Park and Hannafin
article
Multimedia Design
Principles and Implications
Principle 1
• Related prior knowledge is the single most
powerful influence in mediating
subsequent learning (the more the new
information can be fit into existing
knowledge structures, the more easily it
can be encoded and retrieved).
Implication of Principle 1
• Layer information to accommodate
multiple levels of complexity and
accommodate differences in related prior
knowledge.
Example
Information related to prior knowledge
Principle 2
• New knowledge becomes increasingly
meaningful when integrated with existing
knowledge (meaning is developed by the
learner, not placed into the learner).
Implication of Principle 2
• Embed structural aids to facilitate
selection, organization, and integration;
embed activities that prompt learners to
generate their own unique meaning.
Example
Think about a time when you behaved in a way
that is completely unlike the way you usually
behave.
– How did you feel at the time? How do you feel now
thinking about it?
– How does that piece of behavior fit into the way you
see yourself?
(Exercise to help students understand the concept
of cognitive dissonance by applying the concept
to the student’s own life)
Principle 3
• Learning is influenced by the supplied
organization of concepts to be learned.
Implication of Principle 3
• Organize lesson segments into internally
consistent idea units.
Example
Webquests supply an inherent organization of concepts to be learned
Principle 4
• Knowledge to be learned needs to be
organized in ways that reflect differences
in learner familiarity with lesson content,
the nature of the learning task, and
assumptions about the structure of
knowledge.
Principle 4 Implication
• Linkages between and among nodes need
to reflect the diverse ways in which the
system will be used.
• Interactive learning systems must reflect
and accommodate differences among
learners by providing flexible methods for
organizing lesson content.
Principle 4 Example
• Hypermedia
– Organized, random access glossary
– Content organized in hierarchical links that
allow multiple associations which afford
learners the ability to create their own lesson
structure based upon ongoing individual
learning requirements.
Principle 5
• Knowledge utility improves as processing
and understanding deepen.
Principle 5 Implication
• Provide opportunities to reflect critically on
learning and to elaborate knowledge
• Encourage learners to articulate strategies
prior to, during, and subsequent to
interacting with the environment.
Principle 5 Example
• Elaboration (deepened understanding)
occurs
– Physically observe someone else using
various ingredients in preparing a dish
– Mentally image the above episode when
reading a recipe card
Principle 6
• Knowledge is best integrated when
unfamiliar concepts can be related to
familiar concepts.
Principle 6 Implication
• Use familiar metaphors both in conveying
lesson content and designing the system
interface.
• Prior knowledge is integral to learning new
concepts and skills.
Principle 6 Example
• Visual metaphors (e.g. computer desktop)
and procedural metaphors (e.g.
roadmaps) in screen design lessens the
processing demands associated with
using the system.
Principle 7: Learning improves as the number of
complementary stimuli
used to represent learning content increases
•Dual Coding Hypothesis states that “Knowledge is represented in
semantic(meaning), imaginal(pictures), or dual formats” –Paivio,
1971.
•Memory is more efficient when it can cross reference semantics
with visual data.
•It is said that learning tends to be strongest when visuals supply
redundant information contained within textual information. On the
other hand, overloading a cognitive resource can hinder effective
learning.
Implications: Present information using multiple,
complementary symbols,
formats and perspectives
•Using images with textural information to increase
learning
•Symbols that need prior knowledge should be used
with caution as they can use a great amount of
cognitive resources for processing. This can hinder
effective learning.
•Prior knowledge should also be considered when
using symbols. With advances in technology and
media it can be easy to complicate a task rather than
simplify it. Multimedia is of most importance in this
situation since it has the ability to combine many forms
of data into one environment.
Examples
-Tutorials
-Help rollovers in media
Principle 8: Learning improves as the amount of
invested mental effort increases
•The individuals perception of the medium in terms of
difficulty affects his/her amount of invested mental effort.
•TV is perceived as a passive form of information when
compared to printed media. Less mental effort is used
when viewing video due to this perception of ease.
Implications: Embed activities that increase the
perceived demand characteristics of both the media
and learning activities
•Highlighting - visual stimuli used with textural
information
•Generative activities – experiments, hypothesis, etc…
These activities allow individuals to use their prior
knowledge and induce unique schema (Pichert &
Anderson).
