What role did New Media play in the Arab Uprisings, and to
what extent is New Media a useful tool in conflict situations?
Caroline Hofman
Introduction
New media refers to the way in which news or information is accessed at any time by
means of using a digital device, and can also describe user participation and
interaction through use of social media or news-related websites. From the use of
online news websites and social media, we cannot ignore the way in which new media
has played, and continues to play, a major role in civil and international conflict
situations. The United States Institute of Peace (2011) states that tools associated with
new media, such as smart phones, “can help hold governments accountable and
coordinate relief efforts... but they can also convey inaccurate information and
promote violent agendas”. This certainly suggests that whilst new media may have
positive aspects, it also has some negatives associated with it.
This article is concerned with analysing the impact and role played by social media
and online content as a whole, such as internet news websites, in relation to the Arab
Uprisings and conflict situations. Focusing in particular on the Arab Uprisings, I will
begin by giving a general historical background of the Uprisings, before proceeding to
delve into the overall role of new media in relation to the spread of the conflict, and
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throughout the conflict itself.
Background to the Arab Uprisings
The protests initially began in Tunisia, but eventually spread to Egypt, Algeria, Libya,
and Morocco. Despite Syria appearing to be rather stable by early 2011, the uprisings
subsequently spread there by March 2011, and consequently spread to other countries
such as Yemen, Bahrain, Lebanon, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Iran, and even Iraq,
and to some extent, Sudan (UCDP, 2011).
It can be argued that the arrest on March 6th, 2011 of fifteen young boys aged between
10 and 15, who had painted anti-regime graffiti in the town of Daraa, acted as a
catalyst for the civil war that was to eventually occur in Syria. Macleod (2011)
describes how this “small act of defiance... catapulted Syria to the frontline to the
Arab revolution”. The young boys painted the slogan "As-Shaab Yoreed Eskaat el
nizam!", which means "the people want to topple the regime!", which was used in the
revolutions of Tunis and Cairo (Macleod, 2011). Public protests took place
throughout Syria after some of the young boys were killed whilst they were in
detention, with the government failing to punish the perpetrators. Macleod (2011)
grimly describes how the young boys were “beaten and bloodied, burned and had
their fingernails pulled out”.
It is strongly suggested that the demography of Arab states in general makes them far
more vulnerable to uprisings compared to other areas (Gelvin, 2012). Roughly sixty
per cent of the population is under the age of thirty in Arab states, which Gelvin
(2012: 19) describes as a “youth bulge”. With young people making up approximately
twenty-five per cent of the unemployed population across the region, it can be argued
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that this level of unemployment among young people has had its consequences, and
has in a way contributed to the conflict; although Gelvin (2012: 20) disagrees with
this view and suggests that youth unemployment may not necessarily “translate into
rebellion”. However, Lesch (2008: 82) states that, for example, Syria is suffering from
the same “socio-economic underlying factors” as those existing in other non-oilproducing Arab countries, which have led to the creation of a “well of
disenfranchisement and disempowerment, especially among an energized and
increasingly frustrated youth”. Other possible reasons cited as having caused the Arab
Uprisings include “unilateral attempts by regimes to renegotiates ruling bargains”,
along with “demographic challenges, a food crisis, and brittleness”; these may have
made autocracies in the Arab world vulnerable, but they are ultimately not to blame as
the cause of the uprisings (Gelvin, 2012: 24). In relation to the actual spread of the
uprisings, Lesch (2013: 81) believes that social media websites such as Twitter and
Facebook, along with news websites on the internet, played a major role the spread of
the uprisings in the Arab world, as the aforementioned sources “could not be
controlled as it in the past”.
New Media
Whether it's using a smart phone on the go or using a computer in the comfort of your
own home, there is no escaping the role that new media plays in our daily lives; for
example, social media websites such as Twitter. It has been stated that the internet
overall offers a number of ways to “connect cultural-political content in a variety of
forms and styles to audiences” (Collins, 2006: 353). Washbourne (2010: 138)
additionally suggests that the internet allows for “some equalisation of political voice
between very powerful and very much less powerful actors”. It also acts as a valuable
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tool for minority groups, being used as a means of “addressing the broader public
with issues and concerns they feel should be addressed”. The internet also allows for
“linkages between citizens in oppressive regimes to reach other and to those in the
international sphere” (Washbourne, 2010: 139), which certainly shows how powerful
it can be.
Street (2011: 262) interestingly describes how new media is essentially “changing the
political landscape” in various parts of the world, with the growth of the internet
being rather extraordinary with “every aspect of human life, including politics, being
transformed by this new form of communication”. Street (2011: 261) even proceeds
to suggest how, in particular, new media may in fact be “reconfiguring democratic
participation”. This is a rather remarkable statement, showing the power that new
media may ultimately have in the promotion of great change, particularly in repressed
countries, such as in the Arab world.
