1.0320
-0.2929
-1 .0040
-0.0853
0.2056
-0.0197
-1.1110
1 .1380
0.8732
1.1920
-1.2550
-0.9960
-1.4980
-0.0992
-0.3691
0.9632
S ti mu li
20
Val ue s
-1.5610
21
0.0000
22
-0.8121
0.8020
-0.5123
-0.0068
0.1118
0.8946
-0.8677
0.7243
-0.2423
1.0300
■ 0 . 5470
■ 0 . 0603
■ 0 . 4751
0.0206
0.9532
0.9481
1.0540
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
62
The nex t step was to rank order these o b t a in e d
scale values.
In the co ns t ru c ti on of the o r i g i n a l q u e s ­
t ionnaire for the judges,
d es gi n ed f ro m m a s c u l i n e
the ratings
to feminine.
rating i nd ic a te s a m o r e masc uli ne
rating
i nd ic a te s a m o r e
res ul ti ng
sc al e values,
for the items were
That
item,
is,
a lower
and a higher
feminine item.
Thus,
in the
the negative end is the m a s c u ­
line end of the continuum,
with the femi ni ne e nd being
at the p o s i t i v e end of the continuum.
One is to look
for r e l a t i v e l y large brea ks to serve as cut -o ff
s epara ti ng
the masculine,
ambiguous,
points
and f em in i ne
items.
The r an k o r d e r e d scale values revealed the l oc at i on s of
the two r e l a t i v e l y largest
points.
R a nk e d
breaks to serve as cut -o ff
fro m h ighest to lowest scale values,
first r e l a t i v e l y large
break was found b e t we e n the tw elfth
and t h i r t e e n t h scale v a lu es
next r e l a t i v e l y
(a d is ta nc e of
.52).
The
large b rea k was found b e t we e n the twenty-
e ig ht h and t w e n t y - n i n t h scale values
Thus these r e l a t i v e l y
cient
the
(a d i s t a n c e of
largest breaks wer e judge d
.27).
suffi­
to serve as c u t - of f points s ep ar at in g the masculine,
ambiguous,
and
f em i ni n e
items.
These re su lt s a re s u m m a r ­
ized in table 7.
As can be o b s e r v e d
sca li ng of the
in ten
from table 7,
the c at eg o ri c al
items yi el de d scale values w h i c h r es u lt e d
items j u d g e d as m a s c u li n e and t w el v e items judged
as feminine.
The r e m a i n in g sixteen items were judg es as
ambiguous.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
63
TA BL E 7
ORD ER ED S CA LE VALUES OF BU RK E 'S
C O PIN G Q U E S TI O NN A IR E ITEMS
Stimuli
V alu e s
Stimuli
Valu es
2
13
11
38
31
19
36
37
27
12
23
29
8
26
35
21
25
9
33
1.4950
1 .1920
1.1380
1.0540
1.0300
0.9632
0.9532
0.9481
0.8946
0.8732
0.8020
0.7243
0.2056
0.1118
0.0206
0.0000
-0. 00 68
-0 .0 19 7
-0.0603
7
17
30
3
5
18
34
24
32
22
28
1
15
6
4
10
14
16
20
-0.0853
-0 .0992
-0.2423
- 0.2779
-0 .2 92 9
-0.3691
-0.4751
-0 .5123
-0. 54 70
-0.8121
-0.8677
-0.9190
- 0.9960
-1 .0 040
- 1.0320
- 1.1110
-1.2550
-1 .4 98 0
- 1.5610
Thus,
an i nd iv i du al ' s ma sculine c o p i n g
derived by s um mi ng the rat in gs
Likewise,
summing the ratings
for each m a s c u l i n e
for each f e m i n i n e
yielded the feminine co pi n g score.
more feminine cop in g
a weigh t of
score was
Since
item.
item
t h e r e are two
items than m a s c ul i ne c o p i n g
items,
1.2 was g iv e n to the m a s c u l i n e c o p in g score
so that both scales were equa ll y w e i gh t ed
fl exibility index formula.
in the coping
Tables 8 a nd 9 p r e s e n t
o bt ai ne d m a s c u l i n e a n d femin in e coping
the
it em s respectively.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
64
T A BL E 8
B URKE'S COPIN G Q U E S T I O N N A I R E
M A S C U L I N E ITEMS
N ir.be r
Items
Try to see the hu mo ro u s aspect, of
Try not to w o r r y or think about
the
situation.
it.
Take some i m me dia te actio n on the b a si s of your
present u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the si tu at ion .
Try to r e du ce the t ension by d r i n k i n g more.
Try to r e du ce the t ens io n by g e t t i n g
in some p h y s i ca l activity.
involved
C ons id er s a range of a lt er na t e p l a n s
handling the situation.
for
T hro w y ou rs el f into your wor k and w o r k harder
and longer hours.
Get rid of the t ension by e xp r es s i n g some
irrita bil it y a nd f r u st r at i on to m y s e l f — swearing,
slamming things down, cru mp li ng up a piece of
paper, etc.
Try to think o b j e c t i v e l y ab ou t t he si t ua t io n and
keep my f eel in gs under control.
Try to keep other s from finding out ab ou t the
stress you are under.
To estima te the r e lia bi li ty of the c o p in g f le x i­
bili ty index scores,
a te st -r e te s t p r o c e d u r e using the
Pearson r was pe r fo rm e d on a separate g r o u p of forty-three
sndents
2r,
from one of the p a r t i c i p a t i n g c o l l e g e s
females = 14).
(males =
The period span be tw e en the first and
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
65
second a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was
t w e nt y- n in e days.
c o r r e l a t i o n co ef fi c ie nt w as
T he o b t a i n e d
.614.
TABLE
9
B U R K E ’S C O P I N G Q UE ST IO NN AI RE
F E M I N I N E ITEMS
Number
2
Items
T a l k about the s i t u a t i o n with someone else.
11
T r y to reduce the t e n s i o n by taking t r a n ­
q ui l iz e rs .
12
T r y to reduce the t e n s i o n by napping.
13
T r y to reduce the
19
Withdraw physically
23
Ta ke a day off.
27
Daydream.
29
S wi tc h to o th er a c t i v i t i e s in order to he l p
kee p your mi n d off the problem.
31
T ry to reduce the t e n s i o n by having a snack,
che wi ng some g um o r e at in g some candy.
36
T ry to get advice a n d
else.
37
First ex pr es s my f e e l i n g s and f r u st r at i on s to
oth er s so that I c a n then think r a t i o n a l l y
a bo ut it.
38
Pray for g u i d a nc e
t e n s i o n by taking sedati ve s.
fr om the situation.
and
suggestions fro m s o m eo n e
support.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
66
Testing of
the Hypotheses
T abl e 10 presents a s u m m a r y of the sample g r o u p
according
to sex-role c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s and their r e s p e c ­
tive g r o u p means of copi ng
f l e x i b i l i t y indices.
TABLE
10
SAMPLE GROUP A C C O R D I N G TO SEX-ROLE
C LA S SI FI CA TI ON S A N D T HE IR R E S P E C ­
TIVE C O PI NG F L E X I B I L I T Y MEANS
N
Mean
Masculine
137
71.55
Feminine
163
77.09
Androgynous
205
75.83
Undifferentiated
111
66.94
S e x Role
Null
H yp o th e si s
1
Ac co rd in g to B em 's t h e o r e t i c a l conception,
ynous
individuals are e x p e c t e d
masculine
individuals.
m a s c u l i n e groups was 1.06
dent's
this
the
be tw e en the a n d r o g y n o u s a n d
(p -
.72).
The o b t a i n e d
that the a s s u m p t i o n was upheld.
t statistic was e m p l o y e d
the m e a n s
than
T h e o b t a i n e d F-value to t e s t
a s s u m p t i o n of equal v a r i a n c e s
indicates
to be more f le xi bl e
androg­
Thus,
F-value
the
Stu­
to test for d i f f e r e n c e s of
between the two g r o u ps .