Example
-situational role-playing games ... could even be extended to mass
multi-player games
-video-conferencing/collaboration
-time-based exercises.... increases repetition and need to win
Principle 9: Learning improves as competition for similar
cognitive resources decreases and declines as competition for the
same resources increases
•Quantitative approach emphasizes amplitude and frequency.
•Qualitative approach emphasizes the nature of the processing.
•Cognitive overload results not only in increased pacing or density
of over taxing of memory resources.
•Important data may go undetected if extraneous information is
emphasized too much. The goal of multimedia in this case is to
provide the appropriate amounts of complementary information at any
given time. Complexity is managed by employing low-load familiar
processing activities that allow the learner to effectively process tasks.
Implications: Structure presentations and interactions to
complement cognitive processes and reduce the complexity of
the processing task
•By automating complex tasks the individual can focus on learning new
information.
•Presentations and interactions need to avoid overtaxing any given
cognitive resource.
•When controlling automated resources we can effectively handle the
cognitive process that allows for efficient learning.
Example
-a physical response may be hampered if it competes
with resources needed to process knowledge.
-presenting aural narration along with textural
information
Principle 10
• Principle 10 – “Transfer improves when knowledge is
situated in authentic contexts.”
• Implications – “Anchor knowledge in realistic contexts
and settings.”
• Examples
– When teaching students about finding percentages (ex. 5% of
20), you could have them solve problems that require them to
find sales tax on a total purchase.
– When teaching about the application of persuasive writing, have
students determine an issue important to them and have them
write a real persuasive letter to a real person for a real
persuasive purpose.
Principle 11
• Principle 11 – “Knowledge flexibility increases as the
number of perspectives on a given topic increases and
the conditional nature of knowledge is understood.”
• Implications – “Provide methods that help learners
acquire knowledge from multiple perspectives and crossreference knowledge in multiple ways.”
• Example
– Design a Web Quest about any content with a “coherent learning
system”. That is to say that multiple resources should be
arranged in a logical/sequential format in one design overlay.
Principle 12
• Principle 12 – “Knowledge of details improves as instructional
activities are more explicit, while understanding improves as the
activities are more integrative.”
• Implications – “Differentiate orienting activities for forthcoming
information based upon desired learning: provide organizing
activities for information already received.”
• Examples
– In a lesson about photosynthesis and cellular respiration,
objectives must be clearly outlined and displayed at the
beginning of the lesson. A post-lesson question might be, “Why
can a small animal and a plant live together in an air-tight
container (assuming there is ample food for the animal)?” This
causes the learners’ understanding of photosynthesis and
respiration to increase as they attempt to integrate the two
concepts to explain their answer.
Principle 13
• Feedback increases learning important lesson
content, and decreases incidental learning.
• Implication: Provide opportunities to respond
and receive feedback but avoid excessive
response focusing when incidental learning is
expected.
• Example: Pilots-in-training. Feedback allowed
them to complete the lesson but bypass the
basic knowledge base completely in favor of
“learning” the answers to embedded question.
Principle 14
• Shifts in attention improve the learning of related
concepts
• Implication: differentiate important information
through cosmetic amplification, repetition, and
recasting to direct learners’ attention.
• Example: highlighting by changing the color or
font in the display and through graphic overview
of a lesson, prompting with arrows, etc.
Principle 15
• Learners become confused and
disoriented when procedures are complex,
insufficient, or inconsistent.
• Implication: Provide clearly defined
procedures for navigating within the
system and accessing on-line support.
• Example: the problems of being “lost in
hyperspace”
Principle 16
• Visual representations of lesson content and
structure improve the learner’s awareness of
both the conceptual relationships and procedural
requirements of a learning system.
• Implication: Provide concept maps and other
graphical aids to help learners understand,
locate, and navigate within interactive learning
systems.
• Example: concept maps and graphic organizers
Principle 17
“Individuals vary widely in their need for
guidance”
So…give “tactical, instructional, and
procedural advice”
ie Give students strategies and hints
Principle 18
“Learning systems are most efficient when
they adapt to relevant individual
differences”
So…’Interactive multimedia must adapt
dynamically to both learner and content
characteristics’
ie GED, translations, games
Principle 19
“Metacognitive demands are greater for
loosely structured learning environments
than for highly structured ones”
So…provide ‘prompts and self-check’ and
monitoring activities
ie PBL, Alien Rescue
Principle 20
“Learning is facilitated when system features
are functionally self-evident, logically
organized, easily accessible, and readily
deployed.”
So…make it user friendly
ie Mayer examples – keep image and text
on same page