Copy No. _____
Defence Research and
Development Canada
Recherche et développement
pour la défense Canada
DEFENCE
&
DÉFENSE
Alternative Power and Energy Options for
Reduced-Diesel Operations at CFS ALERT
Gisele Amow
Defence R&D Canada – Atlantic
Technical Memorandum
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
May 2010
This page intentionally left blank.
Alternative Power and Energy Options for
Reduced-Diesel Operations at CFS ALERT
G. Amow
Defence Research and Development Canada
Air Vehicles Research Section
Air Sustain Thrust 13pz
Defence R&D Canada – Atlantic
Technical Memorandum
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
May 2010
Principal Author
Original signed by Gisele Amow
Gisele Amow
Defence Scientist/Air Vehicle Research Section
Approved by
Original signed by Ken McRae
Ken McRae
Section Head/Air Vehicle Research Section
Approved for release by
Original signed by Ron Kuwahara for
Calvin Hyatt
Chair Document Review Panel/DRDC Atlantic
© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister of National Defence, 2010
© Sa Majesté la Reine (en droit du Canada), telle que représentée par le ministre de la Défense nationale,
2010
Abstract ……..
This report was tasked with exploring alternative power and energy options for CFS ALERT to
reduce diesel-use for its electricity and heat demands. This report focuses specifically on
renewable energy technologies (solar, wind, geothermal, wave and tidal) as well as nuclear power
and consider their use within the context of the climate, geology and geography of CFS ALERT.
Geothermal (deep drilling and ground source heat pumps), wave and tidal (barrage) systems were
found to be unviable options. Modular nuclear reactors appear attractive for use; however, their
targeted electricity and thermal outputs currently under development exceed the requirements of
CFS ALERT by at least one to two orders of magnitude. Solar, wind and tidal-current systems
may have a role to play in future reduced-diesel operations at CFS ALERT; however, further
investigation and careful planning is required prior to implementation. Recommendations for
future work in these areas are provided.
Résumé ….....
Le présent rapport a pour objectif d’examiner des options en matière d’énergies de substitution
pour la SFC Alert afin de réduire la quantité de diesel utilisé pour répondre aux besoins de la
station en électricité et en énergie de chauffage. Ce rapport porte principalement sur les
technologies des énergies renouvelables (énergie solaire, énergie éolienne, énergie géothermique,
énergie marémotrice, énergie des vagues) et sur l’énergie nucléaire, ainsi que sur leur utilisation
potentielle dans les conditions climatiques, géologiques et géographiques de la SFC Alert. Les
systèmes fonctionnant à l’énergie géothermique (forage en profondeur et pompes géothermiques),
à l’énergie des vagues et à l’énergie marémotrice (barrages) se sont révélés non viables.
L’utilisation de réacteurs nucléaires modulaires semble être une option intéressante, mais la
puissance thermique et électrique visée dans le cadre des projets en cours dépasse les exigences
de la SFC Alert par un ou deux ordres de grandeur. Les systèmes qui fonctionnent à l’énergie
solaire, éolienne ou marémotrice pourraient quant à eux être utilisés pour réduire la quantité de
diesel consommé dans le cadre des activités de la SFC Alert. Des études supplémentaires et une
planification minutieuse sont cependant nécessaires avant la mise en œuvre de tels systèmes.
Nous présentons des recommandations au sujet des travaux à entreprendre dans ces domaines.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
i
This page intentionally left blank.
ii
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
Executive summary
Alternative Power and Energy Options for Reduced-Diesel
Operations at CFS ALERT
G. Amow; DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080; Defence R&D Canada – Atlantic; May
2010.
Introduction or background: This report has been tasked with exploring alternative power and
energy options for reduced-diesel operations at CFS ALERT, specifically renewable energy
technologies and nuclear energy. This is driven primarily by a desire to decrease operational costs
as well as to decrease the environmental impact of diesel-use in alignment with DND’s policy on
the environment[1, 2].
Located on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island, CFS ALERT experiences extremely cold
temperatures throughout the majority of the year. To sustain activities this far north requires a
significant energy budget that is largely driven by thermal demands. To meet these demands, fuel
and supplies are delivered bi-annually from the US Air Force Base in Thule, Greenland via
Operation BOXTOP.
With Arctic sovereignty issues being a focus of the 2008 Canada First Defence Strategy, the Air
Force is expected to play an increased role in supporting and maintaining operations in the North.
On April 1st, 2009, the command responsibility of CFS ALERT was assigned to the Canadian Air
Force. With this transfer of responsibility the Air Force has inherited a site that is notorious for
consuming massive amounts of JP-8 fuel to sustain its operations. In 2009, approximately 1.78
million litres of JP-8 diesel were used for electricity and heat generation alone. At a cost of
approximately $11.4M ($6.38/L which includes fuel and transportation cost[3]), this represents a
significant portion of the operational budget at this station, which is now assumed by the Air
Force. In a recent document, “Projecting Power: Trends Shaping the Canadian Air Force in the
Year 2019”[1], energy security, in the context of peak oil and the geopolitical influence of
petroleum costs, was identified as a threat to future Air Force operations that must be addressed.
The present study is devoted to exploring the various alternative power and energy options such
as renewable energy and nuclear power within the context of climate, geological and
geographical conditions at CFS ALERT. It considers technologies that are being used today such
as solar, wind and geothermal, as well as other technologies in the developmental stage such as
wave and tidal energy and modular nuclear reactors. The topics of biomass and methane gas
hydrates were not considered for this study as these resources are constrained by the limitations
that plague diesel-use today.
Results: From this study, it is clear that the relatively mature technologies of solar and wind can
play a role at CFS ALERT and although in the developmental stages, tidal current technologies
should not be ruled out. It must be recognized that with the intermittent nature of solar, wind and
tidal current resources, renewable energy technologies may never completely supplant diesel-use
and it may be necessary to have hybrid-generator designs, which include energy storage systems
such as batteries, flywheels, hydrogen generation and storage systems among others that are
available.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
iii
Geothermal technologies such as deep drilling and ground source heat pumps are not considered
viable as CFS ALERT is not located along geological features amenable to thermal wells (such as
tectonic plate boundaries) and has a permafrost layer that extends to 600m in depth. Wave and
tide technologies (such as barrage systems) are not feasible options due to the low tide heights
recorded (< 1m). Finally, while modular nuclear reactors offer an attractive solution for supplying
both electricity and process heat, targeted electricity and thermal outputs currently in
development exceeds today’s requirements at CFS ALERT by one to two orders of magnitude. If
and when matured for deployment, its use is anticipated to be further complicated by the
requirement of a specially designed containment building for the reactor core, satisfying federal
regulatory requirements for health, safety, security and environmental protection, Government of
Canada’s uncertain policy on the use of nuclear sources in Arctic regions as well as being in
conflict with environmental groups and existing Arctic Treaties and Agreements.
Significance: Renewable energy offers opportunities for the sustainable exploitation of natural
resources for electricity generation, which reduces the use of finite resources such as diesel. CFS
ALERT consumes massive quantities of JP-8 fuel each year (over 1.5 million litres) to meet its
electricity and thermal demands. As challenging as it may be, integration of renewable energy
technologies will help mitigate diesel use and costs, which poses a future threat to energy
security. Furthermore, the inherent positive environmental benefits associated with renewable
energy technologies align well with the environmental stewardship policies of the Department of
National Defence.
Future plans: With solar, wind and tidal current technologies in mind, the following
recommendations are made. It is proposed that these recommendations be formulated as an
Applied Research Project (ARP) under the Air Sustain Thrust.
1). Systems analysis study: As indicated previously, renewable energy is likely never to supplant
diesel-use completely at CFS ALERT. Consequently, it will be necessary to determine the
optimum level of technology mix that can effectively sustain operations while reducing diesel
consumption. This study will include optimum system design, cost/benefit analysis in terms of
$/kWh as well as the amount of CO2 reduced, amount of fuel saved and corresponding reduction
of fuel delivery payloads. For this study, knowledge of how electricity and heat are being used at
CFS ALERT is essential, which is described in the following activity.
2). Electricity and Energy/Inventory Audit: Prior to the use of renewable energy technologies, and
arguably, any alternative electricity and heat generation interim schemes (such as the ‘rightsizing’ of generators), it is imperative to understand how electricity and heat are being used at the
various buildings including those not connected to the main power plant. This will require
electricity monitoring at each building on the site at fixed continuous time periods throughout the
year. The collection of such information will give invaluable insight into daily and seasonal load
variances, which can lead to more efficient power and thermal management schemes.
3). Resource Assessments: the implementation of any renewable energy technology at CFS
ALERT will require careful analysis and planning. Detailed resource assessments particularly for
wind and tidal currents must be carried out. In the case of wind, prospective turbine installation
sites must be identified along with data collection for temperature, humidity and wind speeds at
various heights at these sites. In the case of tidal currents, measurements at Dumbell Bay, the
Narrows and Alert inlet should be collected to determine the mean potential power that can be
generated.
iv
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
4). On-site Technology Evaluation: The small sizes of solar photo-voltaic (PV) panels and
collectors lend themselves to a number of technology evaluations that can be done at CFS
ALERT. These include (a). solar collectors for domestic hot water heating and (b). Solyndra thinfilm solar PV panels for electricity generation. With more effort, consideration should also be
given to the evaluation of the Solarwall with PV at this site. For these evaluations, it will be
necessary to identify a suitable building that can be used for such evaluations and, which will
cause the least disruption to everyday operations.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
v
Sommaire .....
Alternative Power and Energy Options for Reduced-Diesel
Operations at CFS ALERT
G. Amow; DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080; R & D pour la défense Canada –
Atlantique; Mai 2010.
Introduction ou contexte : Le présent rapport a pour objectif d’examiner les options en matière
d’énergies de substitution afin réduire la quantité de diesel utilisé pour les activités de la SFC
Alert, particulièrement les technologies d’énergie renouvelable et l’énergie nucléaire. Cette
initiative découle d’une volonté de réduire les coûts opérationnels ainsi que les répercussions de
l’utilisation du diesel sur l’environnement conformément à la politique du MDN sur
l’environnement[1, 2].
