UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX
SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY
Forensic and Applied Cognitive Psychology
Year: second
C8012
15 credits
Autumn Term 2013
Module Convenor: Graham Hole
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Module Structure, Aims and Objectives:
This module is concerned with the application of theories of attention, perception
and memory in criminological, clinical and forensic contexts. It will consider issues
such as the following.
What is wrong with current face recall systems such as Photofit, Identikit and E-fit?
How reliable are eyewitnesses’ accounts of what they have seen, and their
identifications of faces they have encountered?
Why is that faces of other races are more likely to be misidentified in police lineups?
Can people be recognised reliably from ID cards, passports and CCTV?
Do children make reliable witnesses, or is their testimony not to be trusted?
How is memory is affected by stress?
What causes Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and how can it be treated?
What is the relatiionship between mental illness and crime?
How do theories of perception and attention explain why some road accidents
occur?
What effect does a driver's age have on their risk of having an accident, and why?
How does using a mobile phone or sat-nav system affect someone's driving?
Module Learning Outcomes:
By the end of the module, you should have a sound knowledge of contemporary
theories and research on cognitive psychology in real-world contexts, and of the
conceptual and methodological issues involved in applying these theories to real-life
situations. You should be able to demonstrate an ability to evaluate the adequacy of
empirical research on the topics covered, particularly in terms of its internal and
external validity.
Prerequisites:
No previous knowledge assumed, although some familiarity with cognitive
psychology and research methods would be useful.
Module contact information:
Convenor: Graham Hole.
Location: Pevensey 1 2B24.
Telephone: 01273 606755, extension 4246; but don't bother, I never answer it -email
me instead.
Email: [email protected]
Lecturers on the module: Graham Hole, Ann Henry, Sarah Garfinkel.
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Teaching Methods:
Two lectures per week in weeks 2-11 of the autumn term.
Module Requirements:
This module will be assessed by
(a) a coursework essay (which accounts for 30% of the overall mark, and which
has to be submitted in week 9 of the autumn term). You have to write an essay
based on one of the topics covered in the module..The maximum length of this
essay is 3000 words.
(b) an unseen exam (accounting for 70% of the overall mark)in the autumn
assessment period, after the module has ended. This will consist of 40 multiplechoice questions and two short essay questions (from a choice of eight questions).
Module outline:
Mondays 9-10 in Arts A2
Sept 30 GH face reconstruction systems
Oct 7 GH identification parades
Oct 14 GH own-group biases in
identification
Oct 21 SG stress and memory 1
Oct 28 GH detecting lying
Nov 4 GH jury decision-making
Nov 11 GH perceptual factors in driving
Nov 18 GH driving while distracted
Nov 25 GH old age and driving
Dec 2 GH youth, risk and driving
Tuesdays 1-2 in Chichester
Oct 1 GH CCTV and facial mapping
Oct 8 GH factors affecting eyewitness testimony
Oct 15 GH children as witnesses
Oct 22 SG stress and memory 2
Oct 29 AH critical approaches to theories of crime
Nov 5 AH theories of sexual offending
Nov 12 AH types of sexual offender
Nov 19 AH critical approaches to mental illness,
personality disorder and crime (part 1)
Nov 26 AH critical approaches to mental illness,
personality disorder and crime (part 2)
Dec 3 AH critical approaches to offender profiling
(FBI and statistical profiling)
Reading List:
Unfortunately there is no single textbook that covers all of the topics satisfactorily.
Many of the references below are journal articles, whose introduction and discussion
sections will provide you with useful background material on the topic concerned.
They are all available from the library, either in paper form (if they are older articles)
or electronic form (generally post-1995 or so). You are not expected to read
everything on this list! (I doubt that you would have the time to do so, even if you
tried). Be selective in your reading; most of the titles are self-explanatory.
Psychology and the Eyewitness:
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General:
Hole, G. & Bourne, V. (2010). Face Processing: Psychological, Neuropsychological
and Applied Perspectives. Oxford: O.U.P. Chapters 1, 2, 11, 12 and 13 are highly
relevant to the topics in this section.
