Chapter XV.11
The Implications of Cognitive Style to Adult
Distance Education
Cindy Marie Isaak-Ploegman and Chris Chinien
1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to examine the implications of the cognitive-style
dimension of field independence/dependence for adult learners in distance learning environments. Chinien and Boutin (1992–93) suggest a student’s repertoire of
cognitive skills can serve to facilitate or debilitate a student’s performance in a
learning task. Cognitive skills also determine if a student performs cognitive tasks
in a self-directed or independent manner. The cognitive style dimension of field
independence/dependence refers to a student’s manner of processing information
on a continuum between globally or analytically. The implications of this construct
on learner achievement depends on three elements: (a) the nature of the learning
task; (b) the effectiveness of the teacher in adapting the learning material to suit the
learner; and (c) the capacity in assisting the learner to adapt to different learning
requirements (Witkin et al., 1977).
Psychologists doing research on perception were interested in the phenomena of
army pilots during the Second World War flying into fog and emerging upside down,
when others emerged right side up. Research revealed that some people perceived
themselves as separate from their environment, while others perceived themselves
as embedded in their environment (Kirby, 1979). The pencil-and-paper test used to
measure this same perceptual construct is the hidden-figures test (HFT) (Ekstrom
et al., 1976). The HFT requires a subject to disembed thirty-two separate figures
from complex figures in twenty-four minutes. A subject’s ability to successfully
disembed the hidden figures is correlated to his or her level of field independence
(Witkin et al., 1977). The HFT has a reliability of r = .72 (Fleishman & Dusek,
1971) and its validity is established on many levels. The flexibility of closure test
(HFT) is a valid tool for both genders (Beard, 1965) and it is also valid across
different cultures (El-Abd, 1970; Irvine, 1969). The HFT has predictive validity
(Hettema, 1968), is sufficiently generalizable (Messick & French, 1975) and measures cognitive ability (Mos, Wardell & Royce, 1974). Pemberton (1952) tested for
the HFT’s validity to measure analytical ability and found it to be valid, and Sack
and Rice (1974) found the HFT to be sufficiently discriminatory.
The HFT measures a subject’s ability to restructure, which also includes their
ability to break up an organized field so that a discreet background is separate from
R. Maclean, D. Wilson (eds.), International Handbook of Education for the Changing
World of Work, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-5281-1 XV.11,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009
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its parts, to provide organization to a field lacking it, and to organize a different
field than the initial one provided (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). A subject’s level
of field independence is set by pre-school (ibid.) and is measured on a continuum from 1 to 32 (scores between 1 and 16 subjects are field dependent, scores
between 17 and 32 subjects are field independent). Field independence is stable
over time (Cross, 1976; Witkin et al., 1977; Witkin, Goodenough & Karp, 1967;
Vitols, 1985). Research reveals that a subject’s level of field independence affects
that subject’s ability to function autonomously in the interpersonal domain (Witkin
& Goodenough, 1981). Field-dependent subjects are more social, prefer physical
closeness in social interactions, rely on other’s opinions and are more likely to share
their feelings (Witkin et al., 1977). Field-independent subjects are more independent, show initiative, take responsibility, think for themselves and are self-reliant
(ibid.). Field-dependent subjects are warm and friendly, whereas field-independent
subjects are distant and manipulative (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). Since the two
groups are so polarized in their perspective, it is easy to understand the educational
implications associated with subjects that are field independent when compared to
field dependent.
Thompson (1989) suggests that distance education courses self-select a different
type of student. Typical distance education learners tend be more autonomous, independent and are less likely to seek support from instructors or peers. These learners
also tend to learn by doing, set their own deadlines, make their own decisions, arrive at conclusions independently, are organized, follow directions, apply problemsolving principles and express themselves in an orderly, logical fashion (Thompson,
1989). Because these characteristics are consistent with those of a field-independent
student, Thompson thought that if students were field dependent they would be
more likely to drop out of distance education. Spanjer and Tate’s (1988) study
confirmed this hypothesis. They found that field-independent students in a broadcast telecourse outperformed field-dependent students and had higher grade point
averages (GPAs) than the latter for all their courses, by more than half a letter grade.