Située à la pointe nord-est de l’île d’Ellesmere, la SFC Alert est confrontée à des températures
extrêmement basses pendant la majeure partie de l’année. Maintenir les activités dans cette région
nordique demande un important budget, dont la majeure partie est utilisée pour répondre aux
besoins en énergie thermique. Le carburant et les marchandises nécessaires pour répondre à ces
besoins sont livrés deux fois par année à partir de la base aérienne américaine de Thule, au
Groenland, dans le cadre de l’opération BOXTOP.
Les questions liées à la souveraineté dans l’Arctique étant l’une des priorités de la stratégie de
défense « Le Canada d’abord » de 2008, la Force aérienne devrait participer davantage au soutien
et au maintien des activités dans le Nord. Le 1er avril 2009, la responsabilité du commandement
de la SFC Alert a été confiée à la Force aérienne du Canada. Avec ce transfert de responsabilité,
la Force aérienne a hérité d’un site reconnu pour consommer de très grandes quantités de
carburant JP-8 pour le maintien ses activités. En 2009, environ 1,78 million de litres de carburant
JP-8 ont été utilisés pour la production d’électricité et de chaleur seulement. Le coût s’élève à
environ 11,4 millions de dollars pour cette station (6,38 $/l pour le carburant et les frais de
transport[3]), ce qui représente une partie importante du budget de fonctionnement, dont la Force
aérienne est maintenant responsable. Selon la récente étude Projecting Power: Trends Shaping
the Canadian Air Force in the Year 2019 [1], dans un contexte de pic pétrolier et alors que les
coûts du pétrole ont une influence importante sur le plan géopolitique, la sécurité énergétique
menace les activités futures de la Force aérienne, qui se doit de réagir.
Cette étude est consacrée à l’examen de diverses sources d’énergie de substitution, notamment les
énergies renouvelables et l’énergie nucléaire, adaptées aux conditions climatiques, géologiques et
géographiques de la SFC Alert. Elle évalue les technologies qui sont utilisées actuellement,
comme l’énergie solaire, l’énergie éolienne et l’énergie géothermique, ainsi que les technologies
qui en sont encore au stade expérimental, comme l’énergie des vagues, l’énergie marémotrice et
les réacteurs nucléaires modulaires. Cette étude n’a pas tenu compte de la biomasse et des
hydrates de méthane, car ces ressources sont soumises aux contraintes et aux limitations associées
à l’utilisation du diesel à l’heure actuelle.
Résultats : Selon cette étude, il est clair que les technologies relativement bien établies comme
l’énergie solaire et l’énergie éolienne peuvent être utilisées à la SFC Alert. Il ne faudrait pas non
vi
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
plus écarter les technologies liées aux courants des marées, bien qu’elles en soient encore au stade
expérimental. Il faut toutefois reconnaître que, étant donné la nature intermittente des ressources
comme le soleil, le vent et les marées, il est possible que les technologies d’énergie renouvelable
ne remplacent jamais complètement le diesel. Il pourrait donc être nécessaire de concevoir des
génératrices hybrides qui comprendraient entre autres des systèmes de stockage d’énergie comme
des batteries, des volants d’inertie et des systèmes de production et de stockage d’hydrogène.
Les technologies géothermiques comme le forage en profondeur et les pompes géothermiques ne
sont pas considérées comme des options viables, car la SFC Alert est située dans un endroit qui
ne possède pas les caractéristiques géologiques nécessaires à l’installation de puits géothermiques
(p. ex. limites de plaques tectoniques) et où le pergélisol atteint 600 m d’épaisseur. Les
technologies liées à l’énergie des vagues et à l’énergie marémotrice (comme les systèmes de
barrages) ne sont également pas des options réalisables en raison de la faible hauteur des marées
enregistrée (< 1 m). Enfin, même si les réacteurs nucléaires modulaires offrent une solution
intéressante pour produire à la fois de l’électricité et de la chaleur, la puissance thermique et
électrique visée dans le cadre des projets en cours dépasse les exigences actuelles de la SFC Alert
par un ou deux ordres de grandeur. Si, à l’issue de ces projets, de tels réacteurs étaient mis en
place, leur utilisation entraînerait des complications. Il faudrait satisfaire aux exigences
réglementaires fédérales en matière de santé, de sûreté, de sécurité et de protection de
l’environnement et construire une enceinte de confinement pour le cœur des réacteurs. De plus, il
faudrait composer avec la politique incertaine du gouvernement du Canada quant à l’utilisation de
l’énergie nucléaire dans les régions arctiques et gérer les conflits avec les groupes
environnementaux, sans compter que l’on violerait les accords et les traités existants sur
l’Arctique.
Signification : Les énergies renouvelables offrent des possibilités d’exploiter de façon durable les
ressources naturelles pour la production d’électricité, réduisant ainsi l’utilisation des ressources
limitées comme le diesel. La SFC Alert consomme de très grandes quantités de carburant JP-8
(plus de 1,5 million de litres annuellement) afin de répondre à ses besoins en matière d’électricité
et de chauffage. Bien que cela pose un défi de taille, l’intégration de technologies d’énergie
renouvelable contribuera à réduire l’utilisation du diesel et les coûts associés, ce qui représente
d’ailleurs une menace pour la sécurité énergétique. De plus, les avantages pour l’environnement
associés aux technologies d’énergie renouvelable s’alignent bien sur les politiques de gérance de
l’environnement du ministère de la Défense nationale.
Plans futurs : Les technologies solaire, éolienne et marémotrice ont été prises en considération
pour la formulation des recommandations suivantes. Il est proposé que ces recommandations
soient présentées en tant que projet de recherche appliquée (PRA) sous le vecteur « Maintien en
puissance ».
1) Étude des analyses des systèmes : Comme nous l’avons mentionné précédemment, il est peu
probable que les énergies renouvelables remplacent complètement l’utilisation du diesel à la SFC
Alert. Par conséquent, il est nécessaire de déterminer la combinaison optimale de technologies qui
permettra de maintenir efficacement les activités tout en réduisant la consommation de diesel.
Cette étude comprendra la conception d’un système optimal, une analyse coûts-avantages en
termes de $/kWh ainsi qu’une analyse de la réduction des émissions de CO2, de la quantité de
diesel économisé et de la diminution correspondante des charges utiles pour la livraison du
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
vii
carburant. Pour réaliser cette étude, il est essentiel de savoir comment l’électricité et le chauffage
sont utilisés à la SFC Alert. Cette information est décrite dans l’activité suivante.
2) Vérification de la consommation d’électricité et d’énergie : Avant de recourir aux technologies
d’énergie renouvelable ou à tout autre système provisoire de remplacement pour la production
d’électricité et de chaleur (comme le « rajustement » des génératrices), il est impératif de
comprendre comment l’électricité et la chaleur sont utilisées dans les bâtiments, y compris ceux
qui ne sont pas reliés à la centrale électrique principale. Il faudra alors procéder à une surveillance
périodique de la consommation d’électricité pour chaque bâtiment au cours de l’année. Une telle
collecte d’information nous permettra d’obtenir de précieux renseignements quant aux variations
quotidiennes et saisonnières de la consommation d’électricité afin de concevoir des systèmes de
gestion de l’énergie et de la chaleur plus efficaces.
3) Évaluations des ressources : La mise en œuvre de technologies d’énergie renouvelable à la
SFC Alert demandera une analyse et une planification minutieuse. Des évaluations détaillées des
ressources doivent être effectuées, particulièrement pour le vent et les courants de marée. En ce
qui concerne le vent, il faudra repérer des sites où l’on pourrait installer des turbines et recueillir
des données sur la température, l’humidité et les vitesses du vent à différentes hauteurs. Dans le
cas des courants de marée, il faudra recueillir des données dans la baie Dumbell, dans le chenal
The Narrows et dans le ruisseau d’Alert afin de déterminer l’énergie potentielle moyenne qui
pourrait être produite.
4) Évaluation de la technologie sur le terrain : Les panneaux et capteurs photovoltaïques solaires
de petite taille se prêtent bien à la réalisation de nombreuses évaluations à la SFC Alert,
notamment a) les capteurs solaires pour la production d’eau chaude domestique et b) les
panneaux photovoltaïques solaires à couche mince de Solyndra pour la production d’électricité.
L’évaluation du SolarWall associé à un module photovoltaïque pourrait aussi être envisagée, mais
cela serait plus difficile. Il faudra choisir un bâtiment approprié, dans lequel on pourra effectuer
ces évaluations en perturbant le moins possible les activités quotidiennes.
