Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review ISSN 2315-6880 Vol. 4(10) pp. 296-303 October 2015
Available online http//www.basicresearchjournals.org
Copyright ©2015 Basic Research Journal
Review
Tillage and nutrient management in wheat with different
plant geometries under rice- wheat cropping system: A
Review
Aniket Kalhapure1*, Vijay Pal Singh2, Rajeew Kumar3 and D.S. Pandey2
Department of Agronomy, Gobind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand
(India)
2
3
Professor of Agronomy, Assistant Professor of Agronomy
*Corresponding author Email: [email protected]
Accepted 22 October, 2015
ABSTRACT
Maintaining the food security of about 127 crore populations is the hard challenge for Indian agriculture
where 10 million hectare land is occupied by rice- wheat cropping system. In most of the rice cultivating
region the climatic, resource input and management factors forces to adopt the lowland raising of
paddy with puddling, which is describes as the boon for paddy; but curse for succeeding upland wheat
crop because of disturbed soil physico- chemical and biological properties. Tillage and nutrient
management may become as the solution for maintaining the productivity of both the crops with
sustainability.
Keywords: Rice- wheat cropping system, tillage, nutrient management, row spacing, soil properties, wheat
growth and yield
INTRODUCTION
Rice- wheat is the important predominant cropping
system in South Asia, which majorly includes countries
like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Both are the staple
food grain crops of this region and the system occupies
about 13.5 million ha area of the region including 10
million hectares in India and 33% agricultural population
depends upon it (Tripathi et al., 2015). Puddling (wet
tillage) is the most common technique of land preparation
for maximizing yield of rice in Asian countries (Fujihara et
al., 2013). Pudlling creates a plough layer that reduces
hydraulic conductivity to support water ponding, which
minimize the water percolation losses and enhance the
water and nutrient use efficiency in rice (Mousavi et al.,
2009). Puddling breaks down large soil aggregates,
destroys non capillary pores, reduces apparent specific
volume, and increases microvoids (Ghildyal, 1978). A
puddled soil retains more water than an unpuddled soil at
similar soil moisture tension. Because puddling reduces
noncapillary porosity and increases bulk density,
hydraulic conductivity and percolation substantially
decline. Evaporation and drainage from puddled soil is
markedly less than from the same soil in an aggregated
state (De Datta et al., 1974). But previous study of long
term cropping experiments in Asia has reported the yield
stagnation or even declination of rice- wheat cropping
system (Ladha et al., 2003). The degradation of soil
quality is a key factor for the observed declining yield
(Ladha et al., 2003a). Puddled soil is unfavorable for
upland crops following rice because when puddled soil
dries, bulk density increases, infiltration rate decreases,
Published by Basic Research journal of Agricultural Science and Review
Aniket et al. 297
aeration declines, and soil impedance to root growth rises
(Scheltema, 1974). Rice and wheat in sequence are
cultivated in two contrasting soil environments- rice
requires soft, puddled and water saturated soil
conditions, while wheat requires well aggregated and well
aerated soil with fine tilth (Kumar et al.., 2012). Puddling
creates soil conditions ideal for rice cultivation, but
unsuitable for upland crops which follow rice (Sharma
and Datta, 1986; Sharma et al., 2003). After rice harvest,
puddled soils, upon drying shrink, become compact and
hard, and develop surface cracks of varying sizes and
shapes (Kumar et al.., 2012). The draft power
requirement for tilling such soils is very high, sometimes
beyond the reach of local ploughs and small tractors.
Nevertheless, when tilled, these soils often break into
larger clods, having high breaking energy (Sharma and
Bhagat, 1993). In spite of spending significant time and
energy, it is often difficult to obtain seedbeds with the
desired tilth for sowing wheat. Wheat planted in
seedbeds with coarse tilth, due mainly to poor seed-soil
contact, results in poor seedling emergence and
unsatisfactory crop stands. This lowers wheat productivity
(Kumar et al., 2012).
Effect of lowland rice cultivation on succeeding
wheat crop and soil properties
Disturbed soil structure, lowered infiltration rate,
decreased soil porosity and formation of hard pan are the
major effects of lowland rice cultivation. Talpur et al.
(2013) reported that a layer is formed below 30 cm depth
due to successive shallow ploughing in lowland rice,
which create hindrance for the root growth of succeeding
crop. Dhiman et al. (1998) reported that bulk density was
increased under transplanted rice. Soil compaction of
agricultural land is a global problem and is an important
form of physical land degradation (Soane and Van
Ouwerkerk, 1994). The recent increase in the
mechanization of agriculture and intensive agriculture,
especially in lowland rice are the main causes of soil
compaction which leads to the formation of hard pan. In
addition, reduced use of organic matter, frequent use of
chemical fertilizers and ploughing at the same depth for
many years make the soil compact. Compaction causes
unfavorable changes in soil bulk density, porosity and
penetration resistance (Soane et al., 1981). Adverse
effects of compacted soil horizons on plant root growth
and concomitant poor plant growth and yields have been
recognized for many years (Jorajuria et al., 1997).
Excessive soil compaction impedes root growth and
plants, thus cannot explore the entire soil volume to meet
their demand of soil moisture and plant nutrients because
these become positionally unavailable. This can
decrease the plant’s ability to take up nutrients and water.