Excellent reviews of many of the topics covered in this section can be found in:
Lindsay, R.C.L., Ross,D.F., Read, J.D. & Toglia, M.P.(2006). The Handbook of
Eyewitness Psychology: Volume IIMemory for People. Hove: Psychology Press.
Also worth looking at:
Toglia, M.P., Read, J.D., Ross, D.F. & Lindsay, R.C.L. (2006). The Handbook of
Eyewitness Psychology: Volume I Memory for Events. Hove: Psychology Press..
What's wrong with systems such as Photofit and E-Fit?:
Face reconstruction systems such as E-Fit are notoriously poor at producing
recognisable likenesses of suspects' faces. This lecture looks at the reasons why
this is so.
Bruce, V., Henderson, Z., Newman, C., & Burton, M.A. (2001). Matching identities of
familiar and unfamiliar faces caught on CCTV images. Journal of Experimental
Psychology (Applied), 7 (3): 207-218.
Frowd, C.D., Carson, D., Ness, H., Richardson, J., Morrison, L., Mclanaghan, S. &
Hancock, P. (2005). A forensically valid comparison of facial composite systems.
Psychology, Crime and Law, 11 (1), 33-52.
Hancock, P.J.B., Bruce, V. & Burton, A.M. (2000).Recognition of unfamiliar
faces.Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4 (9), 330-337.
Henderson, Z., Bruce, V. & Burton, A.M. (2001). Matching the faces of robbers
captured on video. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15,445-464.
Kemp, R., Towell, N., & Pike, G. (1997). When seeing should not be believing:
photographs, credit cards and fraud. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11: 211-222.
Maurer, D., Le Grand, R., & Mondloch, C.J. (2002). The many faces of configural
processing, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6 (6): 255-260.
Problems with identification parades:
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Misidentifications by witnesses are one of the leading causes of miscarriages of
justice. Why do misidentifications occur, and how might they be prevented?
Charman, S.G., Wells, G.L. & Joy, S.W. (2011). The Dud effect: adding highly
dissimilar fillers increases confidence in lineup identifications. Law and Human
Behaviour, 35, 479–500.
Levi, A.M. & Lindsay, R.C.L. (2001). Lineup and photo spread procedures: issues
concerning policy recommendations. Psychology, Public Policy and Law 7 (4), 776–
790.
Steblay, N., Dysart, J., Fulero, S., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (2003). Eyewitness accuracy
rates inpolice showup and lineup presentations: a meta-analytic comparison. Law
and HumanBehavior, 27 (5), 523-540.
Wells, G. L., Olson, E., & Charman, S. (2003). Distorted retrospectiveeyewitness
reports as functions of feedback and delay. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Applied, 9, 42–52.
Factors affecting the reliability of eyewitness testimony:
Eyewitnesses' memory for events can be quite unreliable. This lecture looks at some
of the factors that might account for why this is so.
Deffenbacher, K.A., Bornstein, B.H., Penrod, S.D. & McGorty, E.K. (2004). A metaanalytic review of the effects of high stress on eyewitness memory. Law and Human
Behavior, 28 (6), 687-706.
Gabbert, F., Memon, A. & Allan, K. (2003). Memory conformity: can eyewitnesses
influence each other’s memories for an event? Applied Cognitive Psychology 17,
533–543.
Hope, L. & Wright, D. (2007). Beyond unusual? Examining the role of attention in
theWeapon Focus effect. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 951-961.
Memon, A. & Wright, D.B. (1999). Eyewitness testimony and the Oklahoma
bombing. Psychologist, 12 (6): 292-295.
Skagerberg, E.M.(2007). Co-witness feedback in line-ups. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 21, 489–497.
Children as witnesses:
Can children ever be reliable witnesses? If not, why not? At what age could juries
begin to have faith in their testimony?
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Bruck, M. & Melnyk, L. (2004). Individual differences in children’s suggestibility: a
review and synthesis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 947-996.
Ceci, S.J. & Bruck, M. (1993). The suggestibility of the child witness: a historical
review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 403-439.
Chae, Y. & Ceci, S.J. (2005). Individual differences in children’s recall and
suggestibility: the effect of intelligence, temperament, and self-perceptions. Applied
Cognitive Psychology, 19, 383–407.