viii
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
Table of contents
Abstract …….. ................................................................................................................................. i
Résumé …..... ................................................................................................................................... i
Executive summary ........................................................................................................................ iii
Sommaire ....................................................................................................................................... vi
Table of contents ............................................................................................................................ ix
List of figures ................................................................................................................................. xi
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... xii
1
Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Background ................................................................................................................... 1
1.2
Previous work................................................................................................................ 1
1.3
Aim and Scope of Study................................................................................................ 2
1.4
Methodology ................................................................................................................. 2
2
Electricity and Heat Generation at CFS ALERT ...................................................................... 3
3
Solar Energy ............................................................................................................................. 5
3.1
Technology Description ................................................................................................ 5
3.1.1
Solar Thermal.................................................................................................. 5
3.1.2
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) .................................................................................. 8
3.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT ............................................................................................ 8
4
Wind Energy ........................................................................................................................... 10
4.1
Technology Description .............................................................................................. 10
4.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 11
5
Geothermal Energy ................................................................................................................. 15
5.1
Technology Description .............................................................................................. 15
5.1.1
Geothermal Plants ......................................................................................... 15
5.1.2
Ground Source Heat Pumps .......................................................................... 16
5.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 17
6
Wave and Tidal Energy .......................................................................................................... 19
6.1
Technology Description .............................................................................................. 19
6.1.1
Wave Energy................................................................................................. 19
6.1.2
Tidal Energy.................................................................................................. 19
6.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 20
7
Nuclear Energy ....................................................................................................................... 22
7.1
Technology description ............................................................................................... 22
7.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 23
8
Energy Storage........................................................................................................................ 25
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
ix
8.1
8.2
9
Technology Description .............................................................................................. 25
8.1.1
Thermal Energy Storage ............................................................................... 26
8.1.2
Batteries ........................................................................................................ 26
8.1.3
Hydrogen....................................................................................................... 26
8.1.4
Flywheels ...................................................................................................... 26
Relevance to CFS ALERT .......................................................................................... 27
Summary and Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 28
10 Recommended Work .............................................................................................................. 29
11 References .............................................................................................................................. 30
12 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 32
Distribution list.............................................................................................................................. 33
x
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
List of figures
Figure 1 Monthly fuel consumption and generating capacity of the main power plant in 2009. .... 3
Figure 2 Illustration of flat plate collectors (left) and evacuated tube collectors (right) ................. 6
Figure 3 Illustration of the Solarwall (left) and Solarwall with integrated PV (right)..................... 6
Figure 4 Illustration f (i). linear-solar troughs, (ii). heliostats and (iii). Stirling CSP systems........ 7
Figure 5 Global solar radiation values at CFS ALERT (Source: Environment Canada) ................ 9
Figure 6 Illustration of horizontal- and vertical-axis wind turbines. ............................................. 10
Figure 7 Monthly average wind speeds at CFS ALERT obtained from Environment Canada
at 10 m and NASA at 50 m. Dashed line at 3.5 m/s represent typical cut-in speeds
of commercial wind turbines....................................................................................... 12
Figure 8 Weibull distribution plots based on data from EC (blue) at 10 m and NASA at 50 m
(pink); the solid vertical lines represent median values. ............................................. 13
Figure 9 Illustration of the operating principles of (a) flash steam (b) dry steam and (c) binary
cycle power plants....................................................................................................... 16
Figure 10 An example of open loop and closed loop systems in a ground source heat pump
system.......................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 11 Tectonic structure of Canada, showing the main structural units. The central craton
is indicated by shading. ............................................................................................... 17
Figure 12 Temperature profile down to 60 m of permafrost (center) taken at borehole sites
(left). Ground composition shown on right. ................................................................ 18
Figure 13 Illustration of the narrow geographical features of Alert inlet, the Narrows and
Dumbell Bay at CFS Alert (Scale 1:20000.). © Department of Natural Resources
Canada. All rights reserved. ........................................................................................ 20
Figure 14 Bathymetry modeling for the Arctic region. ................................................................. 21
Figure 15 Illustration of a nuclear power plant. ............................................................................ 22
Figure 16 Conceptual illustration of Hyperion Power Generation power plant. ........................... 24
Figure 17 Illustration of energy storage systems to store excess capacity during low demand
and supplying this during peak demands. ................................................................... 25
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
xi
Acknowledgements
The author thanks Mr. George Stewart for sharing his knowledge of CFS ALERT, as well as
personnel from 8 Wing Trenton and Mike Lubun and Mark Douglas of Natural Resources Canada
for candid discussions.
xii
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
1
1.1
Introduction
Background
Established in 1951, CFS ALERT (82°28'N, 62°30'W) continues to serve as a remote
communications site for the Canadian Forces. Throughout the years, there has been a decrease in
the number of personnel stationed there and today approximately fifty personnel remain during
the winter, which can increase to over one hundred in the summer. Located on the north-eastern
tip of Ellesmere Island, CFS ALERT experiences extremely cold temperatures throughout the
majority of the year. To sustain activities this far north requires a significant energy budget that is
largely driven by thermal demands. To meet these demands, fuel and supplies are delivered biannually from the US Air Force Base in Thule, Greenland via Operation BOXTOP.
With Arctic sovereignty issues being a focus of the 2008 Canada First Defence Strategy, the Air
Force is expected to play an increased role in supporting and maintaining operations in the North.
On April 1st, 2009, the command responsibility of CFS ALERT was assigned to the Canadian
Air Force. With this transfer of responsibility the Air Force has inherited a site that is notorious
for consuming massive amounts of JP-8 fuel to sustain its operations. In 2009, approximately
1.78 million litres of JP-8 diesel were used for electricity and heat generation alone. At a cost of
~ $11.4M ($6.38/L which includes fuel and transportation cost)[3], this represents a significant
portion of the operational budget at this station, which is now assumed by the Air Force. In a
recent document, “Projecting Power: Trends Shaping the Canadian Air Force in the Year 201”
[1], energy security, in the context of peak oil and the geopolitical influence of petroleum costs,
was identified as a threat to future Air Force operations that must be addressed.
This report has been tasked with exploring alternative power and energy options for reduceddiesel operations at CFS ALERT, which is primarily driven by a desire to decrease operational
costs as well as to decrease the environmental impact of diesel-use in alignment with DND’s
policy on the environment [2].
1.2
Previous work
Two previous studies were conducted in 2004 and 2007 by the Royal Military College (RMC)
and Natural Resources Canada (NRCAN), respectively to find ways to mitigate diesel
consumption at CFS ALERT[4, 5]. Both of these reports highlighted significant compromises to
the building envelopes, the electricity and heat delivery infrastructure of the main power plant and
the buildings connected to/supplied by it; observations, which were again echoed by a recent
contractor’s report[3]. As a result of this, significant amounts of fuel are being consumed
inefficiently. Furthermore, generator inefficiencies are exacerbated by the recognition that the
diesel generators at the main power plant were installed circa 1992, which at that time would have
had a larger number of personnel stationed there. Today, with a smaller number of personnel
occupying less space, these generators are now oversized and are, thus, being used inefficiently.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
1
1.3
Aim and Scope of Study
The present study is devoted to exploring the various alternative power and energy options, such
as renewable energy and nuclear power within the context of climate, geological and
geographical conditions at CFS ALERT. It specifically considers renewable energy technologies
that are being used today such as solar, wind and geothermal as well as other technologies in the
developmental stage such as wave and tidal energy and modular nuclear reactors. The topics of
biomass and methane gas hydrates were not considered for this study as these resources are
constrained by the limitations that plague diesel-use today (delivery logistics, finite resource,
carbon emissions).
1.4
Methodology
A comprehensive literature survey was undertaken for each of the technologies described in this
report as well as to understand the unique climate, geological and geographical conditions at
ALERT. Resources were used from published scientific literature, books, government
organizations as well as professional associations. Discussions were also undertaken with Mr.
George Stewart (1 Canadian Air Division), Natural Resources Canada, Royal Military College,
Mark Overby (Canadian Base Operators) and personnel from 8 Wing Trenton.
2
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
2
Electricity and Heat Generation at CFS ALERT
At present, significant amounts of JP-8 fuel are being consumed each year at CFS ALERT to
provide electricity and heat for its operations and personnel. In 2009, maintenance logs indicate
1,783,696 L of JP-8 fuel were consumed at a cost of $6.38/L for purchase and delivery[3]. To
meet these demands, a main power plant is used, which houses four 600V 800kW (Caterpillar
3512) generators with two 1.5 MW (Caterpillar 3516) backup generators. Together they provide
the majority of the electricity and heat consumed at the base and operates constantly throughout
the year. In place since circa 1992, these generators are coupled electrically to over a dozen other
buildings. During operation, when peak loads are < 750 kW, electrical power generation is
usually provided by one of the four Caterpillar 3512 generators. When this value is exceeded, a
second 3512 generator comes online to supplement the excess amount; this may occur, for
example, during the winter months when thermal demands are higher. In this two-generator
mode, the load is shared equally; an 800 kW load means each generator supplies 400 kW, which
is significantly below the optimum efficiency of each generator (40% versus 75%). The
generating capacity and monthly fuel consumption for 2009 are shown in Fig. 1, which reflect the
seasonal variations of the warmer summer and colder summer months.
Figure 1 Monthly fuel consumption and generating capacity of the main power plant in 2009.
To provide heat a heat recovery system (HRS) is used for space heating. The HRS is also
connected to the main generators, which utilize heat recovered from the plant generators’ cooling
jackets and exhaust (cogeneration) via three heat exchangers. The HRS, like the electricity
delivery system, is also connected to a series of buildings. These buildings may also have separate
boiler/furnace systems (either oil-fired, electric and oil fired furnaces, electric space heating,
electric and indirect oil fired boilers) to provide further heat for space heating if enough is not
supplied by the HRS or are required for additional purposes. For example, steam boilers are used
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
3
in the Haps building for domestic hot water (DHW) and steam for the kitchen as well as
humidification for the building. Buildings that are not connected to the main power plant, which
also require electricity and heat, are supplied by standalone generators[4].
As discussed previously in the 2004 and 2007 reports, significant reductions in diesel can be
achieved by improvements made to the building envelopes and more efficient use of the
generators[4, 5]. Interestingly, there has not been a history of recording electricity or heat use at
each of the buildings on site. Having such information is invaluable in understanding the daily
and seasonal load variances for each building, which is quite different than what is currently
being recorded i.e. the generating capacity. Such information can lead to effective power
management schemes such as peak shaving or load levelling strategies.
4
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
3
3.1
Solar Energy
Technology Description
Solar energy is, in general, exploited in two ways to produce either heat (solar thermal) or
electricity (solar photovoltaic) and is discussed separately below.
3.1.1
Solar Thermal
In solar thermal, the sun’s radiation is converted into heat, which can be used directly (passively)
to provide heat for space heating or domestic hot water. Solar thermal can also be concentrated
also known as concentrating solar power (CSP), and can then be used indirectly to operate a
steam generator to produce electricity.
For direct heating applications, solar panels/collectors are used to convert the solar radiation into
heat and transfer this heat to a medium such as water, other liquids (such as propylene glycol), or
air. The heated liquid flows through a manifold within the collectors, either under the action of a
pump to warm the main hot water tank, or by a thermo-siphoning action to warm a solar water
storage tank that then feeds a hot water tank. Various types of collectors are used for the
conversion depending on the application and temperature requirements. Flat plate and evacuated
tube collectors are typically used for domestic hot water heating or space heating.
Flat plate collectors consist of a metal box with a glass or plastic cover with an absorber at the
bottom. The absorber plates are usually painted with selective coatings that absorb and retain heat
better than ordinary black paint. This type of collector heats liquid or air at temperatures less than
82 °C. In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized at
approximately 0.5 to 1 square foot per gallon of daily hot water use.
