Maintaining a Balance
Part 2
Maintaining a Balance
Contextual Outline
Multicellular organisms have specialised organ systems that are adapted for the uptake and
transport of essential nutrients from the environment, the utilisation or production of energy
and the removal of waste products arising from cellular activities.
The basis of healthy body-functioning in all organisms is the health of their cells. The
physical and chemical factors of the environment surrounding these cells must remain within
narrow limits for cells to survive. These narrow limits need to be maintained and any
deviation from these limits must be quickly corrected. A breakdown in the maintenance of
this balance causes problems for the organism.
The nervous and endocrine systems in animals and the hormone system in plants bring about
the coordinated functioning of these organ systems. They are able to monitor and provide the
feedback necessary to maintain a constant internal environment. Enzyme action is a prime
example of the need for this balance. Enzymes control all of the chemical reactions that
constitute the body’s metabolism. As enzymes normally function only within a narrow
temperature range, even a small rise in body temperature can result in the failure of many of
the reactions of metabolism that are essential to life.
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Maintaining a Balance
Part 2
Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium
Background: Blood is the transport medium of mammals. It maintains the internal
environment of all organs as it supplies material to every cell in the body and removes the
unwanted substances that cannot be allowed to accumulate in cells. Blood consists of 55%
plasma, a straw-coloured liquid of which 90% is water. The other components of the blood
are red and white blood cells and platelets.
Red blood cells are unique in that they do not contain a nucleus and have a biconcave shape.
They are much smaller than white blood cells and more numerous. They contain the protein
haemoglobin, a complex protein molecule consisting of four polypeptides, each containing an
iron atom. The iron atom has an affinity for oxygen molecules. When haemoglobin is
combined with an oxygen molecule, it is called oxyhaemoglobin.
Plants carry dissolved mineral nutrients in the xylem vessels and carry food (mostly glucose)
in phloem tubes.

identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:
– carbon dioxide
– oxygen
– water
– salts
– lipids
– nitrogenous waste
– other products of digestion
Carbon Dioxide
Most carbon dioxide enters the red blood cells and is combined with water to form
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). Some is attached to haemoglobin molecules in red blood
cells and a small percentage is transported in plasma as dissolved CO2.
It is produced as a waste product of respiration in body cells.
After entering the bloodstream it may:
Be converted into carbonic acid which is then changed into hydrogen
carbonate ions. This change from carbon dioxide to carbonate ions
happens on the red blood cells. Then they are just transported in the
plasma.
Binds to haemoglobin in erythrocytes forming carbaminohaemoglobin
Be dissolved directly in the plasma.
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Carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid → hydrogen ions + hydrogen carbonate ions
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-1
Oxygen attaches itself to haemoglobin in the red blood cells, becoming a complex
called oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2).
Liquid water is the solvent making up 90% of the plasma.
Salts are carried as dissolved ions in the plasma.
Lipids are carried with phospholipids and cholesterol in a protein coated package called
a chylomicron.
The nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid and creatinine) are dissolved in blood plasma.
Other products of digestion, such as sugars, amino acids and various vitamins, are
transported in the plasma.

explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin
Oxygen is not very soluble in water and so cannot be carried efficiently dissolved in
the blood plasma. Most of the oxygen is carried by haemoglobin in the red blood
cells. Thus, the presence of haemoglobin in red blood cells in blood increases the
blood's capacity to carry oxygen. Organisms with blood (containing haemoglobin) are
able to deliver oxygen to cells more efficiently than other organisms with blood that
has no haemoglobin. The net effect is that these organisms are more effective
operators in a given environment than their competitors.
At high altitudes, blood is not able to absorb as much oxygen as at sea level. The
human body adapts to what is effectively oxygen deprivation by initially increasing
heart rate, breathing rate, then the number of red blood cells (more haemoglobin), and
the density of capillaries.
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Structure of haemoglobin:
Globule-shaped protein containing four polypeptide sub-units
Each polypeptide encloses an IRON-containing structure, called
the HAEM group (4 HAEM groups altogether)
The haem groups combine with the oxygen.
Oxygen fuses with haemoglobin where the concentration of oxygen in the
blood is low; that is, in the lungs.
It makes an unstable compound – oxyhaemoglobin
One haemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of oxygen
Hb + 4O2 = Hb(O2)4
Where oxygen is needed, the oxygen bond easily breaks and the oxygen is
used.
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Adaptive Advantage:
Mammalian cells need a lot of energy and therefore must have a
continual supply of OXYGEN for RESPIRATION
Oxygen is not very soluble in water
Blood is a WATERY liquid; if oxygen was carried only by being
dissolved in blood plasma, 100 ml of water would only be able to
carry 0.2 ml of oxygen
The presence of haemoglobin increases the oxygen carrying capacity
of blood by 100 times. Now 100 ml of blood can carry 20 ml of
oxygen.
Dissolved only ----> 0.2 ml O2 / 100 ml blood
Haemoglobin ----> 20 ml O2 / 100 ml blood
This ability of blood to carry large quantities of oxygen gives
mammals a considerable survival advantage
It allows mammals to be active, as well as grow large.
1ml of blood contains 5-6 million red blood cells.
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
compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their function
ARTERIES:
Carry blood away from heart (high blood pressure)
The pressure created by the heart’s pumping creates great stress and high
pressure in the arteries
This is why the arteries are thick walled, elastic and muscular.
They have thick, but elastic walls, made up of three tissue layers: endothelium as
a lining, smooth muscle to contract the vessel and connective tissue to allow for
expansion. Arteries do not pump blood.
The arteries are not motionless; they have muscle fibres in them which can
contract and relax.
This contracting maintains the pressure on the blood, so that the blood travels
in spurts towards the body tissues (the contracting and relaxing also creates
the pulse on your wrist or neck).
The muscle fibres of the arteries also maintain the rate of the flow of blood.
Arteries usually carry oxygenated blood
Arteries lead to arterioles (small arteries).
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CAPILLARIES:
Capillaries are an extension of the inner layers of the arteries and veins
They join arterioles and venules (small veins).
Capillaries are only one cell thick, and are so narrow, that only one red blood
cell can pass at a time.
Capillaries surround all tissue cells.
Thus, they provide a very large surface area over which exchange of materials
between blood and body can occur.
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VEINS:
Veins carry blood back to the heart
The capillaries join to form venules, which join to form veins
Veins are not under a lot of stress - blood pressure is low
This is why they have thinner walls than arteries, less muscle and a wider
diameter.
Since there are no thick muscular walls to keep the blood pulsing along, the
veins have a series of valves which prevent the blood from back-flowing on its
way back up to the heart.
The veins also run through muscles, such as your leg muscles, and as you use
these muscles, they press on the veins, pushing blood through the veins.
Veins have the same three layers as the arteries: endothelium, smooth muscle
and connective tissue. However, the layers are not as thick.
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
describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves
around the body and identify tissues in which these changes occur
PULMONARY CIRCUIT:
Blood flows from heart to lungs and then back to the heart.
Blood is under lower pressure than in the systemic circuit.
However, the rate of blood flow is faster.
The blood, having just returned from the body, contains high CO2
levels and low oxygen levels
In the lungs, blood loses CO2 and collects oxygen
SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT:
Blood flows from the heart to the body (except the lungs) and
returns back to the heart.
Blood is under high pressure due to contractions of the left
ventricle of the heart, but pressure gradually lessens.
Blood pressure forces some fluid out of blood to become body fluid.
In the tissues:
1. Blood gives up oxygen and other ions and nutrients
2. Waste products, eg urea, CO2, enter the blood
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KIDNEYS:
Blood loses urea to the kidney and the kidney controls the level of water and
salts.
INTESTINES:
Blood collects the products of digestion
Levels of glucose, lipids, and amino acids rise
LIVER:
Regulates the level of glucose in blood
Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and is stored
Converts excess amino acids to urea
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
outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon
dioxide from cells is essential
All living cells need oxygen for respiration.
As a result of respiration, carbon dioxide is produced
When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it makes carbonic acid.
This means that if a lot of carbon dioxide is produced, the body cells (and the
blood and lymph) will become acidic
As studied before, enzymes can only function within a specific pH range
So an increase in carbon dioxide will result in a lowering of pH, which will affect
the overall metabolism of the body.

describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials
through plants in xylem and phloem tissue
XYLEM:
Transport of water is passive and depends on transpiration and the physical
properties of water:
1. Transpiration: Evaporation of water from the leaf cells through the
stomates initiates the pull of the TRANSPIRATON STREAM. Water is
then drawn up the xylem tubes to replace this loss
2. Cohesion: Water molecules tend to bind together, forming a continuous
column in the xylem, which replaces any loss
3. Adhesion: Water molecules stick to the sides of the xylem tubes (cellulose
walls).
The movement of water through narrow tubes is called CAPILLARITY
(Capillary action)
It is caused by the two forces of COHESION and ADHESION
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PHLOEM:
Movement of organic molecules, eg sugars, amino acids and hormones, in the
phloem is called translocation.
Materials are transported both up and down the stem. Materials are distributed
especially to the growing points and reproductive structures, including
developing fruits and seeds
Flow of materials in the phloem is an active process that requires energy.
It is thought to occur by a mechanism called the source-path-sink system and
is driven by a gradient generated osmotically.
Theory 1: The source-path-sink system
1. Sugars and other mineral nutrients are ‘loaded’ into phloem sieve tubes of
the leaves:
SYMPLASTIC LOADING: Sugars and nutrients move in the
cytoplasm from the mesophyll cells to the sieve elements through
plasmodesmata.
Plasmodesmata
(singular:
plasmodesma)
are
microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells and
some algal cells, enabling transport and communication between them.
(NOTE: Plasmodesmata have not been found in all plants)
APOPLASTIC LOADING: Sugar and nutrients move along the cell
walls to the sieve tube. Then they cross the cell membrane by active
transport.
2. As sugars enter the phloem the concentration of phloem sap increases and
the water decreases. This causes the entry of water by osmosis from the
surrounding cells. This resulting pressure causes water and dissolved
solutes to flow towards a SINK.
A sink is a region of the plant where sugars and other nutrients are actively
being removed from the phloem. As sugars move out of the phloem, water
flows out with them. This reduces the pressure in the sieve cells at the sink
region.
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
This mechanism is called pressure flow.
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Theory 2: Sugars are moved through the phloem by CYTOPLASMIC
STREAMING which is the movement of the fluid substance
(cytoplasm) within a plant or animal cell. The motion transports
nutrients, proteins, and organelles within cells and ACTIVE
DIFFUSION within the sieve tubes.

perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon
dioxide on the pH of water

perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to
gather information to estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled
diagrams of each

analyse information from secondary sources to identify current technologies that
allow measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in
blood and describe and explain the conditions under which these technologies are
used
Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) Analysis
Analysis takes blood samples from an artery, and the sample is tested for the
concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and for pH.
This procedure is invasive, and delays can occur between sampling and result
processing.
The information obtained is vital for critically ill patients, in determining their
situation, as many illnesses present with similar symptoms.
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Pulse Oximetry
This uses two wavelengths of light to measure the absorption of light as it passes
through a patient’s finger. The amount of light absorbed by haemoglobin is dependent
on how saturated it is with oxygen.
Mathematical calculations work out the proportion of oxygenated haemoglobin
present.
This is useful as it is non- invasive, and allows for the constant monitoring of arterial
blood.

analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from
donated blood and discuss the uses of these products
Red Blood Cells
Used to treat people with Anaemia, as red blood cells increase the amount of oxygen
that can be carried to body tissues, and consequently increase the amount of iron.
Given to people whose bone marrow doesn’t make enough RBCs.
Used for treatment of trauma patients and surgery patients, e.g. Open Heart Surgery.
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White Blood Cells
Infection fighting components of blood
Used to treat life-threatening illnesses or infections when the white blood cell count is
low.
Plasma
Contains blood clotting factors and immunoglobins.
Used for treatment of patients with clotting disorders such as haemophilia.
Used to adjust the osmotic pressure of blood, to pull fluids out of tissues.
IMMUNOGLOBINS: Also called gamma globulins, immune serum, or
antibodies, these are also infection fighting parts of the blood plasma. Given
to people who have difficulty fighting infections, eg AIDS sufferers.
Platelets
Essential for blood clotting.
Platelets are given to patients suffering from leukaemia or lymphoma, who do not
produce enough platelets.

analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in
the production of artificial blood and use available evidence to propose reasons why
such research is needed
The problems of using real blood:
Shortage of real blood
It has to be ‘cross-matched’. This is because, if you receive the
wrong type of blood, it can be fatal. This is a great disadvantage in
emergency situations.
It has to be free of infectious agents. Only blood that is free of
bacteria and infectious agents (such as HIV) can be used. Testing
the blood is costly.
It has a short shelf-life. Because red blood cells only survive for 3
months, the blood has a short life span (blood can only survive for 34 weeks).
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Some proposed replacements for blood:
Perflurochemicals:
Synthetic and inert
Cheap to produce
Can dissolve 50 times more oxygen
Free of biological materials, therefore no risk of infections
BUT - must be combined with other materials to mix
in with the bloodstream (eg lecithin).
Haemoglobin Based Oxygen Carriers (HBOCs):
Made from haemoglobin extracted from red blood cells
Haemoglobin is not contained in membrane - cross matching
unnecessary
Can be stored for a long time
BUT - haemoglobin tends to oxidise to a different form,
break down, and can no longer carry oxygen.
Dextrose Solution:
Made of 4% glucose solution in a fluid with equal salinity to
blood
Only used to restore blood pressure after accidents.
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
choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand investigation to gather firsthand data to draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue
Transverse section of Phloem and Xylem
Longitudinal Sections
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