Limited water and nutrient availability to plants due to
compaction are major constraints to plant growth and
yields in many soils. Compaction can result in low water
use efficiency (Ishaq et al., 2000), greater losses of plant
available water and less use of fertilizer (Stepniewski and
Przywara, 1992). Soil compaction affects soil storage and
supply of nutrients by increasing soil bulk density,
decreasing porosity, soil water infiltration and water
holding capacity. These effects reduce fertilizer efficiency
and yield, increasing water logging, runoff and soil
erosion with the undesirable environmental problems
(Assouline, 2002).
Wheat crop grown after lowland rice results into the
decrease in yield by lower root and shoot growth when it
is grown as succeeding crop after lowland rice (Hobbs
and Giri, 1998).
Effect of tillage on Soil properties in wheat under
rice- wheat cropping system (RWCS)
Soil tillage is among the important factors affecting soil
properties and crop yield and it contributes up to 20%
(Khurshid et al., 2006). Deep tillage is one of the most
important factors to overcome the problem of formation of
hard pan into the soil (Sharma and Behera, 2008). In
soils with plow pans or where shallow hardpans occur,
deep plowing and subsoiling may increase soil water
storage and promote root penetration (Hundal and
Tomar, 1985).
It can be broken by chisel phoughing or other deep
ploughing implements viz. subsoiler (Singh et al., 2015).
Deep tillage is a practice that breaks up soil, usually 1218 inches deep, to allow increased water movement,
decrease in bulk density, better aeration of the roots,
lower soil penetration resistance and access to additional
minerals and nutrients for plant growth (Ji et al., 2013).
By comparison, conventional tillage breaks up the soil 6-8
inches below the surface, and in areas of heavy
compaction, such a practice is not adequate for raising of
wheat crop after puddle rice (Usman et al., 2013). Deep
tillage is normally a very aggressive tillage operation,
designed to break up the soil and mix the residue in with
the soil (Singh et al., 2015). Main concern for deep tillage
is to reduce the soil compaction caused by vehicular
traffic, to break the hard pan, to decrease the soil bulk
density and soil strength for deeper rooting of crops, to
explore the entire soil volume for water and nutrients, to
increase the infiltration rate and to decrease the soil
temperature (Ji et al., 2013). Deep tillage also improves
soil moisture content (Sharma ans Behera, 2008).
Deep tillage practices like plowing with chisel plow or
moldboard plow performed better than shallow tillage
practices viz. rotary tillage or cultivator, as deep tillage
improved soil moisture content, bulk density and
penetration resistance in silty clay loam soil under
irrigated wheat crop, and hence such deep tillage practices
Published by Basic Research journal of Agricultural Science and Review
298. Basic Res. J. Agric. Res. Rev.
Table1. Effect of tillage depth on post experimental soil bulk density, particle density
and porosity in wheat (Alam and Salahin, 2013)
Tillage depth
0-4cm
10-12cm
20-25cm
CV (%)
SE±
3
Bulk density (g/cm )
1.49
1.48
1.46
2.95
0.008
3
Particle density (g/cm )
2.58
2.57
2.55
2.43
0.004
Porosity (%)
42.25
42.41
42.75
3.61
0.403
are recommended for silty clay loam soil in semiarid
environment for better crop production (Muhammad et
al., 2014); Bhusan et al. (1973) have also reported that
deep tillage results into more stirring (loosening and
mixing) of soil decreasing the large size aggregates (2 to
5 mm), but improved the granulation of smaller
aggregates (1 to 0.1 mm) and thereby increased the total
pore spacing of the soil, and consequently decreased the
bulk density in both surface and sub soil layers, as a
consequence of enhanced and proliferated root growth.
Tillage increases the basic infiltration rate of soil which
could be caused by a different structure pattern with a
different pore system being created by them due to the
influence of plough pan (Pelegrin et al.. 1990). An
improvement in basic infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity of the soil due to chisel tillage is attributed to
a significant change in the soil pore geometry and
enhanced root growth in the surface soil layer. The soil
moisture content observed was high with Chisel Plough
and combination of chisel plough followed by rotary
tillage (Boydas and Turgut, 2007); Boydas (2007) also
reported that the rotary harrow significantly increased the
soil roughness. The lowest bulk density was observed
with Chisel ploughing at a depth of 0-10 cm than rotary
tillage (Ozpinar and Cay, 2006). Soil organic C and N
contents were higher under chisel than moldboard plough
treatment, which might be due to accumulation of crop
residues at soil surface, thereby reducing their contact
with soil microorganisms and their decomposition and soil
pH of the wheat field was significantly increased under
chisel treatment, residues incorporation and application
of 150 kg N/ha (Alijani et al..2012). The higher soil pH
values of chisel treatment and residues incorporated
system could be attributed to higher contents of soil
organic matter in conservation practices (Abdollahi, 2010;
Fuentes et al.., 2009). Deep tillage operation may be
needed to disrupt the developing zone of relatively
compacted soil below the plow layer under conventional
tillage (Motschenbacher et al., 2011). Table 1.
by ultimately increases the yield (Mohanty et al., 2007).