Evacuated tube collectors can achieve extremely high temperatures (~77 oC-177 oC). They are
usually made of parallel rows of transparent glass tubes with absorber plates that are metal strips
running down the center of each tube. Air is removed, or evacuated, from within the glass tube
itself or from the space between two glass tubes, if so made, to form a vacuum, which eliminates
conductive and convective heat loss, see Fig. 2.
Solar thermal collectors are usually roof-mounted and, interestingly, solar thermal collector tubes
are more efficient in colder conditions and areas of low sunshine. In very cold climates, such as
CFS ALERT, these units must use an anti-freeze fluid (such as food grade propylene glycol)
through the insulated pipes, and release the collected heat through the use of a heat exchanger.
The number of collectors required for a site depends on a number of factors, such as the quantity
of hot water to be heated, the efficiency of the unit, the amount of solar radiation at the site, the
amount of storage available, etc. Collectors should be aimed as south as possible, and installations
require unobstructed access to the sun's path in all four seasons. Systems can be designed to
provide 100 percent of hot water heating or to use the solar energy as a supplement to a
conventional heating facility.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
5
Figure 2 Illustration of flat plate collectors (left) and evacuated tube collectors (right)
In solar air heating, air passes through an area heated by the sun. This can be a black wall, with
venting behind it. This is also called solar convection. Sometimes a fan is used to circulate the air
in which case, it is called active solar thermal heating. An example of this is the Solarwall[6],
which has been discussed in detail in previous reports, see Fig. 3[4, 5]. Industry trends point to
the development of integrated air heating systems with electricity generation.
Figure 3 Illustration of the Solarwall (left) and Solarwall with integrated PV (right)
For concentrating solar power, large reflectors are used to concentrate the sun’s energy to a
receiver tower (the absorber). The heat generated is normally used to power stream turbines or
heat engines (e.g. Stirling engines) for electricity generation. For effective use, the reflectors must
track the sun. One of the consequences of focusing the sun’s radiation is the requirement for large
amounts of water for parabolic and trough systems. There have been three competing
configurations that have been pursued for CSP: parabolic dish systems with Stirling engines,
linear solar-trough systems and heliostats (mirrors) reflecting light onto a power tower, see Fig. 4.
CSP configurations are typically designed for normal incident radiation of 800-900 W/m2.
6
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
Linear trough CSP collectors capture the sun's energy with large mirrors that reflect and focus the
sunlight onto a linear receiver tube. The receiver contains a fluid that is heated by the sunlight and
then used to create superheated steam that spins a turbine that drives a generator to produce
electricity. Alternatively, steam can be generated directly in the solar field, eliminating the need
for costly heat exchangers.
In power tower systems, numerous large, flat, sun-tracking mirrors, known as heliostats, focus
sunlight onto a receiver at the top of a tower. A heat-transfer fluid heated in the receiver is used to
generate steam, which, in turn, is used in a conventional turbine generator to produce electricity.
Some power towers use water/steam as the heat-transfer fluid. Other advanced designs are
experimenting with molten nitrate salt because of its superior heat-transfer and energy-storage
capabilities. Solar thermal CSP plants based on linear troughs and heliostats tend to be very large
capable of generating tens to hundreds of megawatts electric power.
Stirling dish engine systems produce relatively smaller amounts of electricity, typically in the 3 to
25 kW range. The solar concentrator, or dish, gathers the solar energy coming directly from the
sun. The resulting beam of concentrated sunlight is reflected onto a thermal receiver that collects
the solar heat. The dish is mounted on a structure that tracks the sun continuously throughout the
day to reflect the highest percentage of sunlight possible onto the thermal receiver.
Figure 4 Illustration f (i). linear-solar troughs, (ii). heliostats and (iii). Stirling CSP systems
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
7
3.1.2
Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
In solar PV, semiconductors are used to convert solar radiation into electric energy via the
photoelectric effect. When sunlight strikes a cell, electrons in the semiconductor are excited to
generate an electric voltage and current that is provided to an electric circuit. There are several
types of solar cells available (single crystal, polycrystalline and thin-film). The first generation of
solar cells based on single-crystalline silicon can attain conversion efficiencies of 10–15%; solar
cells made from cadmium telluride (CdTe) can attain even higher efficiencies, around 20%.
Multi-junction thin films, with several layers matched to capture different wavelengths of light,
can achieve 40% conversion efficiency[7, 8]..
Most cells produce approximately 0.5 V, which when connected to other cells into modules can
provide anywhere from 5 W to over 200 W of power. PV cell performance is influenced by
several factors such as intensity of sunlight, temperature, and precipitation. The more intense the
sunlight, the greater the output of the module while, less sunlight results in lower current outputs
(with voltage unchanged) and performance is improved with colder temperatures.
Like larger concentrated solar thermal collector systems, concentrated solar PV systems with
tracking systems may also be used. However, with the recent development of thin-film solar cells,
cylindrical solar PV cells can be fabricated, which mitigate the need for costly tracking systems;
an example of this are the cylindrical solar PV cells made by Solyndra[9].
3.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT
CFS ALERT experiences periods of full (24 hours) darkness (October-March) and full daylight
(April-September). During the summer months, the sun is positioned no more than 30o above the
horizon at midday then dips to about 16o above the horizon at midnight[10]. Mean daily global
insolation values at ALERT are shown in Fig. 5. [11]. These values can be used to gauge the size
of solar collector needed to efficiently provide adequate levels of hot water or for PV electricity
generation. Geographic locations with low insolation levels require larger collectors than
locations with higher insolation levels. The mean daily insolation values in Fig. 5 expressed as
kWh/m2/day is quite high (Miami, Florida for example has a value of ~5.26 kWh/m2/day),
making solar a viable option for CFS ALERT during the summer months.
With that said, however, there are limitations on what can be achieved. The use of solar thermal
collectors and active solar air heating on a small scale is possible for domestic hot water and
space heating respectively during the summer months. Thermal energy storage solutions on a
larger scale such as aquifers, boreholes, caverns etc. will not be viable options for deferring heat
stored in the summer to the winter given that the permafrost at CFS ALERT extends 600 m in
depth[12].
Concentrated solar power systems based on linear troughs and heliostats are also not likely to be
practical for electricity or thermal energy generation given the large physical size and permanence
of such installations; maintenance issues during the winter months as damage due to icing is
likely.
8
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
For electricity generation by solar PV, complete replacement of the conventional generators is
also likely to be impractical or realistic. At the very least, for complete self-sufficiency, the array
would have to be sized to meet the demands during the April-September months. In 2009, this
demand amounted to 2,782,840 kWh. Thus, for a solar panel producing 200 W, this would require
a minimum of over 4,500 panels coupled to a large energy storage system to respond to the
intermittent nature of the resource due to cloud cover or precipitation. Consequently, solar power
is expected to be part of the solution in mitigating diesel-use at CFS ALERT.
Figure 5 Global solar radiation values at CFS ALERT (Source: Environment Canada)
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
9
4
4.1
Wind Energy
Technology Description
In contrast to solar power, wind power technology is relatively more mature. Compared to solar
energy, wind energy has a more variable and diffuse energy flux. For electricity generation,
several types of wind turbines designs are available. The most prevalent type in use today is the
three-blade horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT), which has a rotor with blades, mounted in an
approximately vertical plane with a horizontal axis of rotation and usually facing the wind, see
Fig. 6. Two-blade designs are also available; however, the three blade design is more common.
Relatively few vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) have been built. Although VAWTs can
achieve efficiencies similar to horizontal axis types (typically 20%), in practice, they tend to have
lower efficiencies with larger footprints. Furthermore, the blades are susceptible to resonant
vibration, are not inherently self starting and because the tower rotates with the blades, the
bearings are subject to having very large loadings on them.
Figure 6 Illustration of horizontal- and vertical-axis wind turbines.
In addition to these axial turbines, which are used in on-shore and off-shore environments, aerial
wind turbines (kites and sails) are actively being developed. Such turbines are being designed to
fly in high speed winds at high altitudes. These are essentially wind turbines tethered to the
ground by a transmission line, Such turbines are in the very early ages of development and
demonstration and there is some uncertainty as to whether they will be deployed in the coming
decades. These designs are challenged with the deployment and retraction of such systems as well
as having to control their behaviour in variable and gusty wind speeds.
For HAWTs, recent developments in the industry have centered upon enlarging the size of
turbines in order to be more efficient and there is a shift from land-based to offshore locations.
10
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
Offshore sites offer very high wind speed exposure levels combined with large areas of
utilization, while often having limited environmental impacts. The main challenges concern
foundations and supporting structure, which can be either fixed or floating. However, the
corrosive marine environment does impose additional requirements on the turbines themselves
including the blades and their attachments.
4.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT
Wind energy is increasingly being used in colder climates and efforts have been ongoing to
address the inherent challenges involved in such harsh environments (specifically, ice-riming,
foundation issues)[13, 14].
At CFS ALERT, the average yearly wind speed has been reported as 2.5 m/s based on a 29-year
dataset collected at 10 m[11]. This Class 1 category of wind speed is low compared to the cut-in
speeds required for the vast majority of commercial wind turbines, which are typically around 3.5
m/s. However, it is important to note that wind speeds are affected by a number of factors
including topography, air density (a function of temperature) as well as altitude. For the latter,
wind speed generally increases with height according to:
U2
U1
(
h2 D
)
h1
(1)
where U1,2 is the wind speed at heights, h1,2 respectively and D is an exponent (typically D follows
1/7th power law applies from 10m to 150m, however, maybe higher for wind speeds < 5 m/s[15].
A 10-year dataset obtained by NASA at 50 m for CFS ALERT shows higher wind speed
values[16], see Fig. 7.
Although mean wind speed values can be useful for assessing the viability of wind power in an
area, the statistical distribution is more important. The statistical distribution of wind speeds
varies from place to place, depending upon local climate conditions, topography and its surface.