Table
11 s u m m a r i z e s
finding.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
67
TABLE 11
TEST OF S IG NI F IC AN C E BETWEEN T H E MEANS
OF C O PI N G F L EX I BI L IT Y I NDICES FOR
A N D R O G Y N O U S A ND M A S C U L I N E G R O U P S
N
Mean
A nd ro gy no us
205
75.83
19.89
Ma sculine
137
71.55
19.32
Groups
t
Sd
df
1.97
P
340
.025
The null h ypothesis stated that the mean f l e x i ­
bility index of copi ng
strategies a mo ng a n d r o g y n o u s
individuals is not s ig n if ic a nt l y high er
m a s cu l in e individuals.
o btai ne d t- va lu e
It is shown in table 11 that
is a ss o ci a t e d w i t h
This is su ff ic ie nt
than that a m o n g
.025 pr ob ab il ity .
to reject the null hypothesis.
This fin di ng presents e v i d e nc e that there
s ig nificant d i f f e r e n c e
coping
b eh aviors
jects.
the
in the m e a n f le xi b il i ty
i nd ex of
between a n d r o g y n o u s and m a s c u l i n e
More specifically,
is a
sub­
it was re ve a le d that a n d r o g y ­
nous subjects ob ta i ne d s ig ni f ic an t ly h i g he r f l e x i b i l i t y
indices of copi ng behaviors
than m a s c u l i n e
subjects.
Based on the p o ol e d standard d e v i a t i o n of the two g r o u p s
(J9.67),
the d i f f e r e n c e of the m e an s
ated w i t h an e f f ec t size of
(4.28)
is a s s o c i ­
.22.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
68
Null Hypothesis
2
A c co rd in g to Bem's theoretical conce pt io n,
androgynous
i n d i v i d u a l s are expected to be m o r e f l e x i bl e
than feminine ind iv id ual s.
The ob ta i ne d F - v a l u e
to test
the a ssumption of e qu al vari an ce s bet we en
th e two g r ou ps
was 1.27
i n d i c a t e s that
(p = .11).
T he o bta in ed F- va l ue
the assumption was upheld.
tic was employed
Thus,
the S t u d e n t ' s t s t a t i s ­
to test for d i ffe re nc es of
between the two groups.
Table
12 s u m m a r i z e s
the m e a n s
this finding,
T A B L E 12
TEST OF S I G N I F I C A N C E BETWEEN T H E M E A N S
OF C O P I N G F L E X I B I L I T Y INDICES F OR
A N D R O G Y N O U S A N D FEMININE G R O U P S
Groups
N
Me a n
Androgynous
205
75.83
19.89
Feminine
163
77.09
22.42
The null
hypothesis
bility index of c o p i n g
individuals
Sd
stated that
t
df
- 0 .5 7
366
P
.285
the m e a n f l e x i ­
strate gi es among a n d r o g y n o u s
is not s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher t h a n that a mo ng
feminine individuals.
It is shown in t a b l e
obtained t -value is a s s o c i a t e d with a
which is gre at er
12 tha t the
.285 p r o b a b i l i t y
tha n the p re vi ou sly set alpha.
the null was r e t a i n e d
Thus,
for lack of s i g n i f i c a n t e vidence.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
69
Mo re specifically,
androgynous
significantly higher
subjects d id not obtain
f l e x i b il i ty indices of c o p i n g
behaviors than femi ni ne
subjects.
Null Hypothesis 3
According to Bem's th eo retical
c on ception,
androgynous i n di vi du al s are expected to be m o r e
than undifferentiated
individuals.
flexible
The o b t a i n e d F- value
to test the a s su m p t i o n of equal v a r i an c es b e t w e e n
androgynous and u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d group s w as
2.28
the
(p < .01)
the obtained F-v al ue was signi fi ca nt w h i c h i n d i c a te s that
the assumption was not upheld.
Thus,
Welch's
approxima­
tion t statistic was m o r e a pp r op r i a t e to use t h a n the
Student's t statistic.
T abl e 13 s um m ar iz e s t h i s finding.
T ABLE
13
TEST OF S I G N I F I C A N C E BE TWEEN THE M E A N S OF
COPING F L E X I B I L I T Y INDICES FOR A N D R O G Y N O U S
AND U N D I F F E R E N T I A T E D G R O U P S
Group s
N
Mean
Androgynous
205
75.83
19.98
Undif ferentiated
111
66.94
30.04
The null h y po t h e s i s
Sd
t
2.80
df
P
207
stated that the m e a n
.003
flexi-
bilit y index of copin g st ra teg ie s am on g a n d r o g y n o u s
individuals is not s i g n i f i c a n t l y hig he r th a n t ha t among
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
70
u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d individu al s.
that the obtained t -value
ability.
This
It is shown in table
is a ss oc ia te d wit h a
13
.003 p r o b ­
is s u f f i c ie n t to reject the null hypothesis.
T hi s finding p r e s e n t s evid enc e that there is a
s ig n if i c a n t difference
in t he mean flex ibi li ty index of
copi ng b eh av io rs b etween a n d r o g y n o u s and u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
subjects.
ynous
More specifically,
it was revealed
that a n d r o g ­
subjec ts obtai ne d s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher f l ex i b i l i t y
indices of coping b e h a vi o rs
than u n d i f f e r en t ia te d subjects.
Based on the pooled s t a n d ar d d e v i a t io n of the two group s
(23.94),
the d if fe re nc e of the m eans
wit h an effect size of
(8.89)
is a s s o c i at ed
.28.
Null H y p o t h e s i s 4
The null h y p o t h e s i s
state d that there
ficant d i f f e re n ce in the m e a n
is no s i g n i ­
f le xi bi l it y index of coping
s tr a te g i e s between a n d r o g y n o u s males and an dr og y no us
females.
The obtained F-'^alue to test the a s s u m p ti o n of
equal v a r i a nc es between
gro up s was
1.57
the m al e and female a n dr o gy n ou s
(p = .03).
The o bta in ed F -value
that the assumption was up he ld .
Thus,
indicates
the S t ud en t 's t
s t a t i st i c was employed to test
for d i ff er enc es of the
means
Table
b et we e n the two gr ou ps .
14 s um ma r iz es this
finding.
It is shown in t a b l e
is a s s o c i a t e d with a
14 that the o b t a in e d t- va lu e
.046 p r ob abi lit y.
cient to reject the null
This
is s u ff i­
hypothesis.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
71
TABLE
14
T E S T OF S I G N I F I C A N C E B E T W E E N THE ME AN S OF
COPING F L E X I B I L I T Y I ND IC ES FOR MALE
AND FEM AL E A N D R O G Y N O U S GROUPS
Groups
Ma les
F e m a les
This
N
Mean
Sd
t
df
116
73.40
21.52
-2.00
203
89
7 8. 9 0
17.13
finding p r e s e n t s e v i d en c e that there
s i g n i f i c a n t d if fe re nc e in t h e m e a n
copin g
nous
. 046
is a
flexibility index of
st ra te gi es b et we en a n d r o g y n o u s males and a n d r o g y ­
females.
M or e s p ec i fic al ly ,
a n d r o g y n o u s females r e p o r t e d
b i l it y
P
it was i nd icated tha t
s i g n i fi c an t ly higher f l e x i ­
index of coping s t r a t e g i e s than a nd ro gy no us male s.
3ased on the pooled s t a nd a rd d e v i a t i o n of the two g r ou ps
(19.75),
the diffe re nc e of
wi th a n effect size of
the m e an s
The findings r e v e a l e d
hypotheses two a nd
t i g a t i o n of the data.
is a s s o c i a t e d
.28.