Field-independent students had 60% less failure and withdrawal rates than fielddependent students. Additionally, field-independent students were more satisfied
than their field-dependent counterparts with their distance education experiences.
In spite of the fact that distance education is more suitable for some types of
learners, there is a global increase in the popularity and demand for distance education. Truell (2001) speculates that Internet-assisted instruction will become the major method of course delivery in the upcoming century. The purpose of this study is
to conduct an analytical survey of literature and research in order to gather evidencebased information to develop an instructional design model that could attenuate
differential learning gains due to the cognitive-style construct field dependence/field
independence for distance-learning environments.
2 Method
The methodology used for this project was an integrative review (Marsh, 1991) of
selected pieces of related literature and research in the area of field independence/
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dependence since 1950. Colin J. Marsh (1991) defines the method of integrative
inquiry as compiling research on a particular topic in order to apply the findings to
educational practice. The benefits of examining literature as a body of knowledge,
as opposed to looking at an individual study, are that decisions are made on all
relevant literature on a given topic. An integrative review allows practitioners to
follow trends in literature, find evidence for particular conclusions (Smith, 1977)
and decide on their course of action. A researcher engaging in an integrative review
is motivated by a desire to answer a specific educational research question and to
save busy practitioners time by synthesizing all the information from the review.
A synthesis may be a review of research for contradictions, themes and implications, or a statistical analysis, and a report of recommendations. Different types of
integrative reviews include meta-analyses and comprehensive research reviews. An
integrative review may involve studies that examine the same research question,
examine studies related to a specific topic, or focus on a specific need by a specific
group of educators (Marsh, 1991).
In this project the literature was examined for educational implications that apply
to adult learning in distance education environments. The educational implications
were analysed in order to draw inferences for creating a model to help practitioners to develop, design and implement distance education that may accommodate
the information-processing needs of field-dependent and field-independent adult
learners. The search term ‘field dependence’, ‘field theory (psychology)’, or ‘field
dependence and field independence’ near each other in the article or as major or
minor descriptor terms from 1963 to September 2002 were used to examine the electronic databases; ERIC, PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, Global Books in Print
and Ebsco Host. Searches were also completed on the following library catalogues:
BISON, University of Manitoba Library; Mercury, University of Winnipeg; Aleph,
Brandon University; Gate, University of Alberta; UTC, University of Toronto; Manitoba Union list of serials; and Western Canada Union list of serials, using the
keyword ‘field dependence/independence’ as the subject heading. A basic search
was carried out on the University of British Columbia library catalogue using the
keyword ‘field dependence/independence’ as the subject heading, and an advanced
search was completed using ‘field dependence (psychology)’ as the subject heading.
A search was also conducted on the database Dissertation Abstracts Search from
NetDoc using ‘education’ as the subject heading and the keywords ‘field dependence’ and ‘adult’ were selected as the subject heading. Other articles were found
by using what Cooper (1982) calls the ancestry approach to retrieving information.
Using the ancestry approach, citations are tracked from one study to another through
bibliographies. Similarly, an advanced search for articles was conducted on the Internet (www.google.ca) using the exact phrase ‘field dependence’ with all of the
word ‘distance education’.
2.1 Inclusion Criteria
This review included articles or books that were written in the English language
and those whose authors are educators, educational administrators or psychologists.
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Second, studies reviewed included those whose subjects were adults between the
ages of 18 and 60 years. Third, studies included were those that examine constructs
pertaining to graphics that have specific repercussions to instructional design in
the context of adult distance education. In general, articles were selected based on
their availability, relevance and soundness of research. Once these inclusion criteria
were applied, a total of 115 articles, books and dissertations were accepted in this
review.
3 Results
The majority of the articles in this review are in the context of field independence research. A total of twenty-eight of the articles were in the area of distance education.
Seventy of the articles were related to primary research done in the context of field
independence. Eight articles were reviews of distance education research and did
not provide primary data. Nine articles were reviews of field independence research
and did not present primary data.