Deep tillage can increase root depth (Lampurlanes et al.,
2001; Rajkannan and Selvi, 2002), improve infiltration
and water storage (Sharma et al., 2004), and ultimately
increase crop yield. Deep tillage break up high density
soil layers, improves water infiltration and movement in
the soil, enhances root growth and development, and
increases crop production (Bennie and Botha, 1986). In
soils that are prone to compaction and experience
crusting and have low water infiltration capacity, deep
tillage can increase root depth (Lampurlanes et al.,
2001), improve infiltration and water storage (Sharma et
al., 2004) and ultimately increase crop yield.
Khan et al., (2013) reported that deep tillage with chisel
plough significantly produced higher fertile tillers than
conventional tillage. Maximum number of grains per spike
was noted in deep tilled wheat that was 5, 20 and 22
percent significantly higher than conventional tillage,
zone disc tiller and happy seeder, respectively. Wheat
biological yield was also significantly higher in deep
tillage as compared to other tillage treatments. Deep
tillage also produced significantly higher grain yield.
Maximum water use efficiency was noted in deep tillage
and zone disc tiller. Significantly higher fertile tillers were
noted in deep tillage as compared to other tillage
systems. Deep tillage made fine and deep seedbed,
which enhanced the rooting depth and water storage that
was helpful for crop germination and establishment as
argued by Ozpinar and Cay (2006). Deep tillage with
chisel plough produced higher number of grains per spike
in barley in rice barley cropping system (Sip et al., 2009).
Higher grain yield in deep tillage may have been due to
finer, loose and deep soil structure, which positively
influenced the seedling emergence to endorse higher
crop yields (Rashidi and Keshavarzpour, 2007); Tripathi
and Singh (2007) reported the increase in rice and wheat
yields with chiseling over non-chiselling. Grain yield of
wheat was higher in chisel than moldboard plough and
rotary tillage (Alijani et al., 2012).
Effect of tillage on wheat growth and yield in RWCS
Effect of nutrient management on soil properties
Tillage improves the physical conditions of the soil there
Nutrient management is another important concept which
Published by Basic Research journal of Agricultural Science and Review
Aniket et al. 299
Table 2. Effect of different nutrient management options in wheat on
grain yield and nutrient uptake (Brar et al., 2015)
Treatment
50% NPK
150% NPK
100% NPK
100% NPK+ Zn
100% NPK+ FYM
Control
Wheat yield (t/ha)
Grain
Straw
3.53e
5.34c
5.08ab
8.43a
4.69bc
8.25a
4.65c
7.59ab
5.13a
8.48a
1.63f
2.61d
Nutrient uptake (kg/ha)
N
P
K
83.8f
9.4d
53.9d
130.1b
18.3a
81.8ab
122.8bc 16.3ab 82.0a
120.5c
17.3a
81.3ab
150.8a
18.5a
92.4a
40.1g
4.6e
25.9e
(100% NPK= 150, 32.70 and 31.20 N, P and K per ha, respectively. FYM
and Zinc sulfate applied @ 10 t and 50 kg per ha, respectively.)
has great significance in sequential cropping of ricewheat (Usman et al., 2013). Use of chemical fertilizers
and organic manures has been found promising in
arresting the decline trend in soil-health and productivity
through the correction of marginal deficiencies of some
secondary and micro-nutrients, micro-flora and fauna and
their beneficial influence on physical and biological
properties of soil (Chondie, 2015). The integrated nutrient
management has sustained the higher grain yields of rice
and wheat over the years (Mehedi et al., 2011). The use
of recommended dose of nutrients through chemical
fertilizers, though sustained the crop yields, but does not
improve the soil properties in respect of pH, soil organic
carbon, cation exchange capacity and available N and K
to the extent as improved by the combined use of the
organics and inorganics, causing a serious threat to the
soil health (Jaga and Upadyay, 2013). Use of organic
sources of nutrients with chemical fertilizers can bring
about equilibrium between degenerative and restorative
activities in the soil eco-system (Upadhyay et al., 2011;
Ram et al., 2014).
Soil organic matter strongly affects soil properties such
as water infiltration rate, erodibility, water holding
capacity and nutrient cycling (Wander and Yang, 2000). It
is suggested that proper management of soil organic
matter is the heart of sustainable agriculture (Weil, 1992).
Recent research has also recognized soil organic matter
as a central indicator of soil health. Therefore, it is
important to maintain proper levels of soil organic matter
along with chemical fertilizers to sustain soil productivity.
