Information and Communication
Technologies in Education
Repositories:
variations, systems, issues
K. Vassilakis / M. Kalogiannakis
Repositories: systems & issues





commons.wikimedia.org

Digital repositories
Learning Object Repositories
Open Educational Resources
Intellectual Property
Digital Rights Management
Creative Commons
2
en.wikimedia.org
Digital Repositories

The term Digital Repository is used to describe a wide range of
systems which provide the infrastructure for the storage,
preservation, management, discovery and delivery of all types
of digital content.



It is where digital content is stored and can be searched and
retrieved for later use through adequate mechanisms.
Digital repositories may include a wide range of content for a
variety of purposes and uses such as research outputs, journal
articles, theses, learning objects, software, teaching material,
research data etc.
Repositories are important for academic organizations,
educators and learners in helping to capture, identification,
storage and retrieval of intellectual assets.
3
LOs – LORs - OERs

With the creation of learning objects, the need for a different
type of repository has emerged: Learning Object Repositories
(LOR).




LORs provide mechanisms to encourage the discovery, exchange
and re-use of LOs.
Institutional repositories: digital collections of a institution's
scholarly research (intellectual outputs).
Through Open Educational Resources (OER) digitized materials
offered freely and openly for educators, students and selflearners to use and reuse for teaching, learning and research.
Since not all repositories store the actual object files
(referatories), a key function of repositories is to identify the
storage location of the objects, and provide an indexing system
that enables the efficient search and discovery of the objects.
4
Specifications for repositories




IMS GLC Learning Object Discovery & Exchange (LODE) activity:
http://www.imsglobal.org/lode/index.html. Facilitates the discovery and
retrieval of learning objects stored across more than one collection
(2010)
IMS GLC Digital Repositories Interoperability (DRI), specification:
http://www.imsglobal.org/digitalrepositories. Provide recommendations
for the interoperation of the most common repository functions
(2003).
Reference Model for an Open Archival Information Systems:
http://public.ccsds.org/publications/archive/650x0m2.pdf. Establishes a
common framework of terms and concepts which make up an OAIS
(2012).
Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAIPMH): http://www.openarchives.org/pmh. Defines a mechanism for
harvesting records containing metadata from repositories (2002).
http://www.cen-ltso.net/main.aspx?put=200
5
Learning Objects life cycle
Objects are
created based
on purpose
•Administration function
Human expertise is sought
VET learning object repository: Green paper for discussion. Flexible Learning Advisory Group, 2003
6
Repository Components
www.jisc.ac.uk
Repository Management and Implementation, L. Campbell et al, A White Paper for alt-i-lab 2004
7
Flash
activity
Τι σημαίνει για εσάς ο όρος:
“Learning Object
Repository”?
Μπορείτε να σκεφτείτε τη
σύνδεσή του με τα LO?
8
Learning Objects Repositories (LOR)


As institutions start to make their way down the road of reusable
and shareable LOs they are also facing choices on how to store,
locate, and share this content. This is succeeded by developing
Learning Object Repositories (LOR).
A LOR is a kind of digital repository (library, essentially databases)
that hold permanent copies of LOs (content, assets, resources) as
well as their updates and their metadata records.



It contains a collection of LOs (or metadata describing LOs) that allows
users to find, retrieve, publish or submit them via a network.
New LO’s can be inserted into the LOR, and the metadata can be
queried.
LO mapping according to some metadata standard allows to share
and to exchange learning objects (thus a more narrow definition of
LORs would also require that repositories implement a metadata standard
or an application profile of it).
9
LOR - components

Essentially a LOR has 3 components:





publicdomainpictures.net
Storage of objects (or metadata describing them) – which is
generally a database.
A search facility – which searches the database and locates any
resources matching the user’s requirements.
An interface – this could be a web page where users can conduct a
search or upload new resources.
Most LORs are stand alone. That is, these repositories function a
lot like portals in that they contain a web-based user interface, a
search mechanism, and a means of retrieving a learning object.
In LOR based on a distributed system, LO metadata is contained
in a number of connected servers or websites. Distributed LORs
typically employ a peer-to-peer architecture in which a variety
of repositories may be searched from a single portal.
10
LOR – needs

LOR need to (*):
http://pixabay.com
 be simple to use,
 have effective search functions that delivered relevant
results,
 be cost effective,
 give practitioners who contribute content some reward
for effort,
 add value to practitioners – ie. save them time or effort
or provide support,
 have some system to regulate the quality of content in
the LOR.
(*)
Learning Objects Quick Guide. Flexible Learning Advisory Group, 2004
11
LOR – features