It has also been suggested that the emergence of new media is one of the
developments which changed warfare and “the conduct of persuasion and
propaganda” (Louw, 2005: 210). An example of the true extent the likes of the
internet can play, is the use of the internet by Al Qaeda hijackers. It emerged through
subsequent investigations of the 9/11 attacks by Al Qaeda hijackers that the terrorists
were in fact dependent “upon the internet for their flexibilized, just-in-time,
distributed modes of operation” (Luke, 2010: 163). This is a particularly good
example of how the internet can also be used negatively.
Journalist and media commentator, Tom Felle, talking about new media and the Arab
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Uprisings, states that...
'Absolutely new media had a role to play. But it’s often overstated how important it
was. Al Jazeera had a much more potent role in Egypt, for example, as access to
Twitter was confided to a technologically literate and mainly younger elite. Al
Jazeera spoke in Arabic to a mass audience of millions' (Felle, 2014).
The digital divide may be considered to be one factor which has an effect on the
extent of power new media may ultimately have. Chadwick (2006: 50) argues that
many consider the digital divide to be of little significance however, as “the natural
play of market forces makes Internet access available to all who want it”. Although
“disparities in internet access” can be found in Northern Canada and the Australian
outback, and additionally in “rural and disadvantaged parts of Europe”, the so-called
digital divide is far more pronounced in developing countries, “where access to
information and communications technology (ICT) remains much more limited”
(Hudson, 2010: 311). The digital divide is also evident in the Middle East, with
Stewart (2009: 146-7) stating that the area has “very low levels of information
technology”, and in 2002, approximately only 0.6 per cent of the Arab region used the
internet, with only 1.2 per cent actually owning a computer. However, in 2001, Egypt
introduced a project providing free dial-up internet access to all of its population
(Stewart, 2009), and similar projects have been introduced in a number of other
countries.
Social Media and Mapping Services in Conflict Situations
Broadly speaking, it cannot be denied that social media plays a vital role in
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heightening awareness in relation to present day conflict situations; not solely in the
country of origin of the conflict, but also making the wider world aware of what is
occurring. In addition to this, the role of social media role and its success in alerting
people to breaking news has, according to Sambrook (2010: 39), raised the question
of its effectiveness as a “free news agency”. In addition, Sambrook (2010: 39) gives
examples of how social media has worked remarkably well as a form of an “early
alert” system; from Mumbai terrorist attacks to Iranian protests, with “traditional
news operations” embracing the role of social media. When conflict occurs, “first the
tweets come, then the pictures, then the video and then the wires” (Sambrook, 2010:
39).
Mapping services are also becoming of increasing importance, with the mapping
service 'Ushahidi' being given as an example by Sambrook (2010) of how
increasingly important new media is becoming. The service was born following the
disturbances of the 2007 elections in Kenya, collating reports “sent in via SMS, email,
Twitter and the web” in order to “provide a map of incidents around any major event”
(Sambrook, 2010: 42). In 2008, Al Jazeera used the Ushahidi platform, which
arguably amplified the voices of people, by means of allowing Palestinians and
Israelis to update reports of the attacks that were occurring during the Gaza conflict.
New Media and the Arab Uprisings
Perhaps one of the most prominent examples of the immense effect that social media
can have, is undoubtedly the Arab Uprisings, and the manner in which they spread to
various countries. Aday et al. (2012: 3) describe how a wave of protests spread
through the Arab world back in 2011, with the massive popular mobilization bringing
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down “ long-ruling leaders in Tunisia and Egypt”, which helped to “spark bloody
struggles in Bahrain, Libya, Syria, and Yemen”, and fundamentally reshaping “the
nature of politics in the region”. However, Aday et al. (2012: 3) are also critical of
new media actually playing a role in this success, suggesting that it did not “appear to
play a significant role in country collective action or regional diffusion during this
period”, but this of course does not mean that social media was entirely unimportant
and irrelevant.
It is stated by Ghannam (2011: 4) that throughout the Arab world, “the rise of an
independent vibrant social media and steadily increasing citizen engagement on the Internet”
is being witnessed, and social media is “expected to attract 100 million Arab users by 2015”.
Social media websites act as “a way of informing, mobilizing, entertaining, along with
creating communities, increasing transparency, and also aiming to hold governments
accountable” (Ghannam, 2011: 4). This increasing reliance and use of the internet and
social media can arguably be attributed to the fact that, in the Middle East, until quite
recently, media in the area had been tightly controlled, and “government-run
newspapers continue to be routinely censored in many countries” throughout the
region (Stewart, 2009: 184). The increased use of the internet and satellite television
during the 1990s, however, allowed this government control to be somewhat bypassed and overcome to an extent. A major turning point occured in 1996, when AlJazeera started a trend in satellite television channels providing “controversial
coverage that contained dissenting views rather than the official viewpoint of any one
government” (Stewart, 2009: 184).