Application of 50% N through different organics (FYM,
green manure or wheat cut straw) plus 50% NPK through
chemical fertilizers were better over other treatments in
respect of soil organic carbon, available N, P and K and
bulk density of soil (Sepehya et al., 2012); Jaga and
Upadyay (2013) reported the decreased bulk density and
increased soil aeration with application of FYM in wheat
crop. The soil physical and soil hydraulic properties (bulk
density, soil moisture content, soil water retention, plant
available water capacity and saturated hydraulic
conductivity) got improved with the application of various
organic manures and increasing chemical fertilizer levels
from 50 to 150 % of recommended NPK in wheat- rice
cropping sequence in N-W Himalayas (Choudhary et al.,
2008). Application of FYM in rice wheat cropping system
resulted in higher amount of available N, P and K in the
soil after three years experimentation over control
(Prasad and Mishra, 2001); Lal et al. (2014) has been
reported the increased availability of N, P and K with
application of FYM along with chemical fertilizers. The
increase in soil N and P after FYM application might be
due to the direct addition of N and P through
decomposition of the FYM added to the soil. The
improvement in the soil available P with FYM addition
could be attributed to many factors, such as the addition
of P through FYM, and retardation of soil P fixation by
organic anions formed during FYM decomposition
(Tadessel et al., 2013). Application of FYM significantly
increased soil organic matter and available water holding
capacity but decreased the soil bulk density. Compared
to no FYM application, 7.5 and 15 t/ha FYM applications
resulted in 3.6% and 10.3% increases in available water
holding capacity, 17.8% and 46.6% increases in organic
carbon, and 23.3% and 15.0% decreases in BD,
respectively (Shirani et al., 2002). Application of 100%
NPK along with 10t/ha FYM recorded improvement in
various biological parameters of soil viz. soil microbial
biomass carbon (SMBC), soil microbial biomass nitrogen
(SMBN) and dehydrigenage activity (DHA) (Katkar et al.,
2011). Table 2 above.
Effect of nutrient management on growth and yield of
wheat
El-Gizawy (2009) reported that different rates of N, P and
K fertilization has considerable effect on wheat and
increased levels of these fertilizers increases all the
growth and yield parameters of wheat crop (viz. plant
hight, dry matter, number of effective tillers, spike length,
1000 seed weight and grain yield). Dixit and Gupta
(2000); Selvakumari et al., (2000); Khoshgoftarmanesh
and Kalbasi (2002) had also concluded that crop growth
may be improved by the use of organic materials in the
Published by Basic Research journal of Agricultural Science and Review
300. Basic Res. J. Agric. Res. Rev.
Table3. Effect of row spacing on growth and yield of wheat (Iqbal et al., 2010)
Row spacing
(cm)
11.25
15.00
22.5
Germination
2
count/m
153.70a
151.28b
148.33b
Fertile
2
tillers/m
263.37a
258.85b
252.85c
form of organic manure or FYM. Ibrahim et al. (2008)
have demonstrated the improvement of wheat growth
and yield with the use of organic manure and compost
when they were compared with chemical fertilizer. It is
quite possible to get higher wheat yield by the integrated
use of organic and inorganic fertilizers.
Application of FYM was found to be responsible for
improvement in different physiological characters in
wheat viz. Chlorophyll- a, b content and heat stress
tolerance of crop (KowsarJan and Boswal, 2015).
Increase in plant height, number of tillers, dry matter
production and grain yield due to the increased levels of
NPK fertilizers combined with FYM was reported by
Parewa and Yadav (2014).
Significant grain yield
increase in wheat crop with combined application of
chemical fertilizers and FYM has been reported by
Majundar et al. (2008); Kumar et al. (2005); Ram (2006).
Effect of row spacing on wheat
The optimum plant population is major contributory factor
to crop yield, because it decides the active photosynthetic
radiation absorption with sufficient leaf canopy (Hussain
et al., 2014). For producing higher grain yield, number of
plants per unit area should be enough higher in wheat;
but not so to be restrict tillering and vegetative growth of
plant. Hence, optimum row spacing is required to
maintain proper crop geometry which is the yield
determining factor for wheat. Narrow row spacing in
wheat caused suppression of weeds by increasing
ground cover, leaf area, light interception, and even
spatial plant distribution (Weiner et al.., 2001; Drews et
al., 2009). It also reduced soil evaporation and increased
nutrient use efficiency by deploying nutrients (Johri et al.,
1992; Chen et al., 2009). It has been shown by many
studies, carried out in different climates, that narrow row
spacing increased yield as compared to wider row
spacing (Chen et al., 2008). However, in contrast some
reports have also found that wider row spacing in wheat
produced higher yield or was same as compared to
narrow spacing (Hiltbrunner et al., 2005).
Selecting optimal row spacing is important to improve
crop productivity as plants growing in too wide of arrow
may not efficiently utilize light, water and nutrient
resources; however crops grown in too narrow spacing
may result in severe inter row competition (Sandler et al.,
2015). Row spacing also modifies plant architecture,
Grains/spike
38.15a
38.45a
38.77a
1000 grain
weight (g)
38.81b
38.80b
40.16a
Grain yield
(t/ha)
3.819b
3.866ab
3.922a
photosynthetic competence of leaves and dry matter
partitioning in several field crops (Hussain et al., 2012);
Sharma and Bali (2001) reported the increase in uptake
of N, P and K with narrow spacing of 15 cm than 20 cm
which also produces taller plants, higher number of tillers
and grain yield of wheat. Row spacing affect to growth
and yield of wheat plants. Optimum row spacing helps to
optimize tillering and ensured yield increase in wheat
(Hussain et al., 2012). A number of researchers revealed
that narrow row spacing gave better yield in wheat than
wider row spacing (Johnson et al., 1988; Tompkins et al.,
1991; Marshall and Ohm, 1987; Joseph et al., 1985);
Frederick and Marshall (1985) reported that by
decreasing row spacing to 12.7 cm, grain yield increased
by 8.2%, and the main contributing factor was higher
number of tillers per unit area. Narrow row spacing
caused more even spatial plant distribution, increased
leaf area index, crop ground cover, light interception and
dry matter. Thus, narrow spacing also decreased weed
population and reduced soil evaporation (Drews et al.,
2009; Weiner et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2009); Lafond
(1994) revealed that by increased row spacing caused
2
decreased number of spikes/m . Similarly, it was reported
that narrow row spacing had higher plant density than at
wider row spacing (McLeod et al., 1996). The higher
2
values of tiller/m in 15 cm row spacing in this study was
likely due to more uniform and accurate spatial
distribution and less plant-to-plant competition (Auld et
al., 1983); Pandey et al., (2013) reported the non
significant effect of different row spacing (15, 20 and 25
cm) on all the growth and yield parameters except
number of effective tillers (viz. plant hight, dry matter,
1000 grain weight, seed yield). Whereas, Iqbal et al.