Practitioners have identified the following features they would
like to see in a LOR (*) :
 Being able to see the object up front before any contractual
obligations are entered into;
 Simple, non-intimidating design and structure;
 Being able to get the object that they want straight away;
 Being able to store the object
on their own computer or on
the web-based repository
associated with their login;
and
 Simple versus advanced.
(*)
VET learning object repository: Green paper for discussion. Flexible Learning Advisory Group, 2003
12
LOR – functionality (*)










search/find – the ability to locate an appropriate learning object.
This can include the ability to browse.
quality control – a system that ensures LOs meet technical,
educational and metadata requirements
request – a learning object that has been located
maintain – implement appropriate version control
retrieve – receive an object that has been requested
submit – provide an object to a repository for storage
store – place a submitted object into a data store with unique,
registered identifiers that allow it to be located,
gather (push/pull) – obtain metadata about LOs in other repositories
for wider searches and information via a clearing house function,
publish – provide metadata to other repositories,
provide a certain level of ”learning object management”.
(*)Technology
for Sharing -LO and DRM, Australian Flexible Learning Framework, Higgs et al, 2003
13
LOR benefits


LORs enable educators to share, manage and use educational
resources.
They are make LOs to be searchable on the Web.





By housing LOs on servers and allowing multiple and simultaneous access via the
Internet, educators can access the objects simultaneously and incorporate them
into their courses/programs.
When educational media is created as a learning object, (i.e. in a
reusable digital format), the economics of media use change.

By putting LOs into LOR enables staff and institutions to manage and preserve
them, and therefore derive maximum value from them.

The reduction of costs through the reuse of online LO.
Increased quality through peer review and collaboration.
An exponential increase in the availability of high quality online LOs.
LOR present an opportunity for collaboration and interoperability
between libraries and eLearning communities.
14
LOR – benefits to organizations / individuals

By managing its learning resources collectively an organization
gains all the benefits and savings of scale:





Realize the full value of learning assets.
Sharing and reuse of learning material saves time and effort.
Build a common resource making it easy to identify new opportunities.
Could use the repository to showcase their achievements
Every participant in the learning process has something to
gain:



Educators share a common store of learning resources, but can create
and deliver them however they choose.
The quality of teaching and training is improved because everyone has
easy access to the best resources.
Support staff know resources are securely stored and centrally
managed.
15
Pyramid model of intra-organizational LOR



Useful to promote sharing and reuse within the organization.
Limited and run the risk of becoming closed systems.
Large LORs could quickly become unmanageable.
LOR issues for VET sector organisations. Flexible Learning Advisory Group, 2003
16
Pyramid model of distributed LORs




Quality assurance and maintenance are easier.
Growth is more feasible with small-scale implementations.
Ability to meet the needs of different organizations.
Interoperability issues.
LOR issues for VET sector organisations. Flexible Learning Advisory Group, 2003
17
LOR types







Those that store content on site exclusively follow a centralized model
in which the learning objects are located on a single server or website.
Those that mainly provide metadata with links to LOs housed at other
sites. They can be considered to be “portals” that provide links to
educational content provided by others (links aggregators).
Hybrid sites that provide both content and links to external content.
General repositories (hosting learning resources from a wide variety
of subject areas hosting learning resources from a wide variety of
subject areas).
Those that hold content in a specific subject (that are focused on
specific themes or topics).
Those that are open to all users (open access).
Those that require a subscription or sign-in (required when submitting
materials).
A Typology of Learning Object Repositories, R.McGreal, Athabasca Uni, 2007
18
Examples








OpenCourseWare, MIT, https://ocw.mit.edu/
OpenStax CNX (connexions): collection of free scholarly
materials, Rice University. http://cnx.org/
OLI: Open Learning Initiative, Carnegie Mellon University
http://oli.cmu.edu/
MERLOT, California State University, https://www.merlot.org/
The Orange Grove: Florida's repository project,
https://www.floridashines.org/orange-grove/
University of WisconsinMilwaukee LO Collections,
http://uwm.edu/cie/
Φωτόδεντρο, http://photodentro.edu.gr/aggregator/
Ανοικτά Μαθήματα (opencourses), Gunet,
http://www.opencourses.gr/
19
Open Educational Resources




What
How
Who
eLearning
https://www.flickr.com
20
Open Educational Resources (what)




Open educational resources (OER) are any resources available
at little or no cost that can be used for teaching, learning, or
research.
OER typically refers to electronic (digital) resources, including
those in multimedia formats (any material that can be used
for educational purposes).
Such materials are generally released under a Creative
Commons or similar license that supports open or nearly open
use of the content.
OER can originate from colleges and universities, libraries,
archival organizations, government agencies, commercial
organizations such as publishers, or faculty or other
individuals who develop educational resources they are willing
to share.
7 things you should know about Open Educational Resources, EDUCAUSE, 2010
21
Open Educational Resources (how)


Tends to focus on usage in online or hybrid learning
environments.
Each resource is issued under a license that spells out how it
can be used.