Additional
of null
(5.50)
F ind ing s
fr o m statistical
t es tin g
fou r warr an te d further
inves­
It a p p e a r e d that a nd ro gy n ou s
i n d i v i d u a l s obtained c o p i n g f l e x i b i l i t y indices that are
not
s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher
th a n f e mi ni ne individuals.
was a l s o found that a n d r o g y n o u s
It
females o bt a in ed signi-
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
72
ficantly h i ghe r coping f l e x i b i l i t y indices than a n d r o g y ­
nous males.
These two findings c o n s e q u e n t l y r ais ed
question of possible s e x - d i f f e r e n c e s
in coping
the
flexibility
indices.
As
Brown
(1958)
p o int ed out,
less s tr ict constraints than boys
role behaviors.
This d o u b l e
persist t h r o u g h adulthood.
gir ls are e x p o s e d to
in their d i s p l a y of
s t a n dar d can be o b s e r v e d
The g e n e r a l
willing to ac c e p t a female w h o d i s p l a y s
cross o v e r
cross o v e r
public
to
is mo re
behaviors
stereotypic lines than a male,
strong n e g a t i v e reactions
sex-
that
who w o u l d el ici t
shou ld he d i s pl ay b e h a vio rs
that
stereotypic lines.
Bas ed on the above co ntention,
to e x p e c t h i g h e r coping
flexibility
it appears
logical
indices among
females
than a mon g males.
In order
several
statis ti cal a n a l y s e s were conduc ted .
ad d i t i o n a l
to c o n f i r m this expectation,
Since t he following a n a lys es w e r e
incit ed by this
findings a n d the question is c l e a r l y directional,
tailed p r o b a b i l i t y was employed.
expected
males.
to o btain higher co p i n g
A l p h a was set at the
all tests of comparisons.
variances,
alpha was set at
Initially,
compared.
That
is,
study's
one­
female s are
f l e x i bi lit y indic es than
.05 level of c o n f i d e n c e for
To test
the
the a s s u m pti on of equal
.01 level of c on fid enc e.
the m a s c u l i n e a nd feminine g r o u p s we re
The obtained F - va lu e to test the a s s u m p t i o n of
equal v a r i a n c e s between the two g r o u p s was
1.79
(p =
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
.03).
73
The obtained F - v a l u e
upheld.
indicates that the a ssu mp tio n wa s
Thus the student's t s t a t ist ic was performed
to
test for d i f f e r e n c e s of the m e a n s b e tw een the two groups,
Table 15 s u m m a r i z e s
this finding.
TABLE 15
T E S T OF SIGNIF IC ANC E B E T W E E N THE MEANS
OF C O P I N G FLEXI BI LIT Y INDICES FOR
M A S C U L I N E AND F E M I NIN E G RO UP S
N
Mean
Sd
t
df
Masculine
137
71.55
19.32
-2.27
298
Feminine
163
77.09
22.42
Groups
P
. 012
It is sho wn in table 15 that the obtained t - v al ue
IS ass oci a t e d w i t h a
sents e v i d e n c e
zhe mean
.012 probability.
This finding p r e ­
that there is a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in
flexibility
index of c opi ng strategies betwe en
masculine and
f e m ini ne subjects.
was indicated
that
M o r e specifically,
feminine s u b j ect s obta ine d s i g n i f i ­
cantly higher c op in g
flexibility indices than m a s c uli ne
subjects.
Ba sed on the pooled sta nda rd deviation of
cwo gr oups
(21.06),
the dif fer e n c e of the means
associated w i t h an effect size of
However,
croups
included
it
the
(5.54)
is
.26.
since both the m a s c u l i n e and feminine
subjects of b o t h sexes,
both groups we r e
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
74
further divided
type groups.
into app rop r i a t e sex-type and cross
Tha t
is,
the feminine group.
sex-
feminine males we re r e m o v e d from
Likewise,
ma scu lin e
removed from the m a s c u l i n e group.
females were
This r e s u lte d
in two
groups of subjects wh o s e sex-types are sex-appropriate.
In other words,
o ne g r o u p is made up of m a s c u l i n e males
and the other m a d e up of
feminine females.
T h o s e subjects
chat were r e mo ved m a d e up two other g r o u p s whose
are inappropriate.
That
sex-types
is, one group was m a d e u p of
ma s c u l i n e females and the other made up of f e m ini ne males.
First,
the two groups whose se x - t y p e s a r e sex-
appropriate were compared.
The obt ain ed F-va lue
to test
the assumpt io n of e qu al variances betwee n the t wo groups
was
1.35
(p = .09).
T he obtained F-val ue
ahe a ssu mp tio n was upheld.
was employed to test
ahe two groups.
Thus the S t u de nt 's
for differences of
Table
in dicates that
t statistic
the m e a n s between
16 summarizes this finding.
TABLE 16
TEST OF S I G N I F I C A N C E BETWEEN T H E MEA NS OF
COPING F L E X I B I L I T Y INDICES FOR M A S C U L I N E
M A L E S A N D FEMININE FEMALES
N
Mean
Sd
t
df
Males
114
70.97
19.64
-2.02
254
F e m a les
142
76.43
22.37
Croups
P
.022
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
75
It was
shown in table 16 that the obtai ne d t - v a l u e
is a s s o c i a t e d with a
.022 probability.
sents e v i d e n c e that there
the m e a n
is a significant d i f f e r e n c e
in
f lex ibi li ty index of c oping strategies b e t w e e n
ma s c u l i n e mal es and femi nin e
it was
This finding p r e ­
i n d i ca ted
females.
that femin in e
More specifically,
females obtained
signifi­
cantly higher coping f l e x i b i l i t y indices than m a s c u l i n e
males.
groups
Based on the p oo led
(21.45),
the d i f f e r e n c e of the means
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an e ffect
The next
subjects,
size of
females and feminine males.
feminine m a l e s
= 21),
M a n n - W h i t n e y U test was e m p l o y e d
t statistic.
is
.25.
sample size of both groups
females = 23,
(5.46)
step was to compa re the cross s e x - t y p e
the m a s c ul ine
to the small
s tandard de viation of the two
(masculine
the n o n p ara met ri c
in place of S t u d e nt' s
The M a n n - W h i t n e y U test
ful of the n o n p a r a m e t r i c tests
Due
is the mos t p o w e r ­
for two independent groups,
and the mos t useful a l t e r n a t i v e to the Student's t s t a t i s ­
tic
(Siegel,
1956).
The o b tai ne d U was
of -2.26.
ability.
The o btained
This
145.5 which yielded a Z v a l u e
Z is as soc ia ted with a
finding p r e s e n t s
.012 p r o b ­
evidence that there
is a
s ign if i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in the f l exi bil it y indices of
coping s t r a t e g i e s between m a s c u l i n e
males.
Mor e specifically,
it was
females and f e m i n i n e
indicated that m a s c u l i n e
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
76
females obtai ned
indices
significantly higher c opi ng
flexibility
than feminine males.
Finally,
males and females wi thin t h e u n d i f f e r ­
entiated group were compared.
The o b t a i n e d F - v a l u e to
test the a s s u m pti on of equal variances
groups was
1.79
(p = .03).
b e t w e e n the two
The obtained F - v a l u e indicates
that the as s u m p t i o n was upheld.
Thus the S t u d e n t ' s t
statistic was p e r f or med to test
for d i f f e r e n c e s of the
mea n betw een the two groups.
Table
17 s u m m a r i z e s the
finding.
T ABL E
17
TEST OF SIGNI FIC AN CE BETWEEN THE M E A N S
OF C OP IN G F L E X I B I L I T Y INDICES F O R
U N D I F F E R E N T I A T E D MALES
AND FEMAL ES
Groups
N
Mean
Sd
Males
57
68.19
26.61
Females
54
65.63
34.29
It IS shown
t
0.45
than the pr e v i o u s l y set alpha.