Hyman, Jr., I.E., Husband, T.H. & Billings, F.J. (1995). False memories of childhood
experiences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9 (3), 181-197.
Priestley, G., Roberts, S. & Pipe, M. (1999). Returning to the scene: reminders and
context reinstatement enhance children’s recall. Developmental Psychology, 35,
1006-1019.
Pozzulo, J.D. & Lindsay, R.C.L. (1998). Identification accuracy of children versus
adults: a meta-analysis. Law and Human Behavior,22, 549-570.
Own-group biases in identification:
We are poorer at recognising faces that differ from us in terms of race, gender and
age; why do these "own-group biases" occur, and what implications do they have for
evaluating eyewitnesses' identification performance?
Anastasi, J.S. & Rhodes, M.G. (2005). An own-age bias in face recognition for
children and older adults. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 12 (6), 1043-1047.
Bernstein, M.J., Young, S.G. & Hugenberg, K. (2007). The cross-category effect.
Mere social categorization is sufficient to elicit an own-group bias in face recognition.
Psychological Science, 18, 706-712.
Harrison, G. & Hole, G.J. (2009). Evidence for a contact-based explanation of the
own-age bias in face recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 16, 264-269.
MacLin , O.H. & Malpass, R.S. (2003). Last but not least: the ambiguous-race face
illusion. Perception, 32, 249–252.
Meissner, C.A. & Brigham, J.C. (2001). Thirty years of investigating the own-race
bias in memory for faces: a meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy and
Law, 7 (1), 3-35.
Sporer, S.L. (2001). Recognizing faces of other ethnic groups: an integration of
theories. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 7 (1), 36-97.
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Wright, D.B., Boyd, C.E. & Tredoux, C.G. (2003). Inter-racial contact and the ownrace bias for face recognition in South Africa and England. Applied Cognitive
Psychology 17, 365–373.
Lies and Deception:
How well can people detect lying, both in speech and non-verbal communication?
This classic book on non-verbal communication is still highly readable and relevant:
Argyle, M. (1988). Bodily communication. London: Methuen. (QZ 1440 Arg – 2
copies).
Akehurst, L., Bull, R., Vrij, A. & Koehnken, G. (2004). The effects of training
professional groups and lay persons to use criteria-based content analysis to detect
deception. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 877–891.
DeGroot, T., & Motowidlo, S.J. (1999). Why visual and vocal interview cues can
affect interviewers' judgements and predict job performance. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 84 (6), 986-993.
Halverson, A.M., Hart, A.J., Hallahan, M., & Rosenthal, R. (1997). Reducing the
biasing effects of judges' nonverbal behavior with simplified jury instruction. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 82 (4), 590-598.
Hillman, J., Vrij, A. & Mann, S. (2012), Um … they were wearing …: The effect of
deception on specific hand gestures. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 17, 336–
345.
Imada, A.S., & Hakel, M.D. (1977). Influence of nonverbal communication and rater
proximity on impressions and decisions in simulated employment interviews. Journal
of Applied Psychology 62 (3), 295-300.
Knapp, M. L. & Hall, J. A. (1997). Nonverbal communication in human interaction
(4thed). Fort Worth : Harcourt Brace. (QZ 1440 Kna – 1 copy).
Newman, M.L., Pennebaker, J.W., Berry, D.S., & Richards, J.M. (2003). Lying
words: predicting deception from linguistic styles. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 29 (5), 665-675.
Sporer, S.L. (1997). The less travelled road to truth: verbal cues in deception
detection in accounts of fabricated and self-experienced events. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 11 (5), 373-397.
Stroemwall, L.A. & Granhag, P.A. (2003).Factors affecting the perception of verbal
cues to deception. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 35-49.
Vrij, A. (2000). Detecting lies and deceit. the psychology of lying and the implication
for professional practice.Chichester, GB: Wiley. (BJ 1421 VRI – 16 copies)
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Vrij, A., Evans, H., Akehurst, L., & Mann, S. (2004). Rapid judgements in assessing
verbal and nonverbal cues: their potential for deception researchers and lie
detection. Applied Cognitive Psychology 18 (3), 283-296.
Jury decision making:
Dahl, J., Enemo, I., Drevland, G.C.B., Wessel, E., Eilertsen, D.E., & Magnussen, S.