(2010) found that row spacing of 15 cm produced higher
plant growth and yield over 11.25 cm and 22.5 cm. Table
3 above.
CONCLUSION
Rice- wheat is the predominant cropping system in IndoGangetic Plain which provides staple food for population
in the region. Rice cultivated as lowland with puddling
gives more yield; but it decreases the yield of succeeding
wheat crop because of disturbed and degraded soil
properties and unfavorable root environment which lead
to the poor wheat growth. Deep tillage along with
integration of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients
Published by Basic Research journal of Agricultural Science and Review
Aniket et al. 301
may help to improve soil environment for increasing the
growth and yield of wheat. Optimum row spacing is also
an important factor which governs the crop growth
characters and yield in wheat.
REFERENCES
Abdollahi F (2010). Influence of different rates of wheat resides and
nitrogen on morpho physiological and agronomic characteristics and
weeds in corn under three tillage systems. PhD dissertation in crop
production, College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Iran, pp: 234.
Alam MK, Salahin N (2013). Changes in soil physical properties and
crop productivity as influenced by different tillage depths and
cropping patterns. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research,
38(2): 289-299.
Alijani K, Mohammad JB, Seyed AK (2012). Short-term responses of
soil and wheat yield to tillage, corn residue management and nitrogen
fertilization. Soil & Tillage Ressearch. 124: 78- 82
Assouline S (2002). Modelling Soil Compaction under Uniaxial
Compression. Soil Science Society of Ammerica Journal. 66: 17841787.
Bennie AT, Botha FJ (1986). Effect of deep tillage and controlled traffic
on root growth, water-use efficiency and yield of irrigated maize and
wheat. Soil and Tillage Research. 7(1-2): 85- 95.
Bhusan LS, Varade SB, Gupta CP (1973). Inf1uence of tillage
properties on clod size, porosity and water retension. Indian Journal
of Agricultural Engineering. 43: 466-471.
Boydas MG (2007). Effect of different soil tillage implements and
working speeds on soil surface roughness. Akdeniz University
Agriculture Faculty Journal. 20: 111- 117
Boydas MG, Turgut N (2007). Effect of Tillage Implements and
Operating Speeds on Soil Physical Properties and Wheat
Emergence. Turk. J. Agric.31: 399- 412.
Brar BS, Singh J, Singh G, Kaur G (2015). Effects of long term
application of inorganic and organic fertilizers on soil organic carbon
and physical properties in maize–wheat rotation. Agronomy, 5: 220238.
Chen C, Karnes N, Dave W, Malvern W (20080. Hard Red Spring
Wheat Response to Row Spacing, Seeding Rate, and Nitrogen.
Agronomy Journal 100: 1296-1302.
Chen S, Zhang X, Sun H, Ren T, Wang Y (2009). Effects of winter
wheat row spacing on evapotranspiration, grain yield and water use
efficiency. Agriculture and Water Management Online.
Chondie YG (2015). Effect of integrated nutrient management on wheat.
Journal of biology, Agriculture and health care. 5(13): 68-76.
Choudhary AK, Thakur RC, Naveen K (2008). Effect of integrated
nutrient management on soil physical and hydraulic properties in ricewheat crop sequence in N-W Himalayas. Indian J. Soil Conservation.
36 (2): 97- 104
De Datta SK, Kerim MSAAA (1974). Water and nitrogen economy of
rainfed rice as affected by puddling. Soil Sci. Soc. Am., Proc. 38:515–
518.
Dhiman SD, Sharma HC, Nandal DP, Singh D (1998). Effect of
irrigation, methods of crop establishment and fertilizer management
on soil properties and productivity in rice-wheat sequence. Indian J.
Agron. 43: 208-12.
Dixit KG, Gupta BR (2000). Effect of Farmyard manure, chemical and
Biofertilizers on yield and quality of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and soil
properties. Journal of Indian Society of Soil Science 48: 773-780.
Drews S, Neuhoff D, Kopke U (2009). Weed suppression ability of three
winter wheat varieties at different row spacing under organic farming
conditions. Weed Research. 49: 526-533.
El-Gizawy. (2009). Effect of Planting Date and Fertilizer Application on
Yield of Wheat under No till System. World Journal of Agricultural
sciences. 5 (6): 777- 783.
Frederick JR, Marshall HG (1985). Grain yield and yield components of
soft red winter wheat as affected by management practices. Agron. J.
75: 495- 499.