This findi ng
that u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d females did not o b t a i n
f le xib ili ty
P
109
in table 17 that the o b t a i n e d
IS as s o c i a t e d wi t h a .328 p rob ab i l i t y w h i c h
higher
df
.328
t-value
is greater
indicates
significantly
indices of coping b e h a v i o r s
than
un dif f e r e n t i a t e d males.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
77
The finding of
sex-differences
in a n d r og yny a l s o
incited further i n v e s t i g a t i o n into the data.
It was
decided to comp are a n d r o g y n o u s males and mas cu lin e males,
and an drogynous
females and
feminine females.
The o b t a i n e d F-va lue to test the a ssu mpt io n of
equal variances b e t w e e n the androgynous m a l e s and m a s c u ­
line males was
1.20
(p - .33).
The o b t a i n e d F-value
indicates that the a s s u m p t i o n was upheld.
dent's t sta tistic was p erformed to test
of the means b et wee n the two groups.
Thus the S t u ­
for di f f e r e n c e s
Table
18 summari zes
this finding.
TABLE 18
TEST OF S I G N I F I C A N C E BETWEEN THE MEANS
OF C O P I N G FLEXI BIL IT Y INDICES FOR
A N D R O G Y N O U S AND MAS CUL IN E
M A L E GROUPS
Groups
N
Mean
Sd
An drogynous
116
73 .40
21.52
Masculine
114
70.97
19.64
It is shown
is as soc iat ed w i t h a
t
0. 90
df
228
P
.186
in table 18 that the obtained t-val ue
.186 pr obability w h i c h is greater
than the p r e v i o u s l y set alpha.
This finding
indicates
that andro gyn ou s m a l e s did not obtain si gn ifi c a n t l y higher
fl exibility indices of coping behaviors
than mas cul ine
males.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
78
The obtained F - v al ue
to test the a s s u mp tio n of
equal variances between the a nd rog yn ous females and
feminine females was
1.78
(p < .01).
The o b t a i n e d F-
va lue was significant w h i c h indicates that the a s s u m p ­
tion was not upheld.
Th us W e l c h ' s ap pro ximation t
s tatistic was more a p p r o p r i a t e to use than the S t u d e n t ' s
t statistic.
Table
19 su mma r i z e s
TABLE
this finding.
19
TES T OF S I G N I F I C A N C E BETWEEN THE MEANS
OF COPING F L E X I B I L I T Y INDICES FOR
A N D R O G Y N O U S A N D FEMININE
FE MALE GROUPS
Mean
Sd
t
df
89
78.90
17.13
0.97
230
142
76.43
22.87
Gr oups
N
A n d r o g yno us
F eminine
It is shown in table
19 that the obta in ed
P
.167
t-value
is as soc i a t e d with a .157 p r o b a b i l i t y which is g r e a t e r
than the previously set alpha.
that androgy nou s females did
higher
This
finding indicates
not obtain s i g n i f i c a n t l y
flexibility indices of coping behaviors tha n
femi ­
nine females.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY,
CO NC LUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS
AND R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S
This chapter p r e s e n t s
of the study,
dations
implications of
for further research.
the summary and c o n c l u s i o n s
the findings,
and r e c o m m e n ­
The rationale for t h e
study stemmed from the c o n c e p t i o n that m a s c u l i n i t y a n d
femininity are two i n d e p e n d e n t dimensions of s ex- rol es,
and that every individual
has the potential
The a c q u i s i t i o n of both characteristics,
type,
has been theorized to
facilitate
for both.
the a n d r o g y n o u s
fl e x i b i l i t y of
one's behavior.
Summary
The summary of this
study is divided into
four
sections :
1.
Purpose
2.
Ov erview of R e l a t e d Literature
3.
Sampling and
4.
Null hypotheses
I n s t rum ent at ion
Purpose
The underlying p u r p o s e of this study was to
tigate the validity of Be m's
inves­
theory of a n d r o g y n o u s
79
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
80
flexibility.
Andro gyn ou s f l e x i b i l i t y was investigated
in terms of coping strategies u t il ize d
in dealing w i t h
the tens io n and strain of e v e r y d a y stress.
It was
hypo the si zed that an drogynous subjects would report
higher
f l ex ibi lit y indices of coping
strategies than
ocher sex-types.
Ov e r v i e w of Related
Literature
The r eview of literature for this
of six sections.
T he first su m m a r i z e d
study c o n s i s t e d
the major t h e o r e ­
tical p e r s p e c i t v e s of sex-role develo pm ent .
fically,
three m ajo r
More s p e c i ­
theories we re p r e s e n t e d which
included the psychoanalytical,
the s o c i a l - l e a r n i n g , and
the c o g n i t i v e developmental.
The second section e x p lo red the h eredity v e r s u s
en vir o n m e n t
issue of sex-role de ve lopment.
It was a p p a r ­
ent that there is an interaction b e t w e e n h eredity and
envir onm ent which can occur in several dif fer en t ways.
In order to enhance the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how the
d i f fer ent ia l
historical
tion.
standards
for men and w o m e n began,
pe rsp e c t i v e s were pr e s e n t e d
The do uble
some
in the third s e c ­
standards b e t wee n the sexes existed
from the early G r e e k and Roman civi li zat ion s.
It was
the m i s s i o n of Je sus that was r e g a r d e d as the b eg inning
of t e a c h ing s and doctrines
equals,
that t r e a t e d men and women as
at least in spiritual matters.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
81
The f o ur th section presented
the t r a d i t i o n a l
expectations of m e n and women in the A m e r i c a n culture
today.
It was shown that stereotypes of m e n an d women
differ widely.
Since this
conceptions and
study involved Bem's t h e o r e t i c a l
instrument,
the fifth s e c t i o n dealt with
a review of Bem's theoretical c onstruct of androgyny.
Bem suggested that
line and f e m i nin e
person whole.
it is the cultiv at ion of
sex-role cha rac t e r i s t i c s
S u c h an androgynous
both mascu­
th at makes a
individual
is better
equipped to e n h a n c e his or her life e x p e r i e n c e s
rapidly c h a ngi ng and demanding society of
The last
androgyny.
the
in the
1980s.
section presented some c o r r e l a t e s of
It was revealed that a n d r o g y n y
with high creativity,
high self-esteem,
is correlat ed
h i g h social
skills,
and more ma cure levels of moral ue velopiiient.
Sampling and
In str ume nt ati on
The p u r p o s i v e sample of 308 m a l e s
yielding a total of 616 subjects,
graduate stu den ts en rolled
an d
303 females,
was m a d e up of u n d e r ­
in in t r o d u c t o r y p s y c h o l o g y
courses in four m i d w e s t e r n state col leges.
collected in the Fall and Winter of the
Data were
1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 2 ac ad e­
mic year.
This
study employed two o b j e c t i v e
instruments,
the Bem In ven tor y a n d Burke's q u e s t i o n n a i r e of coping
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
82
behaviors.
ments
The practical a d v a n t a g e s of these i n s t r u ­
lie in their clarity,
ad m ini str at ion and scoring,
brief
form,
s i m p l ici ty of
a n d econo my of time on the
part of the respondents.
Null
Hypotheses
The following null
s tatistical
1.
h y p o t h e s e s were a d v a n c e d
testing:
The mean f l e x i b i l i t y index of coping
gies among androgynous
strate­
i n d i v i d u a l s is not s i g n i f i c a n t l y
higher than that among m a s c u l i n e
2.
for
individuals.
The mean f l e x i b i l i t y index of coping
strate­
gies among androgynous i n d i v i d u a l s is not si g n i f i c a n t l y
higher
than that among f e m i n i n e individuals.
3.
The mean f l e x i b i l i t y
gies among androgynous
index of coping s t r a t e ­
i n d i v i d u a l s is not si g n i f i c a n t l y
higher than that among u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
4.
individuals.
There is no si g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
fl exi b i l i t y
index of coping
in the mean
s t r a teg ies b e twe en a n d r o g y n o u s
males and androgynous females.