Consequently, to maximize the exploitation of this resource, it is important to understand this
distribution at any given site considered for electricity generation. This is normally achieved with
the use of a probability density distribution function called the Weibull distribution. Typically, a
generalized two-parameter Weibull distribution is used given by:
f (U )
k §U ·
¨ ¸
C©C¹
k 1
ª § U ·k º
exp « ¨ ¸ »
¬« © C ¹ ¼»
(2)
where f(U) is the frequency of occurrence of wind speed U, k is the Weibull shape factor and C is
the Weibull scale factor. The parameters k and C is usually determined experimentally with
highly time-resolved data, and in cases where it is not possible to do so, a simplified case of this
equation is used. This special case occurs when k =2, which reduces the above equation to the
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
11
common Rayleigh distribution. Wind turbine manufacturers often give standard performance
figures for their turbines using the Rayleigh distribution, shown below:
f (U )
ª § S .U 2
¨ ¸ exp « ¨¨
2
2 ©U ¹
«¬ © 4.U
S §U ·
2
·
¸
¸
¹
k
º
»
»¼
(3)
where U is the annual average wind speed. Using equation X, a rough approximation of the
probability distribution function for the wind resource at CFS ALERT is plotted in Fig. 8 with the
average annual wind speeds, U , of 2.5 m/s and 5.82 m/s obtained from the Environment Canada
and NASA datasets respectively and with k = 2. Not surprisingly, Figure 2 shows a skewed
distribution with median values of 2.30 m/s and 5.5 m/s for the data from Environment Canada
and NASA respectively.
Figure 7 Monthly average wind speeds at CFS ALERT obtained from Environment Canada at 10
m and NASA at 50 m. Dashed line at 3.5 m/s represent typical cut-in speeds of commercial wind
turbines.
It is also possible to calculate the probability of occurrence that a given wind speed is greater than
a certain value. For Rayleigh statistics, this is expressed by[17]:
F (U )
e
(U / U ) k
(4)
Thus, using the Environment Canada dataset with an annual average wind speed U = 2.5 m/s at
10m. the probability that wind speeds will occur above the cut-in speed of 3.5 m/s is F(3.5) =
12
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
Figure 8 Weibull distribution plots based on data from EC (blue) at 10 m and NASA at 50 m
(pink); the solid vertical lines represent median values.
0.214 or 21.4% while for the NASA dataset at 50 m with U = 5.82 m/s, the probability is
determined to be F(3.5) = 0.696 or 69.6%, which is significantly higher. This preliminary
calculation highlights that wind may be a viable option and warrants very detailed assessment at
CFS ALERT. Such detailed assessments should include the collection of highly time-resolved
wind speed measurements at various heights (typically 10m. 25m, 40m, 50m) as well as
temperature, humidity, precipitation and the suitability of the topography at the site. In addition to
having viable wind speeds and terrain, other considerations must be taken into account for CFS
ALERT given the severe climate and environment this far north as well as having a military
presence. These are:
(a). Ice Riming – Icing plays a significant role in the operation and accessibility of turbines. Icing
events, which occur a few times a year that melts off quickly, should not be a major concern.
However, reports of hoar frost and riming are known to occur at ALERT
(b). Wind turbine foundation design – The terrain at ALERT consists of permafrost, which at
600m depth, exists year round[12]. During the spring thaw cycle, the ground level may deplete by
as much as 1 metre[18].
(c). Wind Turbine Installation Policy – Current DND regulations require consultations with any
planned wind turbine installation within 10 km of a major military airfield, a 100 km radius of
any DND Air Defence Radar and within a 60 km radius of any DND Air Traffic Control Search
Radar[19].
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
13
(d). Radar interference – Wind turbine blades, when in operation, can negatively impact radars,
especially ground-based air defence radars and air traffic control systems (particularly Doppler
systems). For communications, a six station ground based microwave system at CFS ALERT is
used to relay the communication signals to satellite uplink. Technological advancements are
being made to mitigate the negative impact of spinning turbine blades with radar use, such as the
use of radar absorbing coatings, the use of transponders on aircraft and the location and
distribution of turbines
(e). Logistical challenges – Depending on the size of turbine chosen, large lengths of turbine
blades will pose transport challenges for construction also requiring the use of heavy-lift cranes.
.
14
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
5
5.1
Geothermal Energy
Technology Description
Geothermal energy refers to heat derived from the earth, which is contained in the rock and fluid
in the earth’s crust. In most cases, this heat reaches the surface in a very diffuse state. However,
due to a variety of geological processes, some areas reside upon varying degrees of geothermal
resources. These resources are classified as low temperature (< 90°C), moderate (90°C), and high
temperature (> 150°C). The highest temperature resources are primarily used for electricity
generation while moderate and low temperature resources are used for heating purposes.
5.1.1
Geothermal Plants
For electricity generation geothermal plants have largely been limited to areas near tectonic plate
boundaries[20-22]. To exploit this resource for electricity generation, standard engine cycles are
used such as the flash steam cycle, dry steam cycle and the binary cycle; the type of conversion
used depends on the state of the fluid (whether steam or water) and its temperature.
Flash steam cycles utilize by temperature hydrothermal fluids which are sprayed into a tank that
is held at a much lower pressure causing the fluid in the tank to vaporize and drive the turbine,
see Fig. 9(a). This type of plant is the most common type of geothermal power generation plants
in operation today. They use water at temperatures >182°C that is pumped under high pressure to
the generation equipment at the surface.
Dry steam power plants use hydrothermal fluids (primarily steam). Instead of burning fossil fuel,
the steam goes directly to a turbine, which drives a generator to produce electricity, see Fig. 9(b).
This has the advantage of eliminating the need to transport and store fuels. Steam technology is
used today at The Geysers in northern California, the world's largest single source of geothermal
power. These plants emit only excess steam and very minor amounts of gases.
Binary cycle plants are relatively new and capable of accessing lower quality heat, however, at
lower efficiencies. Hot geothermal fluid and a secondary fluid with a much lower boiling point
than water pass through a heat exchanger. The heat from the geothermal fluid causes the
secondary fluid to flash to vapour, which is then used to drive a turbine, Fig. 9(c). As the system
is closed-loop, virtually nothing is emitted to the atmosphere. Moderate-temperature water is by
far the more common geothermal resource, and most geothermal power plants in the future are
expected to be binary-cycle plants.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
15
Figure 9 Illustration of the operating principles of (a) flash steam (b) dry steam and (c) binary
cycle power plants.
5.1.2
Ground Source Heat Pumps
Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) (aka geothermal heat pumps or geo-exchange systems) are
used to transfer heat to and from the earth, ground water or other source of water body (lake, river
or well) to provide heat in the winter and cooling in the summer. In cool weather, heat is collected
through a series of pipes, which form an open or closed loop system, for example, see Fig. 10. An
open system takes advantage of the heat retained in an underground body of water while closed
loop systems collect heat from the ground by means of a continuous loop of piping buried
underground (up to 100m if using a vertical loop system). For space heating or domestic water
heating, a fluid such as water or antifreeze circulates in the loop, which takes heat from one
location and moves it to another location via a heat pump. A recognizable form of heat pump is
an air conditioner as it takes heat out of the interior space and rejects it outdoors. True heat
pumps, however, work in either direction; it can take heat out of an interior space, or it can put
heat into an interior space. In warmer weather, GSHPs are used in the opposite manner for
cooling applications. Ground source heat pumps have been used to great practical advantages for
residential use to reduce the cost of energy to supply heat in the winter and cooling power in the
summer.
Figure 10 An example of open loop and closed loop systems in a ground source heat pump
system.
16
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
5.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT
Alert is situated on a pericratonic belt away from any close plate boundaries[12]., which makes
the prospect of extracting heat for electricity and heat generation from viable thermal wells less
likely, see Fig. 11. To accomplish such, it will be necessary to drill very deeply into the Earth’s
crust (at least, several kilometres) to reach any moderate and high thermal wells, which will
require very large and expensive drilling rigs.
Figure 11 Tectonic structure of Canada, showing the main structural units. The central craton is
indicated by shading.
The general terrain at Alert consists of year-round permafrost, which can extend to depths of
600m. In and around CFS ALERT itself, the ground is composed largely of overburden and
shattered rock for the first 3-4m depth, while down to 60m either greywacke (a type of sandstone)
and/or argillite (sedimentary rock) can be found[12]. The ground temperature profile of the
permafrost from the surface near the site has been shown to decrease from < 0 oC to -15 oC at
depths of 60 m[23], see Fig. 12. Since the heat delivered by a heat pump is theoretically the sum
of the heat extracted from the heat source and the energy needed to drive the cycle, it is unlikely
that GSHPs are a viable option for heat generation given the demand that will be placed on the
heat pump leading to very low efficiencies.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
17
Figure 12 Temperature profile down to 60 m of permafrost (center) taken at borehole sites (left).
Ground composition shown on right.
18
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
6
6.1
Wave and Tidal Energy
Technology Description
Covering over 70% of the earth’s surface there is a vast amount of energy stored in the ocean.
However, like other forms of renewable energy, this energy is diffuse and, thus, difficult to
harness. Several technologies are used in this regard to harness the kinetic/potential energy
produced by waves and tides as well the stored thermal heat from the sun (for obvious reasons,
the latter will not be described here).
6.1.1
Wave Energy
Waves are generated by the force of the wind blowing over the ocean's surface. Wave energy
systems convert the kinetic energy of the waves into electrical energy with the use of a generator.
There are three basic systems; however, they all rely on the periodic nature of the waves. Tapered
channel systems funnel the waves into reservoirs; float systems drive hydraulic pumps; and
oscillating water column systems use waves to compress air within a container. The mechanical
power created from these systems either directly activates a generator or transfers to a working
fluid, water, or air, which then drives a turbine and generator.
6.1.2
Tidal Energy
Tidal energy exploits the natural rise and fall of coastal tidal waters caused principally by the
interaction of the gravitational fields of the earth, moon and sun. Although intermittent, tidal
energy is predictable. The technology required to convert tidal energy into electricity is very
similar to that used in traditional hydroelectric power plants (called tidal-barrage systems). Gates
and turbines are installed along a dam or barrage that goes across a tidal bay or estuary. When
there is an adequate difference in the height of water on either side of the dam, the gates are
opened and the hydrostatic head that is created causes water to flow through the turbines, turning
a generator to produce electricity. Electricity can be generated by water flowing either way. As
there are two high and two low tides each day, electrical generation from tidal power plants is
characterized by periods of maximum generation every six hours.