Fuentes M, Govaerts B, Hidalgo C, Dendooven L, Sayre KD, Etchevers
J (2009). Fourteen years of applying zero and conventional tillage,
crop rotation and residue management systems and its effect on
physical and chemical soil quality. Europ. J. Agron. 30: 228- 237.
Fujihara Y, Yamada R, Oda M, Fujii H, Ito O, Kashiwagi J (2013).
Effects of puddling on percolation and rice yields in rainfed lowland
paddy cultivation: Case study in Khammouane province, central
Laos. Agricultural Sciences. 4 (8): 360-368.
Ghildyal BP (1978). Effects of compaction and puddling on soil physical
properties and rice growth. Pages 317–336 in Soils and rice.
International Rice Research Institute. Los Baños, Philippines.
Hiltbrunner J, Liedgens M, Stamp P, Streit B (2005). Effects of row
spacing and liquid manure on directly drilled winter wheat in organic
farming. European Journal of Agronomy, 22: 441- 447.
Hobbs PR, Giri GS (1998). Reduced and zero tillage options for
establishment of wheat after rice in South Asia. In Wheat: Prospectus
and Global Improvement, H.J. Brown et al.. (Eds.). Kluwer Academic
Publishers, pp 455-465.
Hundal SS, Tomar VS (1985). Soil - water management in rainfed Rice
- based cropping systems. Soil Physics and Rice. Published by
International Rice Research Institute, Philippines. pp 337-350
Hussain M, Mehmood Z, Khan MB, Farooq S, Lee DJ, Farooq M
(2012). Naroow row spacing ensures higher productivity of low
tillering wheat cultivars. Intern. J. Agric. Biol. 14(3): 413-418.
Hussain N, Azra Y, Muhammad A, Hamid N (2014). Exploring the role
of row spacing in yield improvement of wheat cultivars. Pak. J. Agric.
Sci. 51(1): 25-31.
Ibrahim M, Anwar-ul-Hassan, Muhammad I, Ehsan EV (2008).
Response of wheat growth and yield to various levels of compost and
organic manure. Pak. J. Botany, 40(5): 2135- 2141.
Iqbal N, Akbar N, Ali M, Sattar M, Ali L (2010). Effect of seed rate and
row spacing on yield and yield components of wheat (Triticum
aestivum L.). J. Agric. Res. 48(20): 151- 156.
Ishaq M, Hassan A, Saeed M, Ibrahima M, Lald R (2001). Subsoil
compaction effects on crops in Punjab, Pakistan: I. Soil physical
properties and crop yield. Soil and Tillage Research, 59(1-2): 57-65
Jaga PK, Upadyay VB (2013). Effect of integrated nutrient management
on wheat: A review. Innovare J. Agric. Sci. 1(1): 1-3.
Ji B, Zhao Y, Mu X, Liu K, Li C (2013). Effects of tillage on soil physical
properties and root growth of maize in loam and clay in central China.
Plant and soil environment, 59 (7): 295–302.
Johnson JW, Hargrove WL, Moss RB (1988). Optimizing row spacing
and seeding rate for soft red winter wheat. Agron. J. 80:164- 166.
Johri AK, Singh G, Sharma D (1992). Nutrient uptake by wheat and
associated weeds as influenced by management-practices. Tropical
Agriculture, 69: 391-393.
Jorajuria D, Draghi L, Aragon A (1997). The effect of vehicle weight on
the distribution of compaction with depth and the yield of
Lolium/Trifolium grassland. Soil and Tillage Research, 41 (1-2): 1-12.
Joseph KD, Alley MM, Brann DE, Gravelle WD (1985). Row spacing
and seeding rate effects on yield and yield components of red winter
wheat. Agron. J. 77:211- 214.
Katkar RN, Sonune BA, Kadu PR (2011). Long term effect of fertilization
on soil chemical and biological characteristics and productivity under
sorghum- wheat system in vertisols. Annals of plant and soil
research, 2: 32-34.
Khan E, Shakeel RQ, Abdul G, Ghulam M (2013). Impact of tillage and
mulch on water conservation in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Under
rice- wheat cropping system. J. Agric. Res. 51(3): 255-265
Khoshgoftarmanesh AH, Kalbasi M (2002). Effect of municipal waste
leachate on soil properties and growth and yield of rice. Commun.
Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 33(13&14): 2011-2020.
Khurshid K, Ikbal M, Arif MS, Nawaz A (2006). Effect of tillage and
mulch on soil physical properties and growth of maize. International
journal of agriculture and biology, 8: 593-596.
Kowsar J, Boswal MV (2015). Effect of bio-fertilizer and organic fertilizer
on physiological characteristics of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum).
Intern. J. Sci. Res. Manag. 3(2): 2073- 2089.
Kumar P, Nanwal RK, Yadav SK (2005). Integrated nutrient
management in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)-wheat (Triticum
Published by Basic Research journal of Agricultural Science and Review
302. Basic Res. J. Agric. Res. Rev.
aestivum) cropping system. The Indian J. Agric. Sci.75(10): 640-643.
Kumar S. Sharma PK, Anderson SH, Saroch K (2012). Tillage and ricewheat cropping sequence influences on some soil physical properties
and wheat yield under water deficit conditions. Open J. Soil Sci. 2:
71-81.