Conclusions
Based on the data gathered,
analyzed,
and presented,
the following conclusions a r e drawn:
1.
of c oping
There is a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher f l e x i b i l i t y
strategies among a n d r o g y n o u s ind iv idu als than
that among masculine individuals.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
83
2.
The flexibility of coping strategies a m o n g
androgynous
that a m o n g
feminine individuals.
3.
of c o p i n g
There is a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher f l e x i b i l i t y
strategies among a n d r o g y n o u s
that a m o n g
un differentiated
4.
of c o p i n g
among
individuals is not significantly hi g h e r tha n
individuals
than
individuals.
There is a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher f l e x i b i l i t y
strategies among a n d r o g y n o u s
females th an that
a n d r o g y n o u s males.
5.
of c o p i n g
There is a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher f l e x i b i l i t y
strategies among f e m i n i n e
among m a s c u l i n e
6.
individuals th a n
that
individuals.
There is a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher f l e x i b i l i t y
of c o p i n g strategies among
f e m i n i n e females than that
among m a s c u l i n e males.
7.
There is a s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher f l e x i b i l i t y
of c o p i n g strategies among m a s c u l i n e females than t h a t
among
f e m ini ne males.
8.
The flexibility of coping strategies a m o n g
undifferentiated
females
is not
sig nif icantly h i g h e r
than
that a m o n g undif fer ent ia ted males.
9.
The flexibility of coping strategies a m o n g
a n d r o g y n o u s m ale s is not s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher than th at
among m a s c u l i n e males.
10.
androgynous
among
The flexibility of coping s trategies a m o n g
females
fem ini ne
is not s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher th an
fem.ales.
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
that
84
Implications and R ec omm e n d a t i o n s
Bem postulated,
and demonstrated,
that a n d r o g y n y
allows one to be more flexible in his or her behaviors.
However,
statistical a nalyses of the data gat he red for
this study yielded evidence w h i c h pro vi ded no support
Bem's concept ion s
in terms of c oping behaviors.
though a ndrogynous subjects were
for
Even
found to obtain s i g n i f i ­
cantly higher flexibility indices of coping
strate gi es
than m a s c u l i n e and un d i f f e r e n t i a t e d subjects,
their
flex­
ibility indices were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher than f e m i ­
nine subjects.
It appears that wi th t o day 's more relaxed a t t i ­
tudes toward females,
they are a l l o w e d to d i s p l a y sex-
role behaviors with less r e s t r i c t i o n s .
consis ten t with Brown's
(1958)
writings,
In other words,
the general
public tends to be more a c c e p ti ng to a display of c r o s s ­
sex be haviors if the pe rfo rme r were a woman than a man.
Among a nd rog yno us
subjects,
the females were found to
obtain sig nif ic ant ly higher
f l e x i b i l i t y indices of c o p i n g
strategies than the males.
A d d i t i o n a l analyses of the
data also revealed that with the e x c ept ion of the u n d i f ­
ferentiated subjects,
females c o n s i s t e n t l y were found to
obtain s i g ni fic an tly higher coping
than males.
This
f l ex ibi lit y indi ce s
further c o n f i r m e d the pos iti on that
women are more e ncouraged to d i s p l a y both sex-type a n d
cro ss-sex behaviors than men.
This double standard m a y
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
85
be attributed to the finding that there
is no significant
differen ce in fl e x i b i l i t y of coping s t r a t e g i e s between
the androgynous a n d feminine groups.
Taken at face value,
the i nclusion of masculine
and feminine q u a l i t i e s within an i ndi vi dua l would be
advantageous.
B em' s androgynous
individ ua l
is described
to enjoy a broader range of behavioral r e p e r t o i r e and
thus,
able to be m o r e effective in m e e t i n g the demands of
a larger variet y of
individual
situations.
That is,
the androgynous
is not bound to respond from a m o r e limited
stereotyped r e p e r t o i r e of options.
However,
Bem's theoretical
f o r m u l a t i o n s were
ba sed on a limited number of laborat ory findings.
specific behavi ora l
response of one's
i n t e r a ct ion to a
kitten or n o n c o n f o r m i t y under peer pressure,
sufficient evid enc e of androgynous b e h a v i o r a l
Yet,
Bern e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y regarded her
support for androgyny.
A
is hardly
flexibility.
fin din gs as strong
It is evident that
Bern had e r r o ­
neously equated an o b s e r va tio n of one or two specific
behaviors as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a global
toire.
an
That is,
be hav io ral r e p e r ­
Bern appeared to have m i s t a k e n l y predicted
individual's ra ng e of ava ilable r e s p o n s e s to his or her
envir on men t from a disp lay of one or two specific behaviors
Another ob v i o u s error of Bem's th e o r e t i c a l f ormu­
lations in p r e d i c t i n g behaviors
consist en cy in o n e ' s behaviors.
involves the question of
Most ps ych ol o g i s t s would
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
86
agree that an i n d i v i d u a l 's response to a g i v e n
stim ulu s
pretty much depends on that i n d i v i d u a l 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of that stimulus.
For example,
a mas cu lin e
is expected to a s s e r t i v e l y exert his or her
when pressured to conform.
However,
for that masculine in di vi d u a l
individual
independence
there is no g u a r a n t e e
to continue i n s i s t i n g on his
or her independence when n o n c onf orm ity is p e r c e i v e d as
life-threatening.
Th us
subject to situational
sex- ro le d i sp osi tio ns m a y be
interpretations.
The advantage of this study is its a p p r o a c h to
seek evidence of a n d r o g y n o u s behaviors in terms of o n e ’s
typical ways of coping w i t h stress.
is held constant a n d subjects'
Here,
the st i m u l u s
responses w e r e
investigated
and compared.
The findings of this
Bem's theory.
study provide no s u p p o r t for
There is no clear-cut evi den ce of g r e a t e r
flexi bi lit y of behavior
in an dro gyn y as Hem has predicted.
It was indicated that f e m i n i n t y is equally i m p o r t a n t
obt ai nin g one's f l e x i b i l i t y of coping behaviors.
also revealed that b e h a v i o r a l
flexibility was
in
It was
sh own
favor­
ing the females r e g a r dle ss of sex-role cl ass i f i c a t i o n s ,
with the exception among
u n d i f f ere nti at ed
consiste nt with Brown's contention,
subjects.
females are m o r e
likely to obtain higher f l e x i b i l i t y than males,
in terms of coping behaviors.
Thus,
In addition,
at least
it w a s als o
found that there was no s i g n i fic an t evidence of g r e a t e r
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
87
flexi bi lit y among androgynous m a l e s
nor among a nd rog yn ous females and
by looking on each sex separately,
a ppr op r i a t e
sex-type achieves
than m a s c ul ine males,
f e m in in e females.
it was
simi lar
Thus
indicated that
level of f l e x i bi lit y
as a n d r o g y n y for both sexes.
A l t h o u g h these findings a p p e a r to contra di ct
previous ones
offered.
(Heilbrun,
Heilburn
1980),
(1980)
one e xp lan a t i o n can be
found d i f f e r e n c e s
that c o n s i s t e n t l y favored the males.
in a n d r o g y n y
However,
his scores
were in terms of sex-role i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w hic h appears to
be a p e r s o n a l i t y trait,
and not c o p i n g be haviors which
are c l ea rl y behavioral chara cte ri sti cs.
gested,
therefore,
It can be sug­
that Bem's t h e o r e t i c a l model of sex-
role id e n t i f i c a t i o n is more a p p r o p r i a t e l y tapping the
traits w it hin the p ersonality d o m a i n r a the r than b e h a v ­
ioral domain.
This explains the p r e s e n c e of si gnificant
co rre l a t i o n s between a ndr ogyny a n d such p e r s o n a l i t y
variables as self-esteem,
while
c o r rel ati on s with behavioral
T her e
lack ing
traits.
is no debate to the
are d e s i g n e d d if fer ent ly in basic
Thus,
significant
fact that men and women
physiological
terms.
it is obvio us that there a r e c e r t a i n functions
r eserved for the males and c e r t a i n o t h e r s reserved for
the females.