A variant of tidal energy is tidal stream (or marine current) technology, which exploits fast sea
currents created by tides. They are often magnified by topographical features, such as headlands,
inlets and straits, or by the shape of the seabed when water is forced through narrow channels.
The technology used for tidal streams is slightly different to that used in tidal barrages, and is still
in its infancy. Tidal stream devices are similar to submerged wind turbines and are used to exploit
the kinetic energy in tidal currents.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
19
6.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT
Recent annual tidal level information collected at CFS ALERT indicates very small height
differences between high and low tides of < 1 m[24], which makes tidal barrage systems
impractical. Furthermore, seasonal ice formation (January-May, October-December) also makes
wave energy systems unlikely for use. However, CFS ALERT is fortunate to be sited near
attractive narrow passages such as Alert Inlet, the Narrows as well as Dumbell Bay, which may
allow the use of tidal stream systems for electricity generation, see Fig. 13. Bathymetric models
indicate water depths to be 100 m or more[25], see Fig. 14, which may yield very large
cross-sectional area flows. Unfortunately, however, measurements of tidal currents at this site are
unknown. It is worth pointing out, however, that in a 2006 study to determine Canada’s inventory
of marine renewable energy sources, Nunavut ranked No. 1 for having the highest potential
resource of this type[25]. Princess Royal Islands (73.37o N -115.28 o W), for example, has an
average passage depth of 10 m while being 2,000 m wide. With a mean maximum average depth
current speed of 0.88 m/s, the mean potential power was determined to be 2 MW.
Figure 13 Illustration of the narrow geographical features of Alert inlet, the Narrows and
Dumbell Bay at CFS Alert (Scale 1:20000.). © Department of Natural Resources Canada. All
rights reserved.
20
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
Figure 14 Bathymetry modeling for the Arctic region.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
21
7
7.1
Nuclear Energy
Technology description
Nuclear power is derived from heat generated from nuclear fission reactions. The resulting heat
from such reactions is used to produce steam, which is then used to drive turbines and generators
for electricity generation, see Fig. 15. There are many different types of nuclear reactors and the
distinction is made amongst them based on their fuel (e.g. uranium-235 and plutonium-239),
coolant (used to remove heat from the core to the turbine), and moderator (controls the fission
chain reactions).
Figure 15 Illustration of a nuclear power plant.
Nuclear reactor designs are also categorized as Generation I, II, III (III+) or IV. Generation I
reactors are those that matured in the 1960s with typical electrical capacities of < 200 MW; most
of these are now shut down. Generation II reactors are those most are familiar with today having
matured in the 1990s and represent all the reactors now in operation. These reactors are
physically larger with electrical generating capacities ranging from several hundred to over 1000
MW. Generation III and III+ reactors are ‘next stage’ designs; those whose designs that have
been recently completed and are, in principle, ready to enter the commercial market. However,
the only model that has already done so is the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR). Lastly,
Generation IV reactors are based on designs intended to provide improved safety and economy,
which differ substantially from previous generations. Such designs are only conceptual at this
time and are not anticipated to be developed until 2020 or later.
22
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
At present, there is renewed interest in the nuclear power industry, in particular, in the form of
modular nuclear reactors (considered Generation III), which are intended for a variety of
applications such as seawater desalination plants, distributed generation and off-grid operations.
Russia, for example, is actively pursuing floating nuclear reactors for use in the Russian Arctic,
which are capable of providing 70MW of electricity and 300 MW of heat.
Modular nuclear reactors are intended to be smaller both in physical size and power generation
capacity (megawatts versus gigawatts), scalable, and feature passively or inherently safe features.
Instead of relying on traditional pumps and pipes to deliver water to an overheated core, a passive
design may, for example, take advantage of gravity to cool and control the reactor; cooling water
may be stored in tanks directly above the reactor vessel whereby in an emergency, valves would
open and the water would be dumped directly to cool it. Another concept is to bury the core in a
cavity underground.
Not surprisingly, there is a plethora of modular reactor designs being pursued. These include:
innovative high temperature gas cooled reactors (which includes the well-publicized pebble bed
modular reactors e.g. Eskom), liquid metal-cooled fast neutron reactors (e.g. Hyperion Power
Generation Inc.) and pressurized and light water reactors (Nuscale, Babcock and Wilcox)[26].
Targeted power and thermal generation capacities vary, however, are often tens to several
hundreds of MW in electricity and thermal generation.
Of the various reactor-types mentioned above, the liquid metal-cooled fast neutron reactor being
pursued by Hyperion Power Generation Inc. seems particularly suited to remote locations. At the
core of their technology is the Hyperion Power Generation module (HPM), which measures ~ 1.5
m across and 2.5 m in height; its small size allows it to be easily transported. The sealed HPM
modules, which will contain the uranium nitride fuel, are to be buried underground to provide a
layer of protection from tampering, see Fig. 16 [27]. Additionally, the system is being designed
so that it never goes supercritical or overheats. The HPM module will be capable of providing
electricity and heat for approximately 7-10 years. After this period of time, the module can be
replaced or refuelled at the factory. The targeted capacity is 25 MW electricity and 75MW
thermal generation. The HPM is still several years from being realized. According to the World
Nuclear Association, in March 2010, Hyperion notified the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
that it planned to submit a design certification application in 2012. The initial price of this system
is $50 million USD [27].
7.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT
Modular nuclear reactors such as that from Hyperion Power Generation Inc. appear to be quite
attractive to meet the sustained electricity and thermal needs of remote places with challenging
climate and geography such as CFS ALERT. However, the use of nuclear power sources at this
site presents its own unique set of challenges, which include:
(i). satisfying all federal regulatory requirements for health, safety, security and environmental
protection. This will likely involve a rigorous and lengthy licensing and approval process through
the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC)
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
23
Figure 16 Conceptual illustration of Hyperion Power Generation power plant.
(ii). recognizing that the target generating electricity and thermal capacities of reactors being
developed currently far exceeds the requirements that are needed at CFS ALERT by at least one
to two orders of magnitude
(iii). constructing a containment building to house the nuclear reactor. In the case of the reactor
core being placed above ground, specially designed concrete-lined containment structures must
be built in the event the core goes supercritical. With the severe cold temperatures at Alert, this
may present some challenges for construction and maintaining the integrity of such structures
over long periods of time. In the event the core is buried underground, there is a knowledge gap
of how the cold permafrost will affect or influence the design of the reactor, which may
complicate the licensing and certification process
(iv). having a nuclear power source at CFS ALERT will require a dedicated core group of highly
trained and certified personnel to manage day to day issues, which will increase the ownership
costs of the technology
(v). there is no clear policy by the Government of Canada on the use of nuclear power sources in
the Arctic. Severe criticism of the 1987 Defence White Paper, which proposed the acquisition of a
nuclear powered submarine fleet suggests there likely opposition to this. In addition to the
objections of cost, the 1987 proposal was perceived as undermining support for the
non-proliferation treaty. While CFS ALERT is expected to be converted to civilian use in the
future, similar resistances can be expected by environmental groups, as well as being in conflict
with current Arctic Treaties and Agreements.
24
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
8
8.1
Energy Storage
Technology Description
Renewable energy resources such as solar and wind are highly intermittent producing electricity
and heat (in the case of solar thermal) when the resource is available. In practice, it is not
uncommon to find wind turbines or solar PV panels hybridized with diesel generators and may
further be coupled to energy storage systems. An energy storage strategy generates electricity
when the resource is plentiful and stores it for later use demand is up and supplies are short, see
Fig. 17. The use of energy storage systems has several advantages such as ensuring power
quality, bridging power (when, for example, switching from one source of generation to another),
and energy management such as load levelling.
Figure 17 Illustration of energy storage systems to store excess capacity during low demand and
supplying this during peak demands.
For electricity generation, the idea of such systems is that when the resource (solar or wind) is
supplying more power than is needed by the load, the diesel engine generators can be shut down.
During interruptions in the resource supply, the energy storage device can be discharged to the
load to provide the required power. If the duration of the interruption is prolonged or the energy
storage system becomes discharged, the engine generator can be started to take over supplying the
load. Studies have indicated that most interruptions in power from the wind are of limited
duration, and using energy storage to cover these short time periods can lead to significant
reductions in the consumption of fuel, generator operational hours, and reduced generator starts.
Several variations of energy storage systems are available with varying levels of maturity; the
choice of which to use is dependent on the application. They can be divided in terms of thermal,
electrical, mechanical, chemical and biological. For the purposes of this report, energy storage
systems commonly used with solar and wind turbine systems are briefly discussed here. These
include thermal energy storage systems, batteries, flywheels and hydrogen storage.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
25
8.1.1
Thermal Energy Storage
Thermal energy storage technologies can store heat from active solar thermal collectors for later
use for space and hot water heating or to generate electricity. Heat can be stored in different ways,
which is determined by the thermodynamics of the storage process. If a storage medium is heated
up or cooled down the storage is called sensible. If a phase change of the medium occurs in the
temperature change (e.g. liquid to vapour), the thermal energy storage is called latent. Latent
thermal storage systems can provide higher storage capacities and a constant discharging
temperature. The use of hot water tanks is one of the best known sensible TES technologies.
Other variants of sensible TES systems include boreholes, cavern storage, pit storage and
underground aquifers, which use a natural underground layer as a storage medium for the
temporary storage of heat or cold. The transfer of thermal energy is realized by extracting
groundwater from the layer and then re-injecting it at the different temperature level at another
location nearby when needed. Latent TES system may use molten eutectic salts and salt hydrates
such as sodium sulphate decahydrate or calcium (II) chloride hexahydrate. The main advantages
of latent TES systems are the high thermal energy storage capacities per unit mass and a small
temperature range of operation since the heat interaction occurs at constant temperature [28]
Thermal energy storage systems can be divided based on the duration of storage: short (few hours
to a day), medium (few weeks to months) and long term (seasonal e.g. from summer to winter).
Practical active solar heating systems typically have storage to satisfy a few hours to 1-2 days of
thermal demand.