(2007). Displayed emotions and witness credibility: a comparison of judgements by
individuals and mock juries. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21 (9), 1145-1155
.
Hastie, R. (Ed.) (1993). Inside the juror: the psychology of juror decision-making.
Cambridge University Press.
Horowitz, I.A., & Forster, L. (2001). The effects of note-taking and trial transcript
access on mock jury decisions in a complex civil trial. Law and Human Behavior, 25
(4), 373-391.
Kapardis, A. (2003). Psychology and Law: A Critical Introduction (2nd.edition).
CambridgeUniversity Press.[in the library, you will find the 1st edition published in
1997]
MacCoun, R. J. (1989). Experimental research on jury decision making. Science,
244, 1046-1049.
Pennington, N., & Hastie, R. (1986). Evidence evaluation in complex decision
making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 242-258.
Rose, V. G. & Ogloff, J. R. P. (2001). Evaluating the comprehensibility of jury
instructions: a method and an example. Law and Human Behavior, 25 (4), 409-431.
Voss, J. F. & Van Dyke, J. A. (2001). Narrative structure, information certainty,
emotional content, and gender as factors in a pseudo jury decision-making task.
Discourse Processes, 32 (2&3), 215–243.
Stress and memory:
The effect of stress on memory 1:
Het, S., Ramlow, G. & Wolf, O.T. (2005). A meta-analytic review of the effects of
acute cortisol administration on human memory. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30
(8),771-784.
Buchanan, T.W. & Lovallo, W.R. (2001). Enhanced memory for emotional material
following stress-level cortisol treatment in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 26
(3),307-317.
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Abercrombie, H.C., Speck, N.S. & Monticelli, R.M. (2006). Endogenous cortisol
elevations are related to memory facilitation only in individuals who are emotionally
aroused. Psychoneuroendocrinology,31(2),187-196.
Kirschbaum, C., Wolf, O.T., May, M., Wippich, W. & Hellhammer, D.H. (1996).
Stress and treatment-induced elevations of cortisol levels associated with impaired
declarative memory in healthy adults. Life Sciences, 58 (17), 1475-1483.
The effect of stress on memory 2:
Caspi, Y., Gil, S., Ben-Ari, I.Z., Koren, D., Aaron-Peretz, J. & Klein, E. (2005)
Memory of the traumatic event is associated with increased risk for PTSD: A
retrospective study of patients with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Loss and
Trauma, 10 (4), 319-335.
Milad, M.R., Pitman, R.K., Ellis, C.B., Gold, A.L., Shin, L.M., Lasko, N.B., Zeidan,
M.A., Handwerger, K., Orr, S.P., &Rauch, S.L. (2009). Neurobiological basis of
failure to recall extinction memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Biological
Psychiatry 66 (12),1075-1082.
Giosan, C., Malta, L., Jayasinghe, N., Spielman, L. &Difede, J. (2009) Relationships
between memory inconsistency for traumatic events following 9/11 and PTSD in
disaster restoration workers. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23 (4), 557-561.
The Psychology of Driving:
General:
Hole, G.J. (2007). The Psychology of Driving. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[Well, what can I say? This is the one I would buy, personally...]
Groeger, J.A. (2000). Understanding Driving: Applying Cognitive Psychology to a
complex everyday task. Hove, U.K.: Psychology Press.
Perceptual and attentional factors in driving:
A knowledge of the psychology of perception may help to explain some of the
accidents that drivers have. This lecture will focus on the reasons for so-called "look
but failed to see" collisions at intersections - to what extent are they due to drivers'
cognitive limitations, as opposed to problems with their eyesight?
Charman, W.N. (1997). Vision and driving - a literature review and commentary.
Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 17 (5), 371-91.
Hole, G.J. & Tyrrell, L. (1995). The influence of perceptual "set" on the detection of
motorcyclists using daytime headlights. Ergonomics, 38 (7), 1326-1341.
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Langham, M., Hole, G., Edwards, J. & O'Neill, C. (2002). An analysis of "looked but
failed to see" accidents involving parked police cars. Ergonomics, 45, 167-185.