It is important that e a c h individual r e a l ­
izes this basic difference,
tions,
w i t h its a c c o m p a n y i n g l i m i t a ­
a nd cu ltivate his or her
s p e c i a l l y reserved
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
88
potentials to t h e i r
fullest.
Thus,
men and w o m e n
be encourag ed to take up c o mp lem en tar y positions,
respect for e a c h other,
s ho uld
with
rather than competitive.
This o b v i o u s basic d i f f e r e n c e between the sexes
clearly w a r r a n t s
further study of the c o n s e q u e n c e s of
sex-roles for e a c h sex separately.
posed for b a s i c a l l y different
Since one
sex
is d i s ­
functions than the other,
sex-role i d e n t i f i c a t i o n may a ff ect the males d i f f e r e n t l y
than the females.
Results wi ll also aid in the d e c i s i o n
of whether to e m p l o y
independent or common n orm s
for the
sexes.
The m e a s u r e m e n t of a n d r o g y n y is an issue of itself.
Bem's a p p r o a c h
to measuring a n d r o g y n y is to d e v e l o p a f o u r ­
fold typology b a s e d upon two in dependent m a s c u l i n e a nd
feminine d i m e n s i o n s .
The scale medians are us ed to i n d i ­
cate the c r o s s i n g of the two dimensions.
probl em with t h i s approach co ncerns
ob tai n b o r d e r l i n e
measurement,
scores.
T he o b v i o u s
those i n d i v i d u a l s who
Due to the standard e r r o r of
b o r d e r l i n e individuals could p o s s i b l y f l u c t u ­
ate from one s e x - r o l e category to another on d i f f e r e n t
occasions.
Thus,
an alter nat iv e to me as uri ng
should be e x p l or ed.
var ia ble r a t h e r
on the topic.
significant
Treating
sex-role
sex-role as a c o n t i n u o u s
t h a n discrete may lead one to n e w i n s i g h t s
S t udi es of sex- rol e m a y provide a d d i t i o n a l
i n f o r m a t i o n if its mul tif a c t o r i a l n a t u r e w e r e
taken into c o n s ide rat ion .
I n co nsi st enc y of r e s u l t s a m o n g
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
89
researchers of sex-role m a y be due to its
plexity.
f a c t ori al c o m ­
That is, an individual is not on l y m a s c u l i n e
but that there m a y be several different way s of being
masculine.
A factor a n a ly tic model of s e x - r o l e wo ul d be
very useful
to aid in un de rst and in g
its n a t u r e and its
effects on one's behaviors.
Since data for this
sample of college students,
should be conducted.
study were g a t h e r e d
replication of its
S i m ila r
from a
findings
studies i n v o l v i n g the ad ult
or the old-a ge p o p u l a t i o n s m a y provide some
in t e r e s t i n g
insights.
Finally,
sex- rol e should also be i n v e s t i g a t e d
within a re li gio us context.
recorded
There is some e v i d e n c e as
in the Bible that Jesus d i s p l a y e d a r e p e r t o i r e
of beh avi or s w h i c h may be regarded as a n d r o g y n o u s .
He
was o b se rve d to be an e f f e ct ive leader and a g g r e s s i v e at
times,
such as when He found people bu y i n g a n d
in the Temple.
J esu s was als o observed
selling
to be nurturant,
such as when He c o m m e n d e d the children to come
to Him.
An inve st iga tio n of sex -ro le on those i n d i v i d u a l s who
have chosen Jesus as their role model will p r o v i d e useful
information.
The res ult s may enhance a be t t e r u n d e r s t a n d ­
ing of a n d ro gyn y and how it works.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDICES
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX A
THE TWO INSTRUMENTS OF THE STUDY
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
PLEASE NOTE:
Copyrighted materials in this document
have not been filmed at the request of
the author. They are available for
consultation, however, in the author's
university library.
These consist of pages:
92-95
97-98
University
Microfilms
International
300 N. ZE E S R D .A N N A A S O R . Ml 48106 1313) 761 4700
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX B
INSTRUMENT FOR THE JUDGES
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bakan,
D.
The Duality of H u m a n
Rand McNally, 1966.
Bandura,
Existence.
Chicago:
A.
"Behavioral M o d i f i c a t i o n s through M o d e l i n g
Procedures."
In L. K r a s n e r and L. P. Ullman,
eds.
Research in B e h a v i o r M o d i f i c a t i o n . N e w
York:
Holt, R i n e h a r t an d Winston, 1965.
Bardwick, J.
Psychology of Women:
A Study of BioCultural C o n f l i c t s . N e w York:
Harper and Row,
1971.
Barron,
F. X.
Creative P e r s o n and Creative P r o c e s s .
N e w York:
Holt, R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1969.
Bern,
L.
"The M e a s u re men t of Psychological A n d r o g y n y . "
Journal of C o n s u l t i n g a n d Clinical P s y c h o l o g y 42
(1974) :155-162.
S.
. "Sex-Role A d a p t i b i l i t y :
One C o n s e q u e n c e of
Psychological A n d r o g y n y . "
Journal of P e r s o n a l i t y
and Social P s y c h o l o g y 31 (1975) :634-643.
. "On the Utility of A l t e r n a t i v e P r o c e d u r e s for
Ass essing P s y c h o l o g i c a l Androgyny."
J o u r n a l of
Consulting and C l i n i c a l Psychology 45 (1977):196205.
. Bern Sex-Role I n v e n t o r y Professional M a n u a l .
California:
C o n s u l t i n g Psychologists Press,
1981.
Block,
J. H. "Conceptions of S e x Roles:
Some C r o s s Cultural and L o n g i t u d i n a l Perspectives."
American
Psychologist 28 (1973) : 512-526.
Brown,
D. G. "Sex-Role D e v e l o p m e n t in a Chn agi ng C u l t ur e."
Psychological B u l l e t i n 55 (1958) :232-242.
Burke,
R . J . "Are you Fed Up w i t h Work?"
Administr ati on 34 (1971):27-32.
Personnel
99
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
100
Burke,
R. J-, and Belcourt, M. L.
"Managerial Role
Stress a nd Coping R es pon s e . "
Journal of Business
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 5 (1974):55-58
Burke,
R. J., and Weir, T.
" P a t t ern s in Husbands' and
Wives' C o pi ng Behaviors."
P syc hological Reports
44 (1979) :951-956.
Campbell, M.; Steffen, J. J.; an d Langmeyer, D.
"Psy cho ­
logical A n d r o g y n y and S o cia l Competence."
P s y ch olo gic al Reports 48 (1981):611-614.
Carlson,
R.
"Sex D iff er enc es in Ego Functioning."
Journal of Co ns ult ing and C l i n ica l Psychology
37 (1971) :267-277.
Cochran,
W. G . , and Cox, G . M.
Experimental D e s igns.
New York:
John W il ey an d Sons, 1957.
Conn,
H.
"Chil dre n' s R e a c t i o n s to the Di scovery of
Genit al Diffe re nce s."
A m e r i c a n Journal of
O r t h o - P s y c h i a t r y 10 (1940): 747-754.
J.
Constantinople, A.
" M a s c u l i n i t y - F e m i n i n i t y : An E x c e p ­
tion to the Famous D i c t um? "
Psychological
Bul let in 80 (1973) :389-407 .
Cosentino, F ., and Heilbrun, A. B.
"Anxiety Correlates
of S e x - Rol e Identity in C o l l e g e Students."
P s y c hol ogi cal Reports 14 (1964):729-730.
Devore,
I., ed.
Primate B e h a v i o r .
R i n eh art and Winston, 1965.
Diamond,
M.
"A C ritical E v a l u a t i o n of the O n t og eny of
Human Se xual Behavior."
