psychology
third edition
CHAPTER
7
cognition
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Learning Objectives
•
•
•
•
•
LO 7.1
LO 7.2
LO 7.3
LO 7.4
LO 7.5
•
•
•
•
•
LO 7.6
LO 7.7
LO 7.8
LO 7.9
LO 7.10
•
LO 7.11
Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking
Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
The Definition of Intelligence
Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are
Constructed
Intellectual Disability and Its Causes
Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success
The Influence of Heredity and Environment on Intelligence
Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language
Language, Thinking, and Are Animals Able to Learn
Language
Ways to Improve Thinking
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Thinking and Mental Images
LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking
• Thinking (cognition): mental activity that
goes on in the brain when a person is
organizing and attempting to understand
information and communicating
information to others
• Mental images: mental representations
that stand for objects or events and have a
picture-like quality
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Concepts
LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking
• Concepts: ideas that represent a class or
category of objects, events, or activities
• Superordinate concept: the most general
form of a type of concept, such as “animal”
or “fruit”
• Basic level type: an example of a type of
concept around which other similar
concepts are organized, such as “dog,”
“cat,” or “pear”
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Concepts
LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking
• Subordinate concept: the most specific
category of a concept, such as one’s pet
dog or a pear in one’s hand
• Formal concepts: concepts that are
defined by specific rules or features
• Natural concepts: concepts people form as
a result of their experiences in the real
world
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Concepts
LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking
• Prototype: an example of a concept that
closely matches the defining
characteristics of a concept
– a platypus is a “fuzzy” natural concept
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Concept Formation
• Thus, categorizing has less to do with features that
define all members of a concept and has more to do
with features that characterize the typical member of
a concept.
• The most representative members of a concept
are known as prototypes.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
When Is It a “Cup,” and When Is It a “Bowl”?
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Fuzzy Boundaries
• Determine whether something belongs to
a group by comparing it with the prototype.
• Objects accepted and rejected define the
boundaries of the group or concept.
• This is different for different people.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
• Problem solving: process of cognition that
occurs when a goal must be reached by
thinking and behaving in certain ways
• Trial and error (mechanical solution):
problem-solving method in which one
possible solution after another is tried until
a successful one is found
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
• Algorithms: very specific, step-by-step
procedures for solving certain types of
problems
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
• Heuristic: an educated guess based on
prior experiences that helps narrow down
the possible solutions for a problem; also
known as a “rule of thumb”
– representative heuristic: assumption that any
object (or person) sharing characteristics with
the members of a particular category is also a
member of that category
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
• Heuristic (cont’d)
– availability heuristic: estimating the frequency
or likelihood of an event based on how easy it
is to recall relevant information from memory
or how easy it is to think of related examples
– Means–end analysis: heuristic in which the
difference between the starting situation and
the goal is determined and then steps are
taken to reduce that difference
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Problem Solving
LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
• Insight: sudden perception of a solution to
a problem
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Problem-Solving Barriers
LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
• Functional fixedness: a block to problem
solving that comes from thinking about
objects in terms of only their typical
functions
• Mental set: the tendency for people to
persist in using problem-solving patterns
that have worked for them in the past
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
The Candle Problem
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Problem-Solving Barriers
LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
• Confirmation bias: the tendency to search
for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while
ignoring any evidence that does not fit
those beliefs
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Figure 7.2 The String Problem
How do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time?
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Figure 7.2 (continued) Solution to the String Problem
The solution to the string problem is to use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Figure 7.3 The Dot Problem
Can you draw four straight lines so that they pass through all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the page and
without touching any dot more than once?
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Figure 7.3 (continued) Solution to the Dot Problem
When people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as representing a box, and they try
to draw the line while staying in the box. The only way to connect all nine dots without lifting the pencil from the paper is
to draw the lines so they extend out of the box of dots—literally “thinking outside the box.”
