LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
PRESENTED BY:
YOUSAF KHAN
Ph.D SCHOLAR (AIOU)
ICOFE (2014)
OPEN UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
ABSTRACT
e-learning, e-education, Web-based and online training and education refers to the way in which students use ICT
tool-kit in order to have self-regulated, lifelong, continuous, open, flexible, blended, collaborative and distance learning.
e-learning requires the application of learning theories in order to accommodate students’ diversity and their diverse learning styles
for getting training and education through synchronous and asynchronous modes of delivery in ICT or online and web-based
constructivist learning environments.
The purpose of the study is to analyze different learning theories available in literature of psychology, educational
psychology, cognitive-psychology, pedagogy, curriculum and ICT to find their application in ICT-based pedagogy or e-learning.
Keywords: Learning theories. e-learning. ICT Toolkit. Open and flexible learning. Virtual Learning Environment Framework.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
1. Introduction:
First of all we have to make clear concept of e-learning.
1.1. Defining Learning:
Hubert et al (2005): learning is continuous throughout life and is the most outstanding characteristics of human beings
while defining learning it is necessary to consider the changes occurring in the individual. The changes may be overt and
physical or it may relate to experience inside i.e. mental or psychological.
In the ICT rich-environment the changes can be made possible by using the available toolkits; though psychologists
have presented numerous theories of learning but they agree on common characteristic features and principles of learning.
Learning can be defined as a change in behavior as a result of experience and using toolkits
available in the environment.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
1.2. Four Basic Levels of Learning:
Hubert et al (2005): Levels of learning may be classified in any number of ways. Four basic levels have traditionally
been included.
The four basic levels of learning are: (Fig: 1) Rote learning, understanding, application and
correlation
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
1.3. Three Basic Taxonomy of Learning Objectives Or Domains of Learning:
Hubert et al (2005): Educational psychologists have developed several additional levels besides the four basic levels of
learning. These classifications consider what is to be learned?
The hierarchy of educational objectives of Benjamin Bloom, known as Bloom’s Taxonomy of cognitive domain
includes; (Figure 2).
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
So, the outcomes of learning are: Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
It means that learning develops on a continuum from bottom to top and from least complex to most complex; and is
time dependent, incremental and gradual (Spiral, iterative and scaled agile frameworks of software development utilizes these
characteristics of e-learning).
When an ambiguity is produced due to knowledge gap (waterfall framework is used in software development). Hence,
knowledge develops where there is doubt or confusion and it is dynamic or iteratively developed. Virtual Learning Environment
Framework (VLEF) developed by the researcher for one of the papers in this conference (ICOFE, 2014) can be used for its
evaluation.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
1.4. e-Learning (Flexible learning through technology)
e-Learning and open and flexible learning is pedagogy empowered by digital technology through using toolkits in ICT.
So, the pre-requisite in e-learning 2.1 and e-learning 2.0 is the ability and skill of students to use toolkits of ICT.
Roffe (2002): e-learning refers to the technology use in education and it has acquired different names such as
interactive distance learning, internet-based training, web-based training, online learning, CAL (Computer Assisted Learning)
all appear as different names, for different types of learning technologies, with different capabilities. Online learning
platforms have begun to converge around common technology standards and a delivery infrastructure, the internet as a means
of enabling learning (toolkit in ICT).
e-Learning and open and flexible learning is pedagogy empowered by digital technology through using
toolkits in ICT. So, the pre-requisite in e-learning 2.1 and e-learning 2.0 is the ability and skill of
students to use toolkits of ICT.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
2. Methodology
The assumption of the study is that modern usage of ICT tools, services and technologies are based on the application
of characteristic features and principles of learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, social constructivism, communalconstructivism and cognitive apprenticeships.
The methodology of the study is extensive and intensive review of literature and personal experience of teaching and
reviewing learning theories in the context of open and flexible learning. So, the researcher has used analysis and synthesis of
literature to find the psychological bases of modern usage of ICT toolkits and services for open and flexible learning in the 21st
century education which is online and web-based technology and tool dependent learning.
.
So, the e-learning in open and flexible context refers to the toolkits available for learning in ICT-rich
environment to be used for getting knowledge
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3. Schools of Thought in e-learning (Expository and Discovery Learning)
According to Awan (2009): With the introduction of new information and communication technology (ICT); the needs
and styles of learners are changed. e-learning designers or educationists are compelled to transform the characteristic features and
principles of learning theories according to the pedagogical requirements for ensuring accessible e-learning. The schools of thought
in e-learning developed from the general theories of learning are: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Socio-Constructivism, Communal
Constructivism and cognitive apprenticeships (to name few of these theories).