Q u a r t e r l y R eview of
Biology 40 (1965):147-175.
Erikson,
S.
" Inner and Outer Space:
Reflect io ns on
W omanhood."
In R. J. L i f t o n (ed.). The Woman
in A m e r i c a . New York:
H o u g h t o n Mifflin, 1964.
Faxon,
A.
Women and J e s u s .
Press, 1973.
New York:
P h i l ade lph ia:
Ferguson, G . A.
Statistical A n a l y s i s
E d u c a t i o n , 4th ed.
N e w York:
Fisher,
Holt,
Pilgrim
in Psychology and
M c G r a w Hill, 1976.
R. A.
"The Fiducial A g r e e m e n t in Statistical
Inference."
Annals of E u g e n i c s 6 (1935) : 391398.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
101
Fla herty, J. P., and Dusek, J. B.
"An I n v e s t i g a t i o n of
the Rela tio nsh ip b e t w e e n Psychological A n d r o g y n y
and Components of Self -Co nce pt ."
J o u r n a l of
Pe r s o na lit y and Social P sychology 38 (1980) :984992.
Freud,
_
.
S.
"Some Psych ol ogi cal Con sequences of the A n a t o m ­
ical Distinc tio n b e t w e e n the Sexes."
In S t a n d a r d
Edition of the C o m p l e t e Psychological W o r k s of
Sigmund F r e u d . Vol 5.
Edited and T r a n s l a t e d by
J. Strachey.
London:
Hogar th Press, 1905.
(Reprint Edition, 1964).
"Three Essays on the T he or y of S e x u a l i t y . "
In
Sta nda rd Edition of the Complete P s y c h o l o g i c a l
Works of Sigmund Freud.
Vol. 7.
Edit ed and
Tra ns l a t e d by J. Strachey.
London:
Hogarth
Press, 1925.
Fri edman, S. M.
"An Em pi ric al Study of the C a s t r a t i o n
and Oedipus C omp lex es. "
Genetic P s y c h o l o g y M o n o ­
gr aphs 46 (1952) :61-130.
Gall,
M.
Gentry,
D.
"The R e l a t i o n s h i p between M a s c u l i n i t y Fem in i n i t y and M a n i f e s t Anxiety."
J o u r n a l of
Cl inical P s y c ho log y 25 (1969):294-295.
W. D . ; Foster, S.; and Harvey, T.
"Denial as a
De ter m i n a n t of A n x i e t y and Perceived H e a l t h
Status ain the C o r o n a r y Care Unit."
Psychosomatic
Me d i c i n e 34 (1972):39-44.
Go l d b erg , S.
The I n e v i t a b i l i t y of P a t r i a r c h y .
Morrow, 1973.
N e w York;
Gosset,
W. S.
"The Probable Error of the Mean."
Biometrika 6 (1908):1-25.
Gray,
W.
" M a s c u l i n i t y - F e m i n i n i t y in R e l a t i o n to
A n x i e t y and Social Accep ta nce ."
Child D e v e l o p ­
me n t 28 (1957) : 203-214 .
S.
Grusec,
J. E ., and Brinker, D. B.
"R e i n f o r c e m e n t for
Imitation as a So cial Lear nin g D e t e r m i n a n t w i t h
Im pli cations for S e x - R o l e Development."
Journal
of Persona lit y and Social Psychology 21 (1972):
149-158.
Hampson,
J. L . , and Hampson, J. G.
"The O n t o g e n e s i s of
Sexual Behavior in Man."
In Sex and I n t e r n a l
E x c r e t i o n s . Vol. 2.
Edited by W. C. Young.
Baltimore:
Will iam s and Wilkins, 1961.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
102
Harrington, D. M . , and Anderson, S. M.
"Creativity,
Masculinity, Femininity, a n d T hree Modes of
Psy cho log ic al A n d r o g yny ."
J o ur na l of Person ali ty
and Social Psychology 41 (1981):744-757.
Hartford, T. C .; Willis. C. H.; a nd Deabler, H. L.
"P ersonality Co rre la tes of M a s c u l i n i t y - F e m i n i n i t y . "
Ps ych ological Reports 21 (1967):881-884.
Hays,
W.
L.
Statistics for the Social S c i e n c e s . 2nd e d .
N e w York:
Holt, R i n e h a r t and Winston, Inc., 1973.
Heilbrun Jr., A.
P e r ga mon
B.
Human S e x - R o l e
Press, 1981.
Behavior.
New York:
Heinstein, M. I.
"Behavioral C o r r e l a t e s of Breat-Bottle
Regime s under Vary in g P a r e n t - I n f a n t R e l a i t o n s h i p s ."
M o n o g r a p h s of the S o c i e t y for R e s ea rch in C h i l d
D e v e l o p m e n t 28 (1963): S e r i a l 88.
Helson,
R.
"Generality of S e x D i f f e r e n c e s in Creative
Style."
Journal of P e r s o n a l i t y 35 (1968):33-48.
_________ . "Sex Diffe ren ce s in C r e a t i v e Style."
of P ers ona li ty 36 (1969) :214-233.
Journal
Henrichsen, J. J.; Follansbee, D. J . ; a nd Ganellen, R.
"S ex-Role Related D i f f e r e n c e s in Self-Concept and
Me ntal H e a l t h . ” Jo u r n a l of Personality A s s e s s m e n t
45 (1981) :584-592.
Huck,
S. W .; Cormier, W. H. ; a n d B o u n d s Jr., W. G .
Re a d i n g Statistics and R e s e a r c h . New York:
Harper and Row, 1974.
Hunter,
J.
32
"Images of Women."
(1976) :7-17.
J o u r n a l of Social
Hutt,
C.
Ma les a nd F e m a l e s .
Books. 1972.
Jung,
C. G.
"Anima and Anim us. "
In Two Essays in A n a l y ­
tical Psychology:
C o l l e c t e d Works of C. G. J u n g .
Vol. 7.
Bollinger Foundation, 1953.
Harmondsworth:
Issues
Penguin
Kaplan,
A. G . , and Sedney, M. A.
P s y c h o l o g y and Sex
Roles. An Androg yno us P e r s p e c t i v e . Boston:
Little, Brown and Co., 1980.
Kelley,
R. K.
Courtship, M a r r i a g e and the F a m i l y .
N e w York:
Harcourt Br ace Jovanovich, 1974.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
103
Komarovsky, M.
"Cultural C o n t r a d i c t i o n s a nd Sex Roles:
The Masculine Case."
Ame ric an J o u r n a l of
Sociology 77 (1973):873-884.
Konner,
M.
The Tangled W i n g .
and Winston, 1982.
New York:
Holt,
Rinehart,
Kreitler, H., and Kreitler, S.
" Children's C o n c e p t s of
Sexuality and Birth."
Child D e v e l o p m e n t 37
(1966) :363-378 .
Lazarus,
R. S., and Launier, R.
"Stress-Related Transac­
tions between Pe rson and E n v i r o n m e n t . "
In
Perspectives in Interactional P s y c h o l o g y . Edited
by L. A. Pervin and M. Lewis.
N e w York:
Plenum,
1978.
L y n n , D . B . Parent and S ex-Role Ide nti fi cat ion :
tical F o r m u l a t i o n . Berkeley, Cal ifo r n i a :
McCutchan, 1969.
A Theore­
Maccoby,
E. E.
"Sex D i f f e r e n c e s in I n t e l l e c t u a l F u n c ­
tioning."
In Th e Develo pm ent of Sex D i f f e r e n c e s .
Edited by E. E. Maccoby.
Stanford, California:
Stanford Uni ve rsi ty Press, 1966.
Maccoby,
E. E . , and Jacklyn, C. N.
Sex D i f f e r e n c e s . Stanford:
Press, 1974.
Mead,
Sex and T emp er a m e n t in Three
New York:
Morrow, 1935.
M.