8.1.2
Batteries
Batteries chemically store energy and release it as electrical energy. They are the most common
form for storing electrical energy and can achieve high energy and power densities. For most
solar PV systems, lead-acid batteries are typically used for storage while for wind turbine
applications, nickel-cadmium (NiCad) and vanadium flow batteries have also been used.
Although batteries are commonplace and are prevalently used, they can be present challenges
with their limited lifetimes and need for maintenance.
8.1.3
Hydrogen
Energy can also be stored chemically in the form of hydrogen. Most commercially available
hydrogen is produced from hydrocarbons such as methane or similar fossil fuels. However,
hydrogen can also be produced by the electrolysis of water using solar PV or wind turbines. The
hydrogen produced can be stored and later combusted to provide heat or provide electricity with
the use of fuel cells. An example of a recent wind-diesel generator-hydrogen system can be found
on Ramea Island, Newfoundland [29].
8.1.4
Flywheels
Flywheels store energy through accelerating a rotor up to a very high rate of speed and
maintaining the energy in the system as rotational (kinetic) energy. As the flywheel releases its
energy, the flywheels rotor slows down until it is completely discharged. For efficiency, flywheel
26
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
systems are operated in low vacuum environments and use magnetic bearings to reduce losses by
drag. The energy stored in a flywheel is defined as,
(5)
where I is the moment of inertia (kg/m2) and Ȧ is the angular momentum, (1/s2). As energy is
proportional to the momentum, there is a desire to develop high-speed flywheels for higher
energy densities. Typically, very high speeds (~ 20,000-100,000 rpm) are used. Unlike batteries,
flywheels consume energy when fully charged approaching a loss of ~ 10% per hour and, as such,
are suited for short-term storage.
8.2
Relevance to CFS ALERT
The use of solar or wind energy at CFS ALERT will require the use of energy storage systems.
For solar thermal collectors, it is unlikely that large thermal energy storage systems based on
underground storage will be feasible and that only short-term thermal storage for space and
domestic hot water heating may be possible. For electricity storage, either batteries, flywheels and
hydrogen storage is possible. However, there will be limitations placed on these systems such as
cold temperature performance of batteries and flywheels. The choice of which electrical energy
system will be suitable at CFS ALERT depends on several factors, which will require further
investigation.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
27
9
Summary and Conclusions
This report was tasked to investigate alternative power and energy technologies to reduce diesel
fuel consumption at CFS ALERT for electricity and heat generation. Specifically, this report
focuses on renewable energy (solar, wind, geothermal, wave and tidal) as well as nuclear power.
In addition to the environmental benefits, renewable energy technologies offers the sustainable
exploitation of natural resources and reduces the use of finite resources such as diesel.
Situated on the north eastern point of Ellesmere Island, the energy budget at CFS ALERT is
largely driven by thermal demands. Its geographical location presents significant challenges for
renewable energy technologies, which are easily adapted in more temperate and forgiving
environments. Solar energy for electricity and thermal generation are restricted for use during the
summer months. Wind energy, which may be used throughout the year, faces challenges with
icing, potentially low wind speeds and Canadian Air Force policies intended to mitigate
interference with communication radars. Also, given the site is not located along geological
features amenable to thermal wells (such as tectonic plate boundaries) and the extensive depth of
the permafrost to 600m, geothermal technologies (deep drilling and ground source heat pumps)
are not perceived as viable options. Wave and tide technologies (such as barrage systems) are not
feasible options due to the low tide heights recorded (< 1m). However, with the location of
narrow inlets and proximity of Dumbell Bay, it may be possible to take advantage of tidal current
technologies although these are in the developmental stage. Modular nuclear reactors, offer an
attractive solution for supplying both electricity and process heat. These are currently being
developed for distributed and off-grid applications, however, their targeted electricity and thermal
outputs exceeds today’s requirements at CFS ALERT by one to two orders of magnitude.
Furthermore, there are other challenges presented such as the requirement of a specially designed
containment building for the reactor as well as satisfying federal regulatory requirements for
health, safety, security and environmental protection. This situation is likely to be further
complicated by the absence of clear policy from the Government of Canada regarding the use of
nuclear sources Arctic regions, expected objections from environmental groups and potential
conflict with existing Arctic Treaties and Agreements.
From this study, it is clear that the relatively mature technologies of solar and wind may have a
role to play at CFS ALERT and although in the developmental stages, tidal current technologies
should not be ruled out. Technological advances are constantly being made in these fields. For
example, for solar PV, new thin-film panel designs have recently been realized, which allow more
efficient use of solar radiation without the need for tracking systems. For wind power systems,
radar-absorbing materials are being developed to address interference issues with communication
radars and efforts are on-going with cold-temperature protection systems. Finally, with the
intermittent nature of solar, wind and tidal current resources, it must be recognized that renewable
energy technologies may never completely supplant diesel-use and it may be necessary to have
hybrid-generator designs, which include energy storage systems such as batteries, flywheels,
hydrogen generation and storage systems among others that are available.
28
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
10
Recommended Work
With solar, wind and tidal current technologies in mind, the following recommendations are
made. It is proposed that these recommendations be formulated as an Applied Research Project
(ARP) under the Air Sustain Thrust.
1). Systems analysis study: As indicated previously, renewable energy is never likely to supplant
diesel-use completely at CFS ALERT. Consequently, it will be necessary to determine the
optimum level of technology mix that can effectively sustain operations while reducing diesel
consumption. This study will include optimum system design and integration, cost/benefit
analysis in terms of $/kWh as well as the amount of CO2 reduced, amount of fuel saved and
corresponding reduction of fuel delivery payloads. For this study, knowledge of how electricity
and heat is being used is essential, which is described in the following activity.
2). Electricity and Energy/Inventory Audit: Prior to the use of renewable energy technologies,
and arguably, any alternative electricity and heat generation interim schemes (such as the
‘right-sizing’ of generators), it is imperative to understand how electricity and heat is being used
at the various buildings including those not connected to the main power plant. This will require
electricity monitoring at each building on the site at fixed continuous time periods throughout the
year. The collection of such information will give invaluable insight into daily and seasonal load
variances, which can lead to more efficient power and thermal management schemes.
3). Resource Assessments: the implementation any of renewable energy technology at CFS
ALERT will require careful analysis and planning. Detailed resource assessments particularly for
wind and tidal currents must be carried out. In the case of wind, prospective turbine installation
sites must be identified along with data collection for temperature, humidity and wind speeds at
various heights at these sites. In the case of tidal currents, measurements at Dumbell Bay, the
Narrows and Alert inlet should be collected to determine the mean potential power that can be
generated.
4). On-site Technology Evaluation: The small sizes of solar PV panels and collectors lend
themselves to a number of technology evaluations that can be done at CFS ALERT. These
include (a). solar collectors for domestic hot water heating and (b). Solyndra solar PV panels for
electricity generation. With more effort, consideration should also be given to the evaluation of
the Solarwall with PV at this site. For these evaluations, it will be necessary to identify a suitable
building that can be used for such evaluations and, which will cause the least disruption to
everyday operations.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
29
11
References .....
[1]
Projecting Power: Trends Shaping Canada's Air Force in the Year 2019. (2009).
Canadian Forces Aerospace Warfare Centre.
[2]
NDHQ Policy Directive P5/92: Canadian Forces and National Defence Policy on the
Environment. (1999). Department of National Defence.
[3]
Accutech Engineering Inc. (2010).Building Envelope Upgrade CFS Alert. (2010).
[4]
Energy Systems and Renewable Energy Technologies Evaluation For CFS Alert – Final
Report (2004). Royal Military College.
[5]
Energy Usage and Project Implementation Study (2007). Natural Resources Canada
(NRCAN).
[6]
Conserval Engineering Inc. http://solarwall.com. Access Date February 2010.
[7]
Surek, T. (2005). J. Cryst. Growth, 275 (292).
[8]
Green, M. A. (2004). Third Generation Photovoltaics: Advanced Solar Energy
Conversion., Germany: Springer-Verlag.
[9]
Solyndra. http://solyndra.com. Access Date March 2010.
[10]
University of Oregon Solar Radiation Monitoring Laboratory.
http://solardat.uoregon.edu/SunChartProgram.html. Access Date March 2010.
[11]
Environment Canada. http://weatheroffice.gc.ca. Access Date March 2010.
[12]
Taylor, A., Brown, R., Pilon, J. and Judge, A. (1982). Permafrost and the Shallow
Thermal Regime at Alert, N.W.T. In Fourth Canadian Permafrost Conference: National
Research Council, Ottawa.
[13]
Baring-Gould, I., Corbus, D. (2007). Status of Wind-Diesel Applications in Arctic
Climates. In The Arctic Energy Summit Technology Conference. : Anchorage, Alaska.
[14]
Maissan, J. F. (2001). Wind Power Development in Sub-Arctic Conditions with Severe
Rime Icing. In Circumpolar Climate Change Summit and Exposition: Whitehorse,
Yukon, Canada.
[15]
NREL. AWS Scientific Ltd. Wind Resource Assessment Handbook: Fundamentals for
Conducting a Successful Monitoring Program (1997). (NREL Subcontract No. TAT-515283-01).
[16]
NASA Atmospheric Science Data Center. http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/. Access Date
March 2010.
30
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
[17]
Masters, G. M. (2004). Renewable and Electric Efficient Power Systems, Hoboken, New
Jersey: John Wiley and Sons Inc.
[18]
Johnson, K. (September 2006). J. Northwest Territories Water and Waste Association., 69.
[19]
Royal Canadian Air Force. ATESS-Wind Turbines. http://airforce.forces.gc.ca/8w8e/units-unites/page-eng.asp?id=692. Access Date March 2010.
[20]
Geothermal Resources Council. http://geothermal.org/. Last accessed April 2010.
[21]
Acharya, H. (1983). Influence of Plate Tectonics on the Locations of Geothermal Fields.
Pageoph, 121 (5/6), 853-867.
[22]
Jessop, A. M., Ghomeshi, M.M. and M.J. Drury (1991). Geothermal Energy in Canada.
Geothermics, 20 (5/6), 369-385.
[23]
Smith, S. L., Burgess, M.M. and Taylor, A.E. (2003). High Arctic Permafrost at Alert,
Nunavut - Analysis of a 23-year Dataset., In Permafrost. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger.