3.1. Behaviorism (Behaviorist school of thought of Gagne as Expository Learning):
According to Awan (2009): “The Behaviorist learning theory is described as developmental theory that measures
changes in behavior produced by a learner’s response as derived from the work of Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Skinner and
Gagne promoted and experimented in the behaviorism”. Actually this theory is based on stimulus-response chains and
associations or continuous (networking and bonds of S – R for shaping and adaptation).
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.1.1. Main Characteristic features of Behaviorism
o Focuses on behavior modification via stimulus-response pairs; (Watson and Pavlov’s theory of chaining)
o Trial and Error learning; (Thorndike’s Trial and Error theory)
o Learning through association and reinforcement; successive approximation (B.F.Skinner’s operant
conditioning theory)
o Pedagogical focus is on control and adaptive response;
(Gagne’s events of instruction)
o Focuses on observable outcomes; (Empirical approach and scientific attitude in learning)
o Pedagogical practice is based on cognitive apprenticeships.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.1.2. Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory (Instructional Technology)
According to Patsula (1999): “Although Gagne’s theoretical framework covers many aspects of
learning. “the focus of theory is on intellectual skills”. (Kearseley,1994a). Gagne’s theory is very prescriptive in its
original formulation; special attention was given to military training. In this theory five major types of learning levels
are identified (Fig: 3)
Focus is on intellectual skills (as a toolkits to be
developed in learner for further learning and acquisition
of habits and skills)
o Verbal information
o Intellectual skills
o Cognitive strategies
o Motor skills
o Attitudes
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
Each of these learning levels requires different types of instruction. Gagne also contends that learning tasks for
intellectual skills can be organized into a hierarchy according to the complexity (Figure: 4)
The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide
direction for instructions so that they can identify pre-requites that should be
completed to facilitate learning at each level. (kearsely 1994a as cited by
Patsula). The pre-requisites for “Gagne” events of instruction is the
application of computer operating and software using skills (toolkit in ICT).
This learning hierarchy also provides a basis for sequencing
instruction. Gagne outlined the following nine events (or instructional events)
and corresponding cognitive processes (Fig: 5).
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
1. Gaining attention (Reception)
2. Informing learners of the objectives (Expectancy)
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (Retrieval)
4. Presenting the stimulus (Selective Perception)
5. Providing learning guidance (Semantic Encoding)
6. Eliciting performance (Responding)
7. Providing feedback (Reinforcement)
8. Assessing performance (Retrieval)
9. Enhancing of retention and transfer (Generalization)
So, all the above nine events are sequential and require computer and internet based or web-based cognitive
apprenticeships from modeling (basic) to exploration (higher) types of teaching and self-regulated learning through technology
in order to guide, monitor, mentor and scaffold the learner in e-learning environments. (VLEF developed by the researcher in
ICOFE, 2014) and to foster creativity (the highest outcomes of e-learning).
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.2. Cognitivism (Bruner Theory as Representative of Discovery Learning):
Awan (2009) and Conole et al (2005):
Cognitivism as expressed by Bruner deviates from Behaviorism in that it deals with the internal process of the mind
and places emphasis upon discovery learning based on the thought process behind the behavior.
Development of cognitive structure through Schemata or Schema (Jean Piaget) is the core of cognitivism
The learner is viewed as an information processor like a computer, where information’s comes in is being processed
and leads to certain outcomes (output), knowledge can be seen as scheme or symbolic mental constructions.
Knowledge is symbolic mental construction (Bruner)
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.2.1. Main Characteristics features of Cognitivism:
Conole et al (2004):
Cognitivism focuses on internal cognitive structures; views learning as transformations in these
cognitive structures. Focus is on human development. Pedagogical focus is on the processing and transmission
through communication, explanation, recombination, contrast, inference and problem solving. Useful for designing
sequences of conceptual materials which build on existing information structures (previous knowledge is the
foundation).
3.2.2. Applications of Cognitivism for Designing Instruction (IDs) through Computer or ICT
This theory has been applied in Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) and web 2.1 and 2.0 through
programmed instruction just as behaviorism but with emphasis on developing “Schema” through reinforcement as
discussed in constructivism, in the next section. So, the progress is from simple structure to complex structure and is
continuous and flexible (Scaled agile framework is used in software development for this purpose).