Mischel,
T h e P s y c h o l o g y of
Stanford University
Primitive
Societies.
W.
"Sex-Typing and So c i a l i z a t i o n . "
In
Carmichael's Manual of Child P s y c h o l o g y . Vol 2.
Edited by P. H. Mussen.
New York:
J o h n Wiley,
1970.
Money,
J.
"Sex Hormones and Other V a r i a b l e s in Human
Sroticism."
In Sex and Internal S e c r e t i o n s .
Vol. 2.
Edited by W. C. Young.
Baltimore:
Williams and Wilkins, 1961.
Money,
J., and Ehrhardt, A. A.
Man a n d Woman, Bov and
G i r l . Baltimore:
Johns Hopk in s U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1972.
Money,
J., and Tucker, P.
A Man or A W o m a n .
1975.
Sexual Si gnatures:
On Being
Boston:
Little, B row n and Co.,
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
104
Mussen,
P. H.
"Some A n t e c e d e n t s a n d Cons equ en ts of
M a s c u l i n e Se x-T yp ing in A d o l e s c e n t Boys."
Ps ych ological M o n o g r a p h s 75 (1961): No. 506.
_________ . "Long-Term C o n s e q u e n t s of M a s c u l i n i t y of
Interests in A d o l e s c e n c e . "
Journal of C o n s u l t ­
ing Psychology 26 (1962) :435-440.
Moss,
H.
A.
"Sex, Age, and S t a t e as Dete rm ina nts of
Mo t h e r - I n f a n t I nte rac t i o n . "
Me rr i1 1 - P a l m e r
Q u a r t e r l y 13 (1967) : 19-36.
Murdock,
G. P.
1949.
Social S t r u c t u r e s .
N e w York:
Macmillan,
Nielsen,
J.
Sex in Society:
P e r s p e c t i v e s on S t r a t i f i ­
c a t i o n . Belmont, C a l i f o r n i a :
Wadsworth, 1978.
O'Leary,
V., and Depner, C.
" C o l l e g e Males' Ideal Female:
Ch a n g e s in S ex-Role S t e r e o t y p e s . "
Journal of
Social Psy ch olo gy 95 (1975) : 139-140.
Osmond,
M . , and Martin- P.
"Sex a n d Sexism:
A Comparison
of Male and Fe male S e x - R o l e Attit ud es. "
Journal
of Marr iag e and the F a m i l y 37 (1975) :744-758.
Parellius, A.
"Emerging S e x - R o l e Attitudes, E x p ect at ion s
an d Strains among C o l l e g e W o m en ."
Journal of
M a r r i a g e and the F a m i l y 37 (1975):146-153.
Parsons,
T.
"Age and Sex in the S o c i a l Culture."
c a n Sociological R e v i e w 7 (1942) :604-616.
Ameri­
Parsons,
T., and Bales, R. F . F a m i l y S ocialization a n d
In ter ac tio n P r o c e s s . Glencoe, Illinois:
The
Fre e Press, 1955.
Peplau,
L.
"Power in Da ting R e l a t i o n s h i p s . "
In Wo m e n :
A F eminist P e r s p e c t i v e . E d i t e d by J. Freeman.
Palo Alto, California:
Ma yfi eld , 1975.
Piddington, R.
An In t r o d u c t i o n to S oc ia l A n t h r o p o l o g y .
Vol. 1.
Edinburgh:
O l i v e r a n d Boyd, 1957.
Pomeroy,
S.
Godesses. Whores.
Schocken, 1975.
Wives
and S l a v e s .
New York:
Rosenkrans, M. A.
"I mi tat ion in C h i l d r e n as a F u n c t i o n
of Perceived S i m i l a r i t y to a Social Model and
Vicarious Reinforcement."
J o u rna l of P e r s o n a l i t y
a n d Social P s y c h o l o g y 7 (1967) :307-315.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
105
S a f i l i os- Rot hsc hi ld, C.
Toward a S o c i o l o g y of W o m e n .
Lexington, Massachusetts:
Xerox, 1972.
Schaeffer, D. L.
Sex Diffe ren ces in Personality:
R e a d i n g s . Monterey, California:
Brooks/Cole,
1971.
Schaffer, K . S e x - R o l e Issues in M e n t a l H e a l t h .
Reading, M a s s ac hus ett s:
Addiso n-W es ley ,
1980.
Sears,
R. R.
" R e l a t i o n of early S o c i a l i z a t i o n E x p e r i ­
ences to S e l f - C o n c e p t s and G e n d e r Role in Middle
Ch ild ho od. "
Child D e v e l o p m e n t 41 (1970): 267-289.
Selye,
H.
The S t r e s s of L i f e .
1976.
Sherman,
Sidle,
New York:
McGraw-Hill,
J. A.
On the Psycholo gy of Women:
A Survey of
Empirical S t u d i e s . Springfield, Illinois:
Charles C. Thomas, 1971.
A . ; Moos, R . ; Adams, J . ; and Cady, P.
"De vel op­
ment of a C o p i n g Scale."
A r c h i v e s of General
P s y c h i a t r y 20 (1969) :226-232.
Siegel,
S.
N o n p a r a m e t r i c Statistics:
For the Behavioral
Sciences.
New York:
McG raw-Hill, 1956.
Steinmann, A.
Sex Roles:
T w ent y Year s of Cr oss-Cultural
Research.
Paper p r e s ent ed at the A m e ri can Psy­
ch olo g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n m e e t i n g in Chicago, 1975.
Vaillant, G. E.
A d a p t a t i o n to L i f e .
Brown, 1977.
Webb,
A.
Welch,
Boston:
Little and
P.
" S e x - R o l e P r efe ren ce s a n d A d j u s t m e n t in
Early A d o l e s c e n t s . "
Ch ild D e v e l o p m e n t 34 (1963):
609-618 .
B. L.
"The S ign if i c a n c e of the D i ffe ren ce s between
Two M e n a s W h e n the P opu la t i o n Var ian ces Are
Unequal."
Biometrika 29 (1938):350-362.
Welkowitz, J . ; Ewen, R. B . ; and Cohen, J.
Introductory
St a t i s t i c s for the Behavior al S c i e n c e s , 2nd ed.
Wesley,
F ., and Wesley, C.
S e x -Ro le P s y c h o l o g y .
York:
H u m a n Sciences Press, 1977.
Whitbeck, C.
T h e o r i e s of Sex
Ph ilosophy:
Toward a
Edited by C. C. Gould
York:
G . P. Putnam's
New
D iff er enc e.
In Women and
T h e o r y of L i b e r a t i o n .
and M. W. Wartofsky.
New
Sons, 1976.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
106
Whiting,
B. B., and Whiting, J. W. M.
C h i l d r e n of Six
C u l t u r e s . Cambridge:
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1975.
Wilson,
E. 0.
1975-
Zanna,
SociobioloQV.
Cambridge,
B e l k n a p Press,
M., and Pack, S.
"On the S e l f - F u l f i l l i n g Nature
of Apparent S ex Diff ere nce s in Beh av i o r . "
Journal
of Exp erimental and Social P s y c h o l o g y 11 (1975):
583-591.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
107
VITA
NAME:
Roy L ucas Lukman
DATE OF
BIRTH:
PLACE OF
BIRTH:
PERSONAL:
January 9,
Indonesia;
Height, 6'3"
Weight, 175 lbs.
Status, Married;
No Handicap
1952
U.S.
Citizen
o n e child
ED UCATION :
1976
Bachelor of S c i e n c e - Behavioral Science
Atl ant ic Union College, M a s sa ch use tts
1979
Master of Arts - E d u c a t i o n a l Psychology and
Counseling
Andr ews University, M i c h i g a n
1983
Doctor of P h i l o s o p h y - Educational and
Psy ch ological S e r v i c e s
(Cognate Area:
R e s e a r c h and Measurements)
Andrews University, M i c h i g a n
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.