Some materials may only be used in their original form; in other
cases, learning resources can be modified, remixed, and
redistributed.
Instructors and individual learners can download OER and use
them in formal or informal learning situations.
Because open resources are so malleable, they can be adapted
to keep pace not only with new technologies but also with
changes to academic disciplines and teaching methods.

Depending on the resource, these updates might be made by the
creator or by users of the resource.
7 things you should know about Open Educational Resources, EDUCAUSE, 2010
22
Who’s doing OER?


One of the longest-running and highest-profile OER initiatives
is the OpenCourseWare project from MIT, which began in
2002 and today features all of the course materials from
roughly 2000 MIT courses (https://ocw.mit.edu).
The OpenCourseWare model has been replicated by dozens
of colleges and universities around the world.


Other OER efforts include Connexions, which was begun at Rice
University, and the Open Learning Initiative from Carnegie
Mellon, as well as the University of the People and even
iTunesU.
Although OER projects use different models for how they
function, all endorse the notion that teaching, learning, and
research are improved when educational resources are more
open and more accessible.
7 things you should know about Open Educational Resources, EDUCAUSE, 2010
23
OER - where is it going?




OER repositories and the tools to search for and filter
resources will need to build out their capacities and
capabilities to help instructors and individual learners navigate
the growing number of open content.
Part of this process is evaluating the credibility of individual
resources or collections, and new mechanisms are likely to
emerge to facilitate this.
To some extent, partnerships (with certain publishers, for
example) have begun to fill this role, allowing faculty members
to choose from lists of reviewed (or “approved”) open
resources.
Even when a resource is deemed accurate and effective,
resources might need to meet even higher standards to be
included in for-credit courses.
7 things you should know about Open Educational Resources, EDUCAUSE, 2010
24
OER - implications for teaching and learning





The infusion of OER into higher education is likely to have far-reaching
effects on the character of teaching and learning (that change is the
subject of some debate).
Viewpoints:

OER movement will lead to a future in which all of the components of an education
will be available online for free and that learners will have the opportunity to
construct a course of study.

Higher education will persist in a form not wholly different from what it is today,
but enhanced with high quality, open, digital content.
Regardless, OER will expand access to educational resources to more
learners, more of the time.
Nontraditional students stand to benefit from open resources because
they are available for independent, self-directed study.
Open resources are one way to address the rising costs of education,
and they also have the potential to facilitate new styles of teaching
and learning.
7 things you should know about Open Educational Resources, EDUCAUSE, 2010
25
Τι σημαίνει για εσάς ο όρος:
“Intellectual Property (IP)”?
Γιατί υπάρχουν νόμοι για την
προστασία της IP?
Flash
activity
26
Intellectual Property (IP)




Intellectual property, very broadly, means the legal rights which result
from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary and
artistic fields.
Countries have laws to protect intellectual property for :
 Giving statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of
creators and the rights of the public in access to those creations.
 Promoting as a deliberate act of government policy, creativity and the
dissemination and application of results and encouraging fair trading
which would contribute to economic and social development.
Generally, IP law aims at safeguarding creators and other producers
of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain timelimited rights to control the use made of those productions.
IP is traditionally divided into two branches,


“industrial property” and
“copyright”.
•WIPO: Intellectual Property Handbook 2008
27
Intellectual Property & Digital Rights Management

The copyright environment consists of three main aspects:




In the online world, management of rights may be facilitated
by the use of technical systems called Digital Rights
Management:


rights (what can be protected by copyright) and exceptions (e.g.
copies for private use or for public libraries);
enforcement of rights (sanctions for making illegal copies and for
trading in circumvention devices); and
management of rights (exploiting the rights).
refers to controlling and managing rights to digital (?) intellectual
property (DRM - Business & Technology, Rosenblatt et al, M&T Books, 2003).
In eLearning settings, DMR is about using systems and
technology to formalize the exchange of Learning Objects

by enabling creators to license their material under conditions
determined by them.
Digital rights management, IEEE Emerging Technology portal, http://www.ieee.org 2006 - 2012
28
Digital Rights Management - DRM

DMR is the “digital management of rights” not the
“management of digital rights”(Iannella R., "Digital Rights
Management (DRM) Architectures." D-Lib Magazine v.7, no.6, 2001).