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.3. Constructivism
Awan (2009):
Behaviorism and cognitivism can be contrasted with constructivism when the former emphasizes internalizations of
content by the learner and the latter is based on the premise that knowledge is built and constructed by the person at his own.
According to Bruner, the instructor should try and encourage students to construct
hypotheses, make decision and discover principles themselves (Kearsely 1994a as cited by
Patsula, 1999).
So, the progress is from facts to meta cognition and it is continuous and flexible. The instructor task is to translate
information to be learned into a formate or design appropriate to the learners current state of understanding and organize it in
a spiral manner (spiral framework). So that the student continually build upon what they have already learnt.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.3.1. Main Characteristics features of Constructivism
1. Focuses on the processes by which learners build their own mental structures (present and past) when
interacting with an environment (Information processing model).
2. Pedagogical focus is task-orientated (Performance based on cognitive apprenticeships).
3.
Favours hands-on, self-directed activities orientated towards design and discovery (Self-regulation and
control of learning).
4. Useful for structured learning environments, such as simulated worlds; construction of conceptual
structures from hierarchy through engagement in self-directed tasks (Meaningful and situated learning).
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.3.2. Potential e-learning Applications of Constructivism
Conole et al (2004):
The concept of toolkits and other support systems which guide and inform users through a process of
activities could be used to embed and enable constructivist principles. Access to resources and expertise offer the
potential to develop more engaging and student-centred, active and authentic learning environments, (Micro worlds
and simulations). It means that access and expertise are toolkits for e-learning.
The pre-requisite for constructivist type of learning is enabling students to use toolkits (tool, concepts,
strategies, techniques, features, principles, approaches, methods, modes, frameworks and models etc.) for open and
flexible learning.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.4. Vygotsky’s Theory of Socio-Cultural Cognitive Development and Bandura’s Modeling (cognitive
apprenticeship)
Patsula (1999) quoting Kearsy, 1994c: Bandura’s social learning theory and Vygotsky’s theory are complementary to
each other in social interaction.
An important concept in Vygotsky’s theory is that the potential for cognitive development is limited by a certain time
span which he called “Zone of proximal development”.
The pre-requisite here is the knowledge of instructional tools (Cognitive strategies).
All the stages require cognitive apprenticeships as an effective pedagogy in elearning.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.4.1. Practical Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory in e-learning
Patsula (1999): In applying vygotsky’s theory of social cognitive development, (kearsely 1994)
suggests, keeping the following principles in mind:
1. Full cognitive development requires social interaction (Activity).
2. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age (time bound).
Based on David Ausbel’s idea of “advanced organizers” as well as vygotsky idea of "instructional
tools” and four learning stages as defined by his ZPD, Gillam and Relan (1997) proposed an instructional design
having four phases:
o Advance organizer phase
o Modeling phase
o Exploring phase
o Generating phase
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
All these stages are embedded in cognitive apprenticeships.
Gillam and Relan, 1997 as cited in Patsula (1999) proposed the following model made up of four distinct frames,
with the instructional model having four distinct phases: (Figure: 5)
1. Vibrant frame
2. Instructional model frame
3. Navigation frame
4. The presentation frame
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.5. Communal Constructivism: A base for Resaerch in discursive practice:
Holmes et al 2001 as cited in Awan, 2009; have suggested that the appropriate use of C & IT in education can foster
learning contexts that not only achieve, but move beyond the goals of social constructivism such that a new updated version of the
philosophy is acquired: they suggest that communal constructivism better describes the possibilities forded by new technologies
(social networking toolkits).
So, Shared knowledge is developed in community of practice through social networking (toolkits)
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
3.6. Carroll’s Minalist Theory
Awan (2009):
The minalist theory of J.M.Caroll (nd) focuses on the instructional design of training materials for computer users and
has been extensively applied to the design of computer documentation. It is based on the people learning a wide range of
computer applications including word processes and databases etc (toolkits).
The critical idea behind this theory is that: “Course designers must minimize the extent to which instructional materials
obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner-directed activity and accomplishment (Kearsely, 1994d).
The principle used is to think big and act small in computer software applications, construction and development (principles of
instructional design).