3.1 Differential Learning Gain
The main finding after examining all the literature on differential learning gains
and cognitive style is that field-independent learners generally outperform fielddependent learners in nearly all contexts (Cooperman, 1980; Copeland, 1983; Couch
& Moore, 1992; Czarnecki, 1980; Griffin & Franklin, 1995–96; Guster, 1986; Lin
& Davidson-Shivers, 1996; McCabe & McCabe, 1980; Mezoff, 1982; Rittschof,
Griffin & Custer, 1998; Robertson & Alfano, 1985; Rupert, 1987; Walker, 1981).
This difference could, in part, be attributed to intrinsic motivation. Since fieldindependent learners are task oriented, it is not surprising to find that their academic
achievement is higher (Mezoff, 1982) and that they are motivated to excel. Fieldindependent learners approach learning tasks with the determination to succeed and,
hence, take all steps necessary to reach that goal.
Research findings also indicate that, in the specific context of distance education, field-independent students outperform field-dependent students (Boyce, 1999;
Lyons-Lawrence, 1994; Post, 1987; Riddle, 1994; Weller et al., 1995; Williams,
2001). Studies do exist with distance education subjects that do not support this
hypothesis (Brenner, 1997; Caruso, 1992; Fullerton, 2000; Jacobs & Gedeon, 1982;
Shih & Gamon, 2001). It should be noted that some studies do not support the
theory that field-independent students always outperform field-dependent students
(Marrison & Frick, 1994; Raskin, 1986; Young, Kelleher & McRae, 1989). These
contradictory findings are explained by literature and research that suggest that the
cognitive divide between field-dependent and field-independent students may be
bridged by adapting instruction. It is noteworthy, however, that most of the inferences made about the implications of cognitive style for distance education are on
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the whole speculative since they are drawn from the cognitive-style research conducted in traditional educational settings.
3.2 Constructivism
Gibbs (2000) found that there was no interaction between students’ level of computer programming achievement in either coding or design within a constructivist
environment. This hints to one of the ways that instructors can modify their teaching to reduce the differential learning gain between students of different cognitive
styles. Constructivism assumes learning is dependent on an adult’s previous knowledge structure and that adults learn by constructing their own meaning (Merriam &
Caffarella, 1999). The level of social contacts made possible by a particular mode
of delivery determines the amount of construction that is applied to a particular
distance-learning situation. For instance, learning activities can be adjusted to require students to contemplate their previous learning in or experience with particular
subject-matter content and to create new learning experiences. Students’ evaluation
may also be adjusted in either assignments or test questions, by requiring students
to reflect on their previous experience and the relevance of the new learning in relation to the old. Through group projects, chat rooms, discussion webs and electronic
mailings, students are able to construct knowledge through (experiencing) engaging
in social activities (Liu & Ginther, 2000). An instructor may also facilitate social
constructivism by making a decided effort to contact students personally, so that
they do not feel detached or isolated, and to clarify potential confusion or address
students’ questions.
3.3 Student Supports
Research suggests that it is important to maintain adequate student supports for
field-dependent learners in the context of distance education to ensure that they do
not feel isolated. Access to a regional learning centre is important for the ‘true’
distance learner. Similarly, a variety of modes of communication—e-mail, memos,
notes, telephone, letters, etc.—serve to compensate for the absence of face-to-face
instruction in distance education. Additionally, the use of chat rooms and LISTSERV mailing lists can also encourage students to discuss course issues and engage
in co-operative learning (Liu & Ginther, 2000).
3.4 Evaluation
Adult educators may also accommodate learners’ cognitive style by providing
various types of assignments and examination questions (Liu & Ginther, 2000).
This accommodation may include instituting take-home exams, group and
individual projects. Educators may chose to use test questions including
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fill-in-the-blanks, multiple-choice, matching and a selection of short and essay
questions. Teacher hints in the form of verbal descriptions, diagrams and tables
should be used during assessment to maximize learning for all cognitive
styles.