[24]
Environment Canada (Canadian Ice Service). http://ice-glaces.ec.gc.ca. Access Date
March 2010.
[25]
Inventory of Canada's Marine Renewable Energy Resources (2006). (CHC-TR-041).
Canadian Hydraulics Center (National Research Council).
[26]
World Nuclear Association. http://world-nuclear.org. Access Date March 2010.
[27]
Hyperion Power Generation. http://hyperionpowergeneration.com Access Date March
2010.
[28]
Dincer, I., and Rosen, M.A. (2002). Thermal Energy Storage Systems and Applications,
West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.
[29]
Wind-Hydrogen-Diesel on Ramea Island. CanMet Energy. http://canmetenergycanmetenergie.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/eng/renewables/wind_energy/ramea_island.html Access
Date March 2010.
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
31
12
Bibliography
[1]
Arunachalam, V. S., Crabtree,G.W., Ginley, D.S.,Humphreys, C.J., Ishihara,
K.N.,Taylor, K.C., Tongia, R. (2008). Harnessing Materials for Energy. MRS Bulletin, 33
(4).
[2]
Bowditch, N. (2010). Tides and Tidal Currents., In The American Practical Navigator.
Paradise Cay Publications.
[3]
Charlier, R. H., Justus. J.R. (1993). Ocean Energies: Environmental, Economic, and
Technological Aspects of Alternative Power Sources., Amsterdam: Elsevier Science
Publishers B.V.
[4]
Charlier, R. H., Finkl, C.W. (2009). Ocean Energy: Tide and Tidal Power., Heidelberg:
Springer-Verlag.
[5]
Hudson, E., Aishoshi, D., Gaines, T., Simard, G. and Mullock, J. (2001). Weather
Patterns of Nunavut and the Arctic., In The Weather of the Nunavut and the Arctic.
Graphic Area Forecast 36 and 37. pp 49-93, NAV Canada.
[6]
Ibrahim, H., et al. (2008). Energy storage systems--Characteristics and comparisons.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12 (5), 1221-1250.
[7]
Johnson, K. (September 2006). J. Northwest Territories Water and Waste Association., 69.
[8]
Kreith, F., Goswami, D.Y. (2007). Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy., Florida: Taylor and Francis Group.
[9]
Luque, A., Hegedus, S. (2003). Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering West
Sussex: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
[10]
Smith, S. L., Burgess, M.M., Riseborough, D. and Nixon, F.M. (2005). Recent Trends
from Canadian Permafrost Thermal Monitoring Network Sites. . Permafrost and
Periglacial Processes., 16, 19-30.
[11]
Stiebler, M. (2008). Wind Energy Systems for Electric Power Generation. Green Energy
and Technology., Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
[12]
Wenham, S. R. (2007). Applied Photovoltaics., London: ARC Centre for Advanced
Silicon Photovoltaics and Photonics.
32
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
Distribution list
Document No.: DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
3
LIST PART 1: Internal Distribution by Centre
DGSTO
Assoc DGSTO
DSTA
DSTA-2
DRDC Atlantic DG
DRDC Atlantic DDG
DRDC Atlantic CSci
DRDC Atlantic H/DL(A)
DRDC Atlantic SMO
DRDC Atlantic AVRS
DRDC Atlantic Library (1 hardcopy, 2 CDs)
18
TOTAL LIST PART 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
LIST PART 2: External Distribution by DRDKIM
Library and Archives Canada. Attn: Military Archivist, Government Records Branch.
NDHQ/DRDKIM
CFAWC SWAL
Canadian Forces Aerospace Warfare Centre
8 Wing Trenton
PO Box 1000, Station Forces
Astra, Ontario KOK3WO
CFAWC C6
Canadian Forces Aerospace Warfare Centre
8 Wing Trenton
PO Box 1000, Station Forces
Astra, Ontario KOK3WO
Mr. David Strong
1 Canadian Air Division
PO Box 17000 Stn Forces
Winnipeg, MB, Canada, R3J 3Y5
Mr. George Stewart
1 Canadian Air Division
Alert Mgmt Office (Ottawa)
101 Col By Drive
Ottawa, ON, K1A OK2
Maj. Vlachopoulos
Royal Military College
13 General Crerar
Sawyer Building, Room 2310
Kingston, Ontario K7K 7B4
7
TOTAL LIST PART 2
25
TOTAL COPIES REQUIRED
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
33
This page intentionally left blank.
34
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA
(Security classification of title, body of abstract and indexing annotation must be entered when the overall document is classified)
1.
ORIGINATOR (The name and address of the organization preparing the document.
Organizations for whom the document was prepared, e.g. Centre sponsoring a
contractor's report, or tasking agency, are entered in section 8.)
2.
Defence R&D Canada – Atlantic
9 Grove Street
P.O. Box 1012
Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 3Z7
3.
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
(Overall security classification of the document
including special warning terms if applicable.)
UNCLASSIFIED
TITLE (The complete document title as indicated on the title page. Its classification should be indicated by the appropriate abbreviation (S, C or U)
in parentheses after the title.)
Alternative Power and Energy Options for Reduced-Diesel Operations at CFS ALERT
4.
AUTHORS (last name, followed by initials – ranks, titles, etc. not to be used)
Amow, G.
5.
DATE OF PUBLICATION
(Month and year of publication of document.)
May 2010
7.
6a. NO. OF PAGES
6b. NO. OF REFS
(Total containing information,
(Total cited in document.)
including Annexes, Appendices,
etc.)
50
29
DESCRIPTIVE NOTES (The category of the document, e.g. technical report, technical note or memorandum. If appropriate, enter the type of report,
e.g. interim, progress, summary, annual or final. Give the inclusive dates when a specific reporting period is covered.)
Technical Memorandum
8.
SPONSORING ACTIVITY (The name of the department project office or laboratory sponsoring the research and development – include address.)
Defence R&D Canada – Atlantic
9 Grove Street
P.O. Box 1012
Dartmouth, Nova Scotia B2Y 3Z7
9a. PROJECT OR GRANT NO. (If appropriate, the applicable research
and development project or grant number under which the document
was written. Please specify whether project or grant.)
9b. CONTRACT NO. (If appropriate, the applicable number under
which the document was written.)
10a. ORIGINATOR'S DOCUMENT NUMBER (The official document
number by which the document is identified by the originating
activity. This number must be unique to this document.)
10b. OTHER DOCUMENT NO(s). (Any other numbers which may be
assigned this document either by the originator or by the sponsor.)
DRDC Atlantic TM 2010-080
11. DOCUMENT AVAILABILITY (Any limitations on further dissemination of the document, other than those imposed by security classification.)
Unlimited
12. DOCUMENT ANNOUNCEMENT (Any limitation to the bibliographic announcement of this document. This will normally correspond to the
Document Availability (11). However, where further distribution (beyond the audience specified in (11) is possible, a wider announcement
audience may be selected.))
Unlimited
13. ABSTRACT (A brief and factual summary of the document. It may also appear elsewhere in the body of the document itself. It is highly desirable
that the abstract of classified documents be unclassified. Each paragraph of the abstract shall begin with an indication of the security classification
of the information in the paragraph (unless the document itself is unclassified) represented as (S), (C), (R), or (U). It is not necessary to include
here abstracts in both official languages unless the text is bilingual.)
This report was tasked with exploring alternative power and energy options for CFS ALERT to
reduce diesel-use for its electricity and heat demands. This report focuses specifically on
renewable energy technologies (solar, wind, geothermal, wave and tidal) as well as nuclear
power and consider their use within the context of the climate, geology and geography of CFS
ALERT. Geothermal (deep drilling and ground source heat pumps), wave and tidal (barrage)
systems were found to be unviable options. Modular nuclear reactors appear attractive for use,
however, their targeted electricity and thermal outputs currently under development exceed the
requirements of CFS ALERT by at least one to two orders of magnitude. Solar, wind and
tidal-current systems may have a role to play in future reduced-diesel operations at CFS
ALERT, however, further investigation and careful planning is required prior to
implementation. Recommendations for future work in these areas are provided.
Le présent rapport a pour objectif d’examiner des options en matière d’énergies de substitution
pour la SFC Alert afin de réduire la quantité de diesel utilisé pour répondre aux besoins de la
station en électricité et en énergie de chauffage. Ce rapport porte principalement sur les
technologies des énergies renouvelables (énergie solaire, énergie éolienne, énergie
géothermique, énergie marémotrice, énergie des vagues) et sur l’énergie nucléaire, ainsi que sur
leur utilisation potentielle dans les conditions climatiques, géologiques et géographiques de la
SFC Alert. Les systèmes fonctionnant à l’énergie géothermique (forage en profondeur et
pompes géothermiques), à l’énergie des vagues et à l’énergie marémotrice (barrages) se sont
révélés non viables. L’utilisation de réacteurs nucléaires modulaires semble être une option
intéressante, mais la puissance thermique et électrique visée dans le cadre des projets en cours
dépasse les exigences de la SFC Alert par un ou deux ordres de grandeur. Les systèmes qui
fonctionnent à l’énergie solaire, éolienne ou marémotrice pourraient quant à eux être utilisés
pour réduire la quantité de diesel consommé dans le cadre des activités de la SFC Alert. Des
études supplémentaires et une planification minutieuse sont cependant nécessaires avant la mise
en œuvre de tels systèmes. Nous présentons des recommandations au sujet des travaux à
entreprendre dans ces domaines.
14. KEYWORDS, DESCRIPTORS or IDENTIFIERS (Technically meaningful terms or short phrases that characterize a document and could be
helpful in cataloguing the document. They should be selected so that no security classification is required. Identifiers, such as equipment model
designation, trade name, military project code name, geographic location may also be included. If possible keywords should be selected from a
published thesaurus, e.g. Thesaurus of Engineering and Scientific Terms (TEST) and that thesaurus identified. If it is not possible to select
indexing terms which are Unclassified, the classification of each should be indicated as with the title.)
Arctic, power and energy, CFS ALERT, Renewable Energy, Solar, Wind, Tidal, Geothermal,
Nuclear, Energy Storage
This page intentionally left blank.