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
Summary of the Discourse Analysis:
To make ICT based teaching and training materials more effective, an agency should first establish suitable learning
goals and objectives. Since the priority of instruction is to benefit or instruct the learner. Instructional designers should strive to
facilitate the learning process i.e. to make learning easier. This can be accomplished by applying learning theories and pedagogical
practices, as well as practical ICT based, web-design strategies and guidelines to their instructional designs.
So, the conclusion is that for effective open and flexible e-learning the students should learn to use toolkits in ICT in order to make elearning effective and efficient.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
4. Findings and Discussion:
a) ToolKits and Wizard in e-learning:
Conole et al (2004):
A tool is used to help plan, design and profile learning opportunities. A toolkit is the aggregate of tools,
resources and services available to plan, design and profile learning opportunities according to the individual needs
(Personalized) and according to the demands of the situation (Contextualized).
Hence, toolkits are all the strategies, techniques, equipment, devices and resources available to the
learners: to plan, design and profile learning opportunities at his own in open and flexible manner.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
By definition, all toolkits include an expert model of a process derived from recognized theory and best practices.
It makes the process manageable and supporting the performance monitoring systems in open and flexible
manner. Conole etal (2004)
Toolkits are used when there is no one fit-size situation and there are variety of choices to approach and face a situation.
The e-learning is a situation where there are verities of learning styles, modes and different theories, so the students must first be
enabled to use toolkits in their e-learning environments.
Wizard is a software based tool to help plans, design, and profiles related decisions. So, it is software to makes
decisions for the learner and is not flexible but rigid (in built).
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
b) Application of learning theories by the Individual: (Toolkits for learning theory)
o Learning elementary tasks and concepts (Use behaviorism ad non-reflection)
o Learning concepts, theory and framework or model (Use cognitive theory)
o Interpreting models, theories etc (Use Constructivism)
o Performing a practice (Use Communal Constructivism)
c) Tools, Technologies and Resources in e-learning
There are different e-learning toolkits such as computer applications tools, internet tools, web-based
instructional tools, ICT tools and computer based training and CAL tools.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
d) Internet Resources:
1.
Educational portals
13.
Blogs/mob logs
2.
Virtual resources centre
14.
Wikies
3.
On-line writing labs
15.
Discussion boards
4.
Cyber listings labs
16.
Streaming technology
5.
Web-based English courses
17. Multimedia
6.
Virtual libraries
18.
Chat rooms
7.
Creative teaching websites
19.
Virtual classrooms
8.
Teacher’s websites
20.
LMS (Learning Management System)
9.
Students websites
21.
Simulations and games (Role playing)
10.
Online English grammars (language labs)
22.
Other services (Web Quest, black board, e-
11.
Open education resources (OERs, MOOCs)
12.
Social networking
games)
23.
Hyperlinks
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
e) Emerging Technologies: (Social networking as a toolkits)
 The emerging technologies refer to the use of the following tools in social networking:
 IM (AIM, MSN, ICQ, GAIM) Instant Messaging
 SMS (Short Message Service) such as twitter and blogs
 Mobologing (Mobile messaging and blogging)
 Peer-to-peer networking, and
 iPod phenomena (internet on mobile or m-learning)
f) Criteria for Selection of tools, resources and services (Toolkits)
SCAD checklist is a best criteria suggested by the researchers for the elementary learning (reliable,
relevant and qualitative).
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
5. Conclusion:
For effective and efficient learning in open and flexible environment there is need of enabling the students to use toolkits
in ICT for e-learning.
6. Suggestions:
The application of learning theories in e-learning requires the use of toolkits developed by researchers for e-learning and
the open and flexible learning environments requires these technologies to be used for effective and efficient learning through ICTbased educational technologies and resources.
So, it is suggested that the learner should first be trained to use toolkits in e-learning 2.1 and 2.0.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
7. Recommendations:
o Open and flexible education should focus on students to use toolkits for education.
o Further research is needed to explore cognitive apprenticeships an effective e-learning pedagogy for developing the skill of
learners to use toolkits.
o Further research is needed to convert courses into learning hierarchies.
o Further research is needed to develop a framework of the application of e-learning such as Virtual Learning Environment
Framework (VLEF) at different levels of schooling.
8. Significance of the Study:
The study is significant because it has made link of theory and practice in traditional education to the context of elearning and modern ICT-based technologies for open and flexible education system.
The study can also be used as a theoretical framework for developing Virtual Learning Environments in open and flexible education
system in ICT rich opportunities.
LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
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LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION
IN e-LEARNING: Enabling students to use toolkits in Open and
Flexible learning
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THANKS