Multiple-choice questions are often used since they can easily be administered
and can be graded by computer. Field-dependent people bring information together
by assembling parts and compose information into simply structured patterns while,
conversely, field-independent people have more complex strategies including the
ability to encode information on their own and to create a knowledge structure
(Richardson, 2000). Because of this difference between encoding ability across
cognitive style, Richardson (2000) speculated that people of varying levels of field
independence would experience differential success in multiple-choice questions.
If field independent students can more effectively apply patterns of word meanings to a listing of multiple-choice word-meaning options, then they will ultimately have a higher achievement on multiple-choice tests than field-dependent
students. Field-dependent students with less accurate and elaborate inherent encoding abilities will have to revisit the question and try to figure out the differences between the choice options. Cakan’s (2000) research confirmed that using
exclusively multiple-choice questions can skew the performance to field independent eighth-grade students. Adejumo’s (1983) research, which was conducted in
a traditional educational setting, reveals that inferential questioning may jeopardize a field-dependent student’s performance when compared to a field-independent
student.
In order to ensure an objective assessment of their student’s performance, instructors are cautioned to review their evaluation to ensure that it does not reflect their
own cognitive style preference. Those elements of evaluation that can be affected
by a student’s ability to disembed will need to be eliminated. From the literature
findings, suggestions for evaluation include: diminishing the perceptual field factors
in the learning task; not having the correct response compared to the one suggested
by the field factor (Niaz, 1989); avoiding distracting students; grouping similar
problems together (Reiff, 1996); and reducing any interfering conditions during
learning and evaluation. Bearing these factors in mind will serve to prevent any
bias of the evaluation process with respect to students’ level of field dependence/
independence.
3.5 Adjusting Learning Activities and Instructional Material
Field-dependent students have limited abilities for disembedding. Therefore, a key
element for achieving successful instruction to accommodate all students is to minimize the effect of the field factor throughout the instructional design process.
Rasinski (1984) found that field-independent students were able to use their memory
more effectively and efficiently when working with material with interfering conditions. In order to accommodate field-dependent students, Chen (2002) suggests in
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the context of hypermedia instruction that irrelevant links should be hidden, direct
guidance provided and annotated links described.
This review shows that by providing students with the opportunity to offer feedback on instructional material, accomplishing a bridge in the gap in differential
learning gains across cognitive styles is possible. Liu and Ginther (2000) recommend also compensatory supplantation—supplying learners with specific processes
that they cannot supply themselves—to compensate for any task-related deficiencies. They also recommend conciliatory supplantation, which involves changing the
manner in which instructional materials are presented to link learners with their
materials more effectively.
Reardon et al. (1982) concluded that a student whose transactional distance has
been increased may experience exaggerated forms of differences in learning academic tasks. Pairing students together based on their different cognitive styles may
help students to acquire those skills not naturally associated with their cognitive
style (Packer & Bain, 1978; Whyte et al., 1990–91). Collaboration may also be
facilitated or reinforced through required class discussion on Discussion Web, peer
teaching (Gilstrap, Bierman & McKnight, 1992) or chat rooms, or by using IBM Lotus Notes Learningspace or Centricity’s FirstClass for problem-based collaborative
learning (Cuneo, Campbell & Harnish, 2002). Open-ended labs and assignments
(Anderson & Reed, 1998), self-pacing and advance organizers for theoretical dialogue opportunities will give field-independent students the opportunity to capitalize on their natural ability to organize themselves. However, as previously discussed, this independence will need to be adjusted for a ‘happy medium’ so as
not to jeopardize the field-dependent learner’s success. Specific strategies to help
the field-dependent learner achieve their academic potential include using sound in
multimedia instruction (Marrison & Frick, 1994), computer animation to teach concepts (Lee, 1997) and subliminal captions in television learning (Moore & Moore,
1984).
3.6 Structural Elements
Another strategy to assist the field-dependent learner is to provide and instruct students to implement structural elements. This may take the form of teaching categorization, elaboration, thematic organization and keyword techniques. It can also
take the form of teaching active note-taking, paraphrasing, the abstraction of important ideas (Frank & Keene, 1993) and providing signals for adequate note-taking
(Rickards et al., 1997). Instructors can provide lecture outlines, structure charts,
summaries (Reiff, 1996), and instructions on how to analyse and organize topics.