It aims to automate the management, licensing, tracking and
recording of the use of electronic materials.
Managing digital rights allows organizations to have some
control over how their content is used. Reasons:





to protect the intellectual, moral and legal rights of the
creators/owners of Learning Objects,
to ensure content is used in appropriate ways,
to enable organizations to earn from content they produce,
to allow reasonable access to copyright material, and
to fulfill obligations under international, national and state law.
Learning Objects Quick Guide. Flexible Learning Advisory Group, 2004
29
DRM - architectural view



The content server is a server component on the DRM
architecture that consists of the actual content, information
about products (services) that the content provider wants to
distribute, and functionality to prepare content for a DRMbased distribution.
The license server is responsible for managing licensing
information. Licenses contain information about the identity of
the user or device that wants to exercise rights concerning the
content, identification of the content to which the rights apply,
and specifications of those rights.
The client resides on the user's side and supplies the following
functionalities: DRM controller, the rendering application and
the user's authentication mechanism.
Digital rights management, IEEE Emerging Technology portal, http://www.ieee.org 2006 - 2012
30
DRM - functional point of view
https://commons.wikimedia.org
Digital rights management, IEEE Emerging Technology portal, http://www.ieee.org 2006 - 2012
31
Impact of DRM on Academia and Education




Intellectual property and DMR are two of the biggest issues
for organizations considering adopting and using learning
objects.
DRM impacts heavily on the worlds of academia as well as
education and training because of the high usage of
published works in education and training.
Academic and education and training institutions will need
to manage their use of intellectual property to ensure they
are complying with the law.
All teachers and education managers must now recognize
they have an obligation to understand the implications of
their work in relation to using the copyright protected
materials of other persons.
Technology for Sharing -LO and DRM, Australian Flexible Learning Framework, Higgs et al, 2003
32
Creative Commons




Why
What
How
Licenses
33
Creative Commons (why)





IP copyrights were and remain one of the most significant
obstacles in using LOs and other academic materials that are
published on the internet.
Educators and learners fear unauthorized uses of material that
may be copyrighted owned or controlled by others.
The mere fact that materials can be found on the Internet does
not ensure that they can be used legally or at no cost.
Those problems are being very effectively addressed thanks to
increasingly popular online tools that streamline the management
of IP issues.
The most important such tool is developed by Creative Commons,
a non-profit organization based in San Francisco, California, which
has also created a global network of affiliate organizations to
ensure tool validity and adoption worldwide.
Free to Learn , Hal Plotkin, published by Creative Commons. October, 2010.
34
Creative Commons (what)

Creative Commons (CC) licenses permit the copying, reuse,
distribution, and in some cases, modification of the original owner’s
creative work without having to obtain permission every single time
from the rights holder.




encourages the expansion of and building upon creative work without the use of
DRM.
CC licenses have various advantages, including ease of use,
widespread adoption, choice and flexibility, human-readable,
machine-readable and symbolic representations of the licensees, and
a direct link between the resource and its license.
The CC license is associated with a broad movement looking for a rebalancing of intellectual property rights legislation.
Applications: creation of LOs and other educational material, studentcreated materials, output from research work (both data & text),
Open Educational Resources (OER).
Creative Commons Licences, JISC Briefing Paper, 2009
35
Creative Commons (how)




Creative Commons (www.creativecommons.org) is a licensing
system under which authors or producers of a work offer some
of their rights to others to reuse their work under certain
specified conditions.
The CC website offers a menu of IP licenses that can be
electronically appended to intellectual properties free of charge.
Creators of intellectual properties such as LOs, courses,
courseware, or lectures can select the IP licensing terms they
want to apply to their works from a list on the CC website,
which then generates the requested machine-readable IP
license.
The license is attached to the content and is available in various
forms allowing the rights holder to retain a level of control over
how their work is treated.
Creative Commons Licences, JISC Briefing Paper, 2009
36
Creative Commons (license elements)



There is no single Creative Commons license.
CC licenses allow rights holders to maintain a basic level of
control by offering something between an “all rights reserved’
copyright license and “waiving all of their rights”.
The main CC licenses offer a series of baseline rights together
with 4 license elements that can be mixed and matched to
produce a license through a point-and-click web interface:




Attribution (BY) – you must credit the licensor of the work
Non-Commercial (NC) – you can only use the work for noncommercial purposes
No-Derivatives (ND) – you may not create adaptations of the
work
Share Alike (SA) – you may create adaptations of the work, but
these must be under the same license as this work
Creative Commons Licences, JISC Briefing Paper, 2009
37
Creative Commons (licenses)

The four license elements form the six basic licenses (attribute
BY is part of all):








Attribution (BY)
Attribution – No Derivatives (BY-ND)
Attribution – Non-Commercial, No Derivatives (BY-NC-ND)
Attribution – Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Attribution – Non-Commercial, Share Alike (BY-NC-SA)
Attribution – Share Alike (BY-SA)
CC licenses are free to use, as well as subsequently permitting
free use of works under which they are issued.
User-friendly symbols:
Creative Commons Licences, JISC Briefing Paper, 2009
38