Simons, D. J. & Chabris, C. F. (1999). Gorillas in our midst: sustained inattentional
blindness for dynamic events. Perception, 28, 1059-1074.
Underwood, G., Chapman, P., Brocklehurst, N., Underwood, J. & Crundall, D.
(2003). Visual attention while driving: sequences of eye fixations made by
experienced and novice drivers. Ergonomics, 46 (6), 629-646.
Underwood, G., Crundall, D. & Chapman, P. (2002). Selective searching while
driving: the role of experience in hazard detection and general surveillance.
Ergonomics, 45 (1), 1-12.
Effects of age on driving performance - youth:
Drivers under the age of 25 are far more likely to have an accident than any other
age-group. Is this due simply to inexperience, or are there other factors at work too?
Crundall, D., Underwood, G. & Chapman, P. (1999). Driving experience and the
functional field of view. Perception, 28, 1075-1087.
Horswill, M.S., Waylen, A.E. & Tofield, M.I. (2004). Drivers’ ratings of different
components of their own driving skill: a greater illusion of superiority for skills that
relate to accident involvement.Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 2004, 34
(1),177-195.
Jonah, B. (1997). Sensation seeking and risky driving: a review and synthesis of the
literature. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 29 (5), 651-665.
Effects of age on driving performance - old age:
Older drivers are a much-maligned group, popularly perceived as being a danger to
themselves and other road-users due to their myopia and incompetence. This
lecture reviews research that questions these stereotypes.
Hakamies-Blomqvist, L. (1998). Older drivers' accident risk: conceptual and
methodological issues. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 30 (3), 293-297.
Hakamies-Blomqvist, L., Raitenan, T. & O'Neill, D. (2002). Driver ageing does not
cause higher accident rates per km. Transportation Research Part F 5, 271-274.
Marottoli, R.A. & Richardson, E.D. (1998). Confidence in, and self-rating of, driving
ability among older drivers. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 30 (3), 331-336.
McGwin, G., Chapman, V. & Owsley, C. (2000). Visual risk factors for driving
difficulty among older drivers. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 32, 735-744.
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Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in
cognition. Psychological Review, 103,403-428.
Horne, J. & Reyner, L. (2001). Sleep-related vehicle accidents: some guides for road
safety policies. Transportation Research Part F, 63-74.
Driving and distraction:
Cars are becoming cluttered with new technology: mobile phones and satellite
navigation systems are already here. Very soon, even cheaper cars will have easy
mobile internet access, collision avoidance systems and enhanced vision systems.
Can drivers safely use these gadgets at the same time as driving?
Lesch, M.F. & Hancock, P.A. (2004). Driving performance during concurrent cellphone use: are drivers aware of their performance decrements? Accident Analysis
and Prevention, 36 (3), 471-480.
Patten, C.J.D., Kircher, A., Östlund, J. & Nilsson, L. (2004). Using mobile
telephones: cognitive workload and attention resource allocation. Accident Analysis
and Prevention, 36 (3), 341-350.
Redelmeier, D.A. & Tibshirani, R.J. (1997) Association between cellular telephone
calls and motor-vehicle collisions. The New England Journal of Medicine, 336, 453458.
Strayer, D.L. & Johnston, W.A. (2001). Driven to distraction: dual-task studies of
simulated driving and conversing on a cellular phone. Psychological Science, 12
(6), 462-466.
Strayer, D.L., Drews, F.A. & Johnston, W.A. (2003). Cell phone-Induced failures of
visual attention during simulated driving. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Applied, 9 (1), 23-32.
Characteristics of offenders:
Critical approaches to mental illness, personality disorder and crime (1 and 2):
Bilic, B. & Georgaca, E. (2007). Representations of 'mental illness' in Serbian
newspapers: a critical discourse analysis, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 4,
167-186.
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Blackburn, R. (2007). Personality Disorder and psychopathy: conceptual and
empirical inverstigation, Psychology, Crime & Law. 13 (1), 7-18.
Bartlett, A. & McGauley, G. (2010) eds. Forensic mental health: concepts, systems
and practice, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Farrington, D.P. (2004), Criminological psychology in the twenty-first century,
Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health,14, 152-166.