Providing students with detailed course notebooks (Anderson & Reed, 1998) in the
context of an Internet course is one example of providing students with structure,
along with the use of tables, tree diagrams, charts and graphs (Liu & Ginther, 2000).
Another strategy is to provide students with instructions on hypothetical approaches
to solving problems to assist field-dependent learners who do not naturally approach
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problems in this manner (Witkin et al., 1977). To accommodate field-dependent
learners, Liu & Ginther (2000) also suggest teaching generalities and then narrowing down to specific concepts or giving instructions stressing the whole and then
the parts.
3.7 Instruction for Promoting Memory and Restructuring
Though research is not specific to the context of distance education, authors in our
review have found that one way to bridge the differential learning gain between
field-dependent and field-independent learners is to include instructions on pegmnemonic memory techniques (Canelos & Taylor, 1981) and restructuring training
(Rush & Moore, 1991). Mansoor (1987) examined the possibility that the cognitive
differences between field-independent and dependent learners were due to the fact
that field-dependent learners utilize less of their working memory or ‘M-space’.
Case & Globerson (1974) theorized that field dependence is caused by either a
decreased utilization of their working memory (or M-space) or an over-sensitivity
to gestalt-like cues that are misleading—or both. Mansoor’s (1987) research confirmed that field-dependent students (Venezuelan chemistry majors) habitually use
too little M-space (measured by the Raven test) when compared to field-independent
students. This theory suggests that deliberate attempts to train field-dependent students to memorize more effectively would benefit them greatly and possibly address
the differential learning gain. Although rote memory is considered a low level of
learning, it is an initial step in a student’s process to higher levels of knowledge acquisition. Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of learning reveals that initially students merely
know information, then higher levels of learning occur when students analyse and
synthesise the new information and are able to apply it to a different context (Kirby,
1979). Augmentation training in restructuring will benefit field-dependent students
who struggle to organize their learning material.
3.8 Humanizing Instruction and Factors Related to Graphics
Several authors also recommend presenting instructional material that has been
modified in order to review the human side of the subject-matter content by providing personal examples, events, stories and anecdotes to accommodate the fielddependent learner (Guster, 1986; Kuykendall, 1992). In terms of graphics, several
studies have demonstrated that differential learning gain for field-dependent learners can be minimized by colour-coding instructional material, using colour visuals
instead of black and white (Moore & Dwyer, 1991, 1991–92; Myers, 1997), and not
using visuals with a distracting background (Descy, 1990). It was also suggested that
if line graphs were used, including many of them gave the field-dependent learner
adequate practice in reading them (Brown, 1992).
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3.9 Implications of the Findings for Practice
The implications of the research findings highlight specific features that can bridge
the differential learning gain across cognitive style. Most of the implications discussed are beneficial for field-dependent learners and do not appear to be detrimental
to field-independent learners. However, these features have only been studied in the
context of various approaches for reducing differential learning gain due to cognitive skills. The main themes addressed include: (a) instructional design; (b) teaching
strategy; (c) evaluation of achievement; (d) support and retention; and (e) cognitive
augmentation.
3.10 Dick and Carey’s Model of Instructional Design
for Practitioners
Dick and Carey (1985) created a model of instructional design that starts by stating goals and objectives and, later, the theory is linked with the skills needed to
implement the acquired theory (Seels & Glasgow, 1990). The basic elements are
all present: goals are stated; the entry behaviours are identified; the performance
objectives are written; and the test items are developed. The next step in instructional design is to develop instructional material followed by first formative and then
summative evaluations. The instruction is subject to revision at every stage of the
instructional design process. The evaluation is assessed in lieu of the improvement
in students’ entry behaviours. Their model is outlined in Figure 1 (Dick and Carey,
1985).