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Creativity
LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
• Creativity: the process of solving problems
by combining ideas or behavior in new
ways
– convergent thinking: type of thinking in which
a problem is seen as having only one answer,
and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to
that single answer, using previous knowledge
and logic
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Creativity
LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking
• Creativity (cont’d)
– divergent thinking: type of thinking in which a
person starts from one point and comes up
with many different ideas or possibilities
based on that point (a kind of creativity)
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• Intelligence: the ability to learn from one’s
experiences, acquire knowledge, and use
resources effectively in adapting to new
situations or solving problems
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• Spearman’s Theory
– g factor: the ability to reason and solve
problems; general intelligence
– s factor: the ability to excel in certain areas;
specific intelligence
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• Gardner’s Theory
– multiple intelligences: verbal/linguistic,
musical, logical/mathematical, visual/spatial,
movement, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
naturalist, and existential intelligence
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Gardner’s Theory
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• According to Gardner, what kind of
intelligence is being shown here?
Movement
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Gardner’s Theory
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• According to Gardner, what kind of
intelligence is being shown here?
Albert
Einstein
Logical/Mathematical
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Gardner’s Theory
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• According to Gardner, what kind of
intelligence is being shown here?
Visual/Spatial
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Gardner’s Theory
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• According to Gardner, what kind of
intelligence is being shown here?
Musical
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• Triarchic theory of intelligence: Sternberg’s
theory that there are three kinds of
intelligences: analytical, creative, and
practical
– analytical intelligence: the ability to break
problems down into component parts, or
analysis, for problem solving
– creative intelligence: the ability to deal with
new and different concepts and to come up
with new ways of solving problems
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Theories of Intelligence
LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence
• Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (cont’d)
– practical intelligence: the ability to use
information to get along in life and become
successful
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
• Intelligence quotient (IQ): a number
representing a measure of intelligence,
resulting from the division of one’s mental
age by one’s chronological age and then
multiplying that quotient by 100
• The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales
yield an IQ score.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Table 7.5 (continued) Simulated Sample Items From the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
• Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a verbal
score and a performance score, as well as
an overall score of intelligence.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
• Standardization: the process of giving the
test to a large group of people that
represents the kind of people for whom the
test is designed
• Validity: the degree to which a test actually
measures what it’s supposed to measure
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
• Reliability: the tendency of a test to
produce the same scores again and again
each time it is given to the same people
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Development of IQ Tests
LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed
• Deviation IQ scores: a type of intelligence
measure that assumes that IQ is normally
distributed around a mean of 100 with a
standard deviation of about 15
– norms
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Figure 7.4 The Normal Curve
The percentages under each section of the normal curve represent the percentage of scores falling within that section
for each standard deviation (SD) from the mean. Scores on intelligence tests are typically represented by the normal
curve. The dotted vertical lines each represent one standard deviation from the mean, which is always set at 100. For
example, an IQ of 115 on the Wechsler represents one standard deviation above the mean, and the area under the
curve indicates that 34.13 percent of the population falls between 100 and 115 on this test. Note: The figure shows the
mean and standard deviation for the Stanford-Binet Fourth Edition (Stanford-Binet 4). The Stanford-Binet Fifth Edition
was published in 2003 and now has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 for composite scores.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Intellectual Disability
LO 7.6 Intellectual Disability and Its Causes
• Developmentally delayed: condition in
which a person’s behavioral and cognitive
skills exist at an earlier developmental
stage than the skills of others who are the
same chronological age; a more
acceptable term for intellectual disability
– Intellectual disability or developmental delay
is a condition in which IQ falls below 70 and
adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a
person of a particular chronological age.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Intellectual Disability
LO Intellectual Disability and Its Causes
• The four levels of delay are:
– mild: 55–70 IQ
– moderate: 40–55 IQ
– severe: 25–40 IQ
– profound: Below 25 IQ.
• Causes of developmental delay include
deprived environments, as well as
chromosome and genetic disorders and
dietary deficiencies.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Giftedness
LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success
• Gifted: the 2 percent of the population
falling on the upper end of the normal
curve and typically possessing an IQ of
130 or above
• Does giftedness guarantee success?
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Giftedness
LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success
• Terman conducted a longitudinal study
that demonstrated that gifted children grow
up to be successful adults, for the most
part.
– Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack
of objectivity, because he became too
involved in the lives of his participants, even
to the point of interfering on their behalf.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Giftedness
LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success
• Emotional intelligence: the awareness of
and ability to manage one’s own emotions,
as well as the ability to be self-motivated,
to feel what others feel, and to be socially
skilled; viewed as a powerful influence on
success in life
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence
LO 7.8 The Influence of Heredity and Environment on Intelligence
• Stronger correlations are found between
IQ scores as genetic relatedness
increases.
• Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50.
• The Bell Curve: a book that made widely
criticized claims about the heritability of
intelligence
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Racial Differences
in IQ Scores
Sources: Data from N. J. Mackintosh. (1998). IQ and human intelligence. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. Neisser, U. (1998). The rising curve: Long-term gains in IQ and related
measures. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Plant-Pot Analogy
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Figure 7.5 Correlations Between IQ Scores of Persons With Various Relationships
In the graph on the left, the degree of genetic relatedness seems to determine the agreement (correlation) between IQ
scores of the various comparisons. For example, identical twins, who share 100 percent of their genes, are more similar
in IQ than fraternal twins, who share only about 50 percent of their genes, even when raised in the same environment.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Figure 7.5 (continued) Correlations Between IQ Scores of Persons With Various Relationships
In the graph on the right, identical twins are still more similar to each other in IQ than are other types of comparisons,
but being raised in the same environment increases the similarity considerably.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Language
LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language
• Language: a system for combining
symbols (such as words) so that an
unlimited number of meaningful
statements can be made for the purpose
of communicating with others
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Elements and Structure of Language
LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language
• Grammar: the system of rules governing
the structure and use a of language
• Syntax: the system of rules for combining
words and phrases to form grammatically
correct sentences
• Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning
within a language
– semantics: the rules for determining the
meaning of words and sentences
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Elements and Structure of Language
LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language
• Phonemes: the basic units of sound in
language
• Pragmatics: aspects of language involving
the practical ways of communicating with
others, or the social niceties of language
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Language and Cognition
LO 7.10 Language, Thinking, and Are Animals Able to Learn Language
• Linguistic relativity hypothesis: the theory
that thought processes and concepts are
controlled by language
• Cognitive universalism: theory that
concepts are universal and influence the
development of language
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Animal Language
LO 7.10 Language, Thinking, and Are Animals Able to Learn Language
• Studies have been somewhat successful
in demonstrating that animals can develop
a basic kind of language, including some
abstract ideas.
• Controversy exists over the lack of
evidence that animals can learn syntax,
which some feel means that animals are
not truly learning and using language.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Do Animals Use Language?
• Since 1930s, numerous attempts have been
made to teach language to a few select
species.
• The most appropriate conclusion to draw:
– Nonhuman species show no capacity to
produce language on their own, but
– Certain species can be taught to produce
languagelike communication.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Infants Born Prepared
to Learn Language
• Language acquisition – learning vs. inborn
capacities
– Behaviorism’s language theory
 People speak as they do because they have been
reinforced for doing so.
 Behaviorists assumed children were relatively
passive.
 The problem with this theory is that it does not fit the
evidence.
 Operant conditioning principles do not play the
primary role in language development.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Infants Born Prepared to Learn Language
– The nativist perspective:
 Language development proceeds according to an
inborn program.
 Language Acquisition Device (Noam Chomsky):
humans are born with specialized brain structures
(Language Acquisition Device) that facilitates the
learning of language.
– Interactionist perspectives:
 Propose environmental and biological factors interact
together to affect the course of language
development.
 Social interactionist perspective strongly influenced
by Lev Vygotsky’s writings
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Infants Born Prepared
to Learn Language
• Assessing the three perspectives on
language acquisition:
– General consensus:
 Behaviorists place too much emphasis on
conditioning principles.
 Nativists don’t give enough credit to environmental
influences.
 Interactionist approaches may offer best possible
solution.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Ways to Improve Thinking
LO 7.11 Ways to Improve Thinking
• Mental activities that require creativity and
the use of memory abilities, such as
working crossword puzzles and reading
books, can help to keep the brain fit.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.