Social media may be harnessed and used in order to prevent conflict, as a means of
peacebuilding, although Himelfarb (2012) admits that recent attention has been
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focused on the part social media has played in relation to the Arab Spring and the
spread of conflict rather than the promotion of peace. However, a “quieter revolution”
has emerged around the world, with social media being used at the community level
to “try and mitigate the causes of violence” (Himelfarb, 2012). Luke (2010: 163) also
states how it is “difficult to ignore how online technologies affect power and political
culture”.
Another example of the role which social media can play can be seen following the
Tunisian Revolution from December 2010 to January 2011, when young Egyptians
are stated as having joined a "Khaled Said" Facebook group, calling “for an uprising
against tyranny, oppression, torture, corruption and injustice”. These calls for an
uprising began spreading to blogs, and other social media websites such as Twitter
(Abdallah, 2012: 5). Furthermore, Abdallah (2012: 5) suggests that “Egypt’s
revolution is, to a significant extent, the outcome of the media’s relationship with
politics and democracy”, and the spread of the Uprisings throughout the Arab world
may ultimately be heavily attributed to the media and social media, particularly as
such a high level of communication and mobilization took place on the likes of these
social networking websites. Felle (2014) refers to what he calls the “citizen
journalist”, and the so-called rise of this phenomenon “means anyone can now publish
anything, anywhere, and the 'gate keepers' that were traditional journalists are being
bypassed” as a result.
Aday et al. (2012: 3) analysed four major Arab Spring protests, in Bahrain, Egypt,
Libya and Tunisia, and “large differences were found across the four”, in relation to
“the amount of information consumed via social media”. It was found that the events
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that occurred in Egypt and Libya “garnered many more clicks on a much larger
number of URLs”, compared to those in Tunisia and Bahrain (Aday et al., 2012: 3).
This suggests that the extent of the influence of new media can vary in different
countries, but nevertheless cannot be underestimated in countries where it is less
prominent.
It is important to note that what is reported by means of new media is not always
entirely accurate, however, with Bruno (2012) noting how you should always be
aware of errors in regards to the likes of Twitter. This was particularly evident during
the uprisings in Egypt. Bruno recalls the coverage of the Egypt uprising, remembering
“the reports on Twitter that the Google executive had just been released”, and how
during the morning she had read reports on news websites that “he was going to be
released”, but posts on Twitter were saying “he has been released” (Bruno, 2012: 45).
This highlights the possibility of inaccurate, or even completely untrue, information
being spread through the channels of social media websites.
Ghannam (2011: 4) suggests that “Arab social media sites, blogs, online videos, and other
digital platforms” have led to “what is arguably the most dramatic and unprecedented
improvement in freedom of expression, association, and access to information in
contemporary Arab history”. This is certainly excellent evidence of the strength and impact
social media can have, but of course, there are also negatives associated with it. As
Blanchard et al. (2014: 14) put it, “social media outlets and news reports can help
verify information”, but caution must also be exercised.
Conclusion
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Ultimately, new media has a vital role in highlighting issues to the wider world;
gaining support in the process. However, it also has its downfalls and negatives, as
has been seen in the case of the Uprisings in the Arab world where some consider it to
have acted as somewhat of a catalyst in the spread of the conflict. The influence of
social media within the region is less powerful than outside the region however; it is
more likely that any information will be spread in the latter, with Aday et al. (2012: 3)
describing social media as “acting like a megaphone more than a rallying cry”
because of this.
Additionally, we cannot argue that social media has a vital role in acting as an “early
detection system” for major incidents and events, with the increasing use of mapping
services as a means of compiling reports being a major step forward, as data may be
available from social media users in areas where there is no other means of gathering
information. The role of new media as a whole is arguably becoming of increasing
importance; it's accessible 24/7, 365 days a year, and makes us aware of the world
around us. However, it does possess one particularly dangerous flaw. Inaccurate or
untrue reports and information may be spread. Therefore, caution certainly needs to
be exercised when accessing or using new media.
Is there any escaping what can essentially be coined as “hashtag syndrome”? It seems
that throughout the world, we are becoming overly reliant on what is the citizen
journalist; where reports may be inaccurate, and in some cases, entirely untrue. The
spread of information such as this is far too easy with the likes of social networking
websites, where in merely a few seconds something can be “re-tweeted” to anyone,
anywhere in the world. Caution should be strongly exercised; of course, new media
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has a vital role to play in conflict situations, but in some cases, the information which
is spread should be taken with a pinch of salt.
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E-mail
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Felle, T. (2014) Re: Social Media, [email protected], January 30th 2014
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