It should be noted that Seels & Glasgow (1990) thought that affective objectives
were not handled adequately in Dick and Carey’s model. The final model (Figure 2)
is a conglomeration of inferences drawn from the cognitive style research previously
discussed, along with elements recommended by Murray (2001) that are part of distance education (content, services and technology) embedded in Dick and Carey’s
model of instructional design.
Identify
instructional
goals
Conduct
instructional
analysis
Identify entry
behaviours,
characteristics
Revise
instruction
Write
performance
objectives
Develop
criterionreferenced
test items
Develop
instructional
strategy
Develop and
select
instructional
materials
Design and
conduct
formative
evaluation
Design and
conduct
summative
evaluation
Fig. 1 Dick and Carey’s model of instructional design for practitioners
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C.M. Isaak-Ploegman, C. Chinien
• Humanize instruction
• Add structural elements
• Avoid field factors
• Model cognitive style
flexibility
• Constructivist approach
• Implement adult education
theory
• Include a variety of test questions
• Group similar problems together
• Short assignments due within short
periods
• Revise instruction based on
student feedback
• Upgrade subject matter
content
Identify
instructional
goals
Cooperative
learning
Conduct
instructional
analysis
Identify entry
behaviours,
characteristics
Write
performance
objectives
Develop
criterionreferenced
test items
Develop
instructional
strategy
Develop and
select
instructional
materials
Design and
conduct
formative
evaluation
Design and
conduct
summative
evaluation
Offer instruction on:
• Restructuring
• Promoting memory
Services for upgrading
technological supports
Student support systems:
• increased instructor
communication
• navigation buttons
• collaboration
• Implement factors
relating to graphics
• Subliminal captions
for T.V.
• Computer animation
• Sound
Fig. 2 Final model to bridge the gap of differential learning gain across cognitive style in the
context of adult distance education
3.11 Modeling Cognitive Style Flexibility
The model shows two pre-existing philosophical mindsets that determine how an educator should approach adult distance education endeavours with the hopes of bridging the differential learning gain between field-dependent and field-independent
learners. One of these approaches includes maintaining an attitude of being constant
in modelling cognitive style flexibility, which, in turn, serves as a visible example
to students of the importance of stretching their ability to adapt to different situations requiring different cognitive processing. This modelling will affect students’
decision-making before they design courses and instructional material, and their
decisions about learning activities, types of evaluation, types of supports, and advising/counselling for students’ choice of programmes and coursework. This attitude
of cognitive style flexibility modelling is intended to benefit all students, regardless
of their level of field dependence, by adequately preparing them for the workplace.
It also ensures that the instructors themselves are always aware of their need to
stretch themselves beyond their own cognitive style and adjust themselves accordingly. One example found in the review is to ensure that an instructor’s evaluation
of students is not biased favourably toward a student of the same cognitive style.
Another example is to ensure that instructors are not instructing in just one style
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but adapting to another style or providing students with alternative approaches to
learning (such as problem-solving) that may be more conducive to their cognitive
style. A field-independent instructor may deliberately want to interact more with
students in small groups or individually, as he/she would tend not to do so naturally,
and field-dependent instructors may want to ask more analytical questions, teach
applying principles or provide corrective feedback. Though it may appear that modelling flexibility would only be relevant for lecture-style courses in the context of
hybrid distance education courses, it may be even more important if the amount of
face-to-face time is limited to a weekly lab or seminar session.
4 Discussion
There were many challenges that presented themselves by using the integrative
review methodology. One was that, of the 115 articles reviewed, there were only
twenty-one current articles reviewed (those published since 1998) and only twentyeight articles reviewed were concerned with distance education. There is no control
over what the keyword used will produce in terms of the year and the type of research highlighted.