Ladha JK, Dawe D, Pathak H (2003). How extensive are yield declines
in long term rice- wheat experiments in Asia. Field Crop Research, 81
(2-3): 159-180.
Ladha JK, Pathak H, Padre AT, Dawe D, Gupta RK (2003a).
Productivity trends in intensive rice- wheat cropping system in Asia.
In Improving the productivity and sustainability of rice- wheat system:
Issues and Impacts, J.K. Ladha, Ed., vol. 65 of special publication, pp
45-76.
Lafond GP (1994). Effects of row spacing, seeding rate and nitrogen on
yield of barley and wheat under zero-till management. Canad. J.
Plant Sci. 74:703- 711.
Lal B, Vinod N, Priyanka S, Tedia K (2014). Effect of combined
application of FYM, fly Ash and fertilizers on soil properties and
paddy grown on degraded land. Current World Environment, 9(2):
531-535.
Lampurlanes J, Angas P, Cantero-Martinez C (2001). Root growth, soil
water content and yield of barley under different tillage systems on
two soils in semiarid conditions. Field Crops Research, 69: 27- 40.
Majundar B, Mandal B, Bandopadhyay PK, Gangopadyay A, Mani PK,
Kundu AL, Majumdar D (2008). Organic amendment influence soil
organic pools and crop productivity in nineteen years old rice- wheat
agroecosystem. Soil Sci. J. Ame. 72: 775-785.
Marshall GC, Ohm HW (1987). Yield responses of 16 winter wheat
cultivars to row spacing and seeding rate. Agron. J. 79:1027- 1030.
McLeod JG, Campbell CA, Gan Y, Dyck FB, Vera CL (1996). Seeding
depth, rate and row spacing for winter wheat grown on stubble and
chemical fallow in the semiarid prairies. Canad. J. Plant Sci. 76:207214.
Mehdi SM, Sarfraz M, Abbas ST, Shabbir G, Akhtar J (2011). Integrated
nutrient management for rice-wheat cropping system in a recently
reclaimed soil. Soil Environment, 30(1): 36-44.
Mohanty M, Bandyopadhyay KK, Painuli DK, Ghosh PK, Misra AK, Hati
KM (2007). Water transmission characteristics of a Vertisol and water
use efficiency of rainfed soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) under
subsoiling and manuring. Soil and Tillage Research, 93(2): 420–428
Motschenbacher JM, Brye KR, Anders MM (2011). Long-term ricebased cropping system effects on near-surface soil compaction.
Agricultural Sciences. 2(2): 117-124.
Mousavi SF, Yousefi-Moghadam S, Mostafazadeh-Fard B, Hemmat A,
Yazdani MR (2009). Effect of puddling intensity on physical
properties of a silty clay soil under laboratory and field conditions.
Paddy and Water Environment, 7(1): 45-54.
Muhammad A, Muhammad JK, Muhammad TJ, Masood R, Javaid AT,
Muhammad H, Zahir S (2014). Effect of different tillage practices on
soil physical properties under wheat in semi-arid environment. Soil
Environment, 33(1): 33-37.
Ozpinar S, Cay A (2006). Effect of different tillage systems on the
quality and crop productivity of a clay loam soil in semi-arid northwestern Turkey. Soil and Tillage Research, 88(1): 95-106.
Pandey BP, Komal BB, Madan RB, Shrawan KS, Resham BT, Tanka
PK (2013). Effect of row spacing and direction of sowing on yield and
yield attributing characters of wheat cultivated in Western Chitwan,
Nepal. Agricultural Science, 4(7): 309- 316.
Parewa HP, Yadav J (2014). Ressponse of fertility levels, FYM and bio
inoculants on yield attributes, yield and quality of wheat. Agriculture
for Sustainable Development, 2(1): 5- 10.
Pelegrin F, Moreno F, Martín-Aranda J, Camps M (1990). The influence
of tillage methods on soil physical properties and water balance for a
typical crop rotation in SW Spain. Soil and Tillage Research, 16: 345358
Prasad R, Misra BN (2001). Effect of addition of organic residues,
farmyard manure and fertilizer nitrogen on soil fertility in rice-wheat
cropping system. Achieves of Agronomy and Soil Science, 46: 455463
Rajkannan B, Selvi D (2002). Effect of tillage, organics and nitrogen on
root behaviour and yield of sorghum in soil with sub soil hard pan at
shallow depth. J. Maharashtra Agric. Uni. 27 (2): 213-215
Ram M, Davari MR, Sharma SN (2014). Direct residual and cumulative
effects of organic manures and biofertilizers on yields, NPK uptake,
grain quality and economics of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under
organic farming of rice- wheat cropping system. J. Organic Systems,
9(1):16- 30.
Ram T, Mir MS (2006). Effect of integrated nutrient management on
yield and yield attributing characters of wheat (Triticum aestivum).
Indian J. Agron. 51(3): 189-192.
Rashidi M, Keshavarzpour F (2007). Effect of different tillage methods
on grain yield and yield components of maize (Zea mays L.). Intern.
