Group work
Presentation
By
Miqdad Ali
MA Student in Applied Linguistics
The nativist position is that every child is
programmed to construct a grammar for his
native language, containing the universal
categories and relations of which he has
knowledge. Though in its pure form, the claim
is about knowledge not about performance it
has seemed to many people that the identical
and invariant knowledge that all children have
should be reflected in their performance; in
the way they understand and produce
utterances in the course of their development.
The claim about innate knowledge has no
necessary implication for performance.
If the knowledge is to have any psychological
reality, the performance data should be in
conformity with what can be predicted from the
postulated knowledge. Regardless of theoretical
models, if the innate component is large, the
effect of the child’s general cognitive capacities
and of his environment should be comparatively
small, and there should be a large degree of
uniformity for all children both in the way the
development takes place, and in the general
standard reached.
If any variation is found it should be predictable
from consideration of associated factors, such as
the general learning ability of the children and
the kind of environment they grow up in. Or it
could be a matter of individual variations,
children taking different paths for no obvious
external reasons.
Beginning to speak early is popularly taken as a sign
of intelligence, and cross-sectional studies have
confirmed over and over again the relationship
between early language development and general
learning ability. The disparity between children can
be very large.
Graham (1968) showed in an experiment the
importance of memory for sentence processing. He
found that children who could repeat correctly two
unconnected items could also repeat correctly
There is a bird flying in the air.
but they could not repeat
The dog that chased the duck is
black.
The children who could repeat five unconnected
items could also manage the second sentence.
Demonstrations that language development and
general cognitive development are closely related
can be interpreted in two ways:
1. Nativists will argue that Graham experiment
shows that it is only the limitation on memory
span which prevents a child from applying his
knowledge of the structure of sentences.
2.
Non-nativists would take the findings to show
that children can begin to learn to process
structures such as inserted relative clauses only
when they have developed the cognitive capacity
for dealing with them.
 Theoretical
and practical importance
How L is
presented
in the
mind
How L
are
learned
leads to
effective
teaching
TEQ
Linguistic and
Psychological theories
Some linguists have suggested that
language acquisition is based on
the presence of a specialized
module of the human mind