Another example of one of these challenges is that several of the articles compared do not share the same definition for field independence/dependence of subjects. Crow & Piper (1983), for example, defined field-dependent subjects as those
possessing a score between 0 and 8 on the group embedded figures test (GEFT)
and field-independent subjects as those with scores between 14 and 18. Copeland
(1983), however, defines field-dependent subjects in his study as those possessing a
score of 0 to 9 and field-independent ones as possessing a score between 16 and 18
on the GEFT. Copeland also differentiates between true field-independent subjects
and those who are ‘mid’-field independent and ‘mid’-field dependent, whose scores
are mid-way between the more extreme categories. Rush & Moore (1991) defined a
third group as field neutral. This group were those subjects who scored between 11
and 15 on the hidden figures test, while field independents scored 16 or higher and
field dependents scored 10 or below on the HFT. This third category is defined based
on research by Garton et al. (1999), who believed that there was a third category of
people who possessed both field-independent and field-dependent traits that enabled
them to adapt to their learning situation as needed (Truell, 2001). Studies with differing initial definitions of the measured construct may even share the same stated
outcome in the context of differential learning gain; for instance, ‘field-independent
students achieve significantly higher scores than field-dependent students’. If their
initial definitions of these categories of subjects differ, then it is obvious that their
conclusions cannot be identical, even though stated as such.
It should also be noted that several of the studies were unable to provide conclusive information due to the fact that they were trying to compare only moderately field-independent learners to true field-independent learners. One example is
Whiteside (1986). Primary researchers could avoid this problem by performing pilot
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studies to determine if initially there was a sufficient spread across the level of field
independence of their subjects for comparative purposes.
Another challenge of comparing and contrasting articles for synthesis is that articles use different statistical measures depending on their specific research question.
Some articles compare the mean academic grades of an extreme field-dependent
versus field-independent group of students, treating two separate group means with
a t-test. An example is Copeland’s (1983) study. Griffin and Franklin’s (1995–96)
study, however, examines a potential correlation between a students’ achievement
and his/her level of field independence, treating field independence and academic
grades both as a continuum. In this case a correlation coefficient is calculated. This
also serves to weaken the strength of the generalizations drawn from the body of
articles as a whole, since they are not truly similar, although their results may be reported as similar. Both of the above examples found that field-independent subjects
had higher course grades than field-dependent subjects. In the case of correlational
studies using multiple regression tables, when accounting for the amount of variation between subjects due to their level of field independence, some studies account
for gender, previous subject-matter knowledge and any other confounding variable,
and some do not. Other challenges are that the difference in the number of subjects
in each study varies and some studies are qualitative and some are quantitative.
One study (McLeod & Adams, 1979) changed the timing of the hidden-figures test,
allowing for fifteen rather than ten minutes. All these factors serve to weaken any
inferences drawn from examining the findings.
Studies examining the concept of how a student’s level of field independence
affects differential learning gain most commonly had a pre-test/post-test methodology. The unfortunate drawback was that almost all studies, with few exceptions,
used multiple-choice questioning as the format of determining differential learning
gain, which our review found was a more suitable method of the evaluation for
field-independent students than field-dependent students. This again is something
beyond the control of the integrative reviewer, but serves as a potential confounding
variable when examining concepts of differential learning gain.
5 Conclusions
As previously mentioned, most of the inferences drawn from the cognitive-style
research have not been verified in the context of adult distance education, but in traditional settings and are hence mostly speculative. However, the final model can be
tested for validity with future research in the context of adult distance education and
through feedback from educational and cognitive-style experts and distance learners
themselves.
The main finding that can be drawn from the literature reviewed was that it is
possible for educators to bridge the gap in differential learning gain across cognitive
style by implementing a few strategies in instructional design, implementation and
evaluation. One of the most interesting factors revealed by the analytical survey
was that adult education theory is congruent with the requirements of the adult
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distance education learner. This serves as an indirect support for future research
in the area of adult distance education. Not only does this mode of delivery support
how adults like to learn, it is also convenient. This does detract from the importance
of the distance educator modelling cognitive flexibility and bridging the potential
achievement gap between students of different levels of field independence.
Although the majority of research supports the premise that field independent
students outperform dependent students, the actual amount can only be determined
through statistical calculations with a meta-analysis procedure. This aspect of literature analysis was not developed in this project and is a possibility for future research
endeavours. Another recommendation for further research includes validating the
adult distance education model created.
References
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