J. Agric. Biol. 2(2): 274-277
Sandler L, Nelson KA, Dudenhoeffer C (2015). Winter wheat row
spacing and alternative crop effects on relay intercrop, double crop
and wheat yields. International journal of agronomy. Volume 2015
online published at http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/369243
Scheltema W (1974). Puddling against dry plowing for lowland rice
culture in Surinam. Center for Agricultural Publications and
Documentation, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Rep. 828.
Selvakumari G, Baskar M, Jayanthi D, Mathan KK (2000). Effect of
integration of Flyash with fertilizers and organic manures on nutrient
availability, yield and nutrient uptake of rice in alfisols. J. Indian Soc.
Soil Sci. 48: 268-278.
Sepehya S, Subehia SK, Rana SS, Negi SC (2012). Effect of integrated
nutrient management on rice-wheat yield and soil properties in a
north western Himalayan region. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation,
40(2) : 135-140
Sharma AR, Behera UK (2008). Conservation tillage. In Modern
concepts of tillage, IARI bulletin, pp 12.
Sharma MP, Bali SV (2001). Effect of row spacing and farmyard
manure with increasing levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
on yield and nutrients uptake in rice (Oryza sativa)- wheat (Triticum
aestivum) cropping sequence. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 71(10): 661- 663.
Sharma P, Tripathi RP, Singh S, Kumar R (2004). Effect of tillage o n
soil physical properties and crop perform ance under
r i c e - w h e a t system. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 52: 12- 16
Sharma PK, Bhagat RM (1993). A simple apparatus for measuring clod
breaking strength. J. the Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 41: 422-425.
Sharma PK, Datta SKD (1986). Physical properties and processes of
puddled rice soils. Advanced Soil Science, 5: 139-178.
Sharma PK, Ladha JK, Bhushan L (2003). Soil physical effects of
puddling in rice-wheat cropping systems. In Improving the
productivity and sustainability of rice- wheat systems: issues and
impacts. ASA special publication, 65.
Shirani H, Hajabbas MA, Afyuni M, Hemmat A (2002). Effects of
farmyard manure and tillage systems on soil physical properties and
corn yield in central iran. Soil and Tillage Research, 68(2): 101- 108.
Singh J, Salariya A, Kaul A (2015). Impact of soil compaction on soil
physical properties and root growth: a review. Intern. J. Food, Agric.
Vet. Sci. 5(1): 23-32.
Sip ., Ruzek P, Chrpova J, Vavera R, Kusa H (2009). Tillage and N
fertilization effects on N dynamics and barley yield under semi-arid
Mediterranean conditions. Soil and Tillage Research, 87(1): 59-71.
Soane BD, Blackwell PS, Dickson JW, Painter DJ (1981). Compaction
by agricultural vehicles: A review. I. Soil and wheel characteristics.
Soil and Tillage Research, 1: 207–237
Soane BD, Van Ouwerkerk C (1994). Soil Compaction in Crop
Production. Developments in Agricultural Engineering, 11: 662.
Stępniewski W, Przywara G (1992). The influence of soil oxygen
availability on yield and nutrient uptake by winter rye (Secale
cereale). Plant and Soil 143: 267- 274
Tadessel T, Nigussie D, Wondimu B, Setegn G (2013). Effects of
farmyard manure and inorganic fertilizer application on soil physicochemical properties and nutrient balance in rain-fed lowland rice
ecosystem. Ame. J. Plant Sci. 4: 309- 316.
Talpur MA, Changying JI, Junejo SA, Tagar AA (2013). Impact of rice
crop on soil quality and fertility. Bulgarian J. Agric. Sci. 19(6): 12871291.
Tompkins DK, Hultgreen GE, Wright AT, Fowler DB (1991). Seed rate
Published by Basic Research journal of Agricultural Science and Review
Aniket et al. 303
and row spacing of no-till winter wheat. Agronomy Journal, 83:684689.
Tripathi SC, Chander S, Meena RP (2015). Effect of residue retention,
tillage options and timing of n application in rice-wheat cropping
system. SAARC J. Agric. 13(1):37-49.
Tripathi SC, Singh RP (2007). Effect of chiselling, green-manuring and
planting methods on productivity and profitability of rice (Oryza
sativa)- wheat (Triticum aestivum) cropping system. Indian J. Agron.
52 (4): 279-282
Upadhyay RK, Patra DD, Tewari SK (2011). Natural nitrification
inhibitors for higher nitrogen use efficiency, crop yield, and for
curtailing global warming. J. Tropical Agric. 49: 19- 24
Usman K, Khan EA, Khan N, Khan MA, Ghulam S, Khan S, Baloch J
(2013). Effect of Tillage and Nitrogen on Wheat Production,
Economics, and Soil Fertility in Rice-Wheat Cropping System. Ame.
J. Plant Sci. 4, 17-25.
Wander MM, Xueming Y (2000). Influence of tillage on the dynamics of
loose- and occluded-particulate and humified organic matter
fractions. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 32 (8-9): 1151- 1160
Weil RR (1992). Inside the heart of sustainable farming: An intimate
look at soil life and how to keep it living. The New Farm. Rodale
Press, Emmaus, PA, 14(1): 43- 48.
Weiner J, Griepentrog H, Kristensen L (2001). Suppression of weeds by
spring wheat Triticum Aestivum increases with crop density and
spatial uniformity. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38: 784-790.
Published by Basic Research journal of Agricultural Science and Review