Howitt, D. (2006). 2nd ed. Introduction to Forensic and Criminal Psychology, Harlow:
Pearson.
Junginger, J. (2006). Stereotypic delusional offending, Behavioral Sciences and
Law, 24, 295-311.
McMurran, M., Khalifa, N. & Gibbon, S. (2009). Forensic Mental Health, Devon:
Willan Publishing.
Sigurdsson, J.F. Gudjonsson, G.H. & Peersen, M. (2001). Differences in the
cognitive ability and personality of desisters and re-offenders: a prospective study
among young offenders, Psychology, Crime and Law, 7, 33-43.
Theories of sexual offending and types of sexual offender:
Abbey, A., Parkhill, M.R.Clinton-Sherrod, M.A. & Zawacki, T. (2007). A comparison
of men who committed different types of sexual assault in a community sample.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22 (12), 1567-1580.
Lipsey, M.W., Chapman, G.L. & Landenberger, N.A. (2001). Cognitive-behavioral
programs for offenders. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science, 578, 144-157.
Middleton, D., Elliott, I.A., Mandeville-Norden & Beech, A.R. (2006). An investigation
into the applicability of the Ward and Siegert pathways model of child sexual abuse
with internet offenders, Psychology, Crime & Law, 12 (6), 589-603.
Stirpe, T., Abracen, J., Stermac, L. & Wilson, R. (2006). Sexual offenders’ state-ofmind regarding childhood attachment: a controlled investigation. Sex Abuse,18:289302.
Whitehead, P.R., Ward, T. & Collie, R.M. (2007). Time for a change: applying the
good lives model of rehabilitation to a high-risk violent offender. International Journal
of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 51: 578-598.
Winstok, Z. (2007). Toward an interactional perspective on intimate partner violence,
Aggression & Violent Behavior, 12, 348-363.
Critical approaches to offender profiling (FBI and statistical profiling):
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Alison, L., Goodwill, A., Almond, L., Van, d. H., & Winter, J. (2010). Pragmatic
solutions to offender profiling and behavioural investigative advice. Legal &
Criminological Psychology, 15 (1), 115-132. doi:10.1348.
Bennell, C., Corey, S., Taylor, A. & Ecker, J. (2008). What skills are required for
effective offender profiling? An examination of the relationship between critical
thinking ability and profile accuracy.Psychology, Crime & Law, 14 (2), 143-157.
Canter, D.V. (2004). Offender profiling and investigative psychology. Journal of
Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 1, 1-15.
Fujita, G., Watanabe, K., Yokota, K., Kuraishi, H., Suzuki, M., Wachi, T. & Otsuka,
Y. (2013). Multivariate models for behavioural offender profiling of Japanese
homicide. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 40, 214-227.
Jackson, C., Wilson, D. & Rana, Baljit Kaur. (2011). The usefulness of criminal
profiling. Criminal Justice Matters, 84:1, 6-7, doi: 10.1080/09627251.2011.576014
Kocsis, R.N., Middledorp, J. & Karpin, A.(2008). Taking Stock of Accuracy in
Criminal Profiling: The Theoretical Quandry for Investigative Psychology. Journal of
Forensic Psychology Practice, 8:3, 244-261. doi: 10.1080/15228930802282006.
Kocsis, R.N. (2013). The Criminal Profiling Reality: What is actually behind the
Smoke and Mirrors?Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, 13:2, 79-91, doi:
10.1080/15228932.2013.765733
Petheric, W.A., & Turvey, B.E. (2008). Nomothetic methods of criminal profiling. In
B.E.Turvey (Ed.),Criminal profiling: An introduction to behavioural evidence
analysis (3rd ed.)(pp 75-111). San Diego, CA US: Elsevier Academic Press.
Salfati, C.G. (2008). Offender profiling: psychological and methodological issues of
testing for behavioural consistency. Issues in Forensic Psychology, 8, 68-81.
Schlesinger, L.B. (2009). Psychological profiling: investigative implications from
crime scene analysis.The Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 37, 73-84.
Snook, B., Eastwood, J., Gendreau, P., Goggin, C. & Cullen, R.M. (2007). Taking
stock of criminal profiling: a narrative review and meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and
Behavior, 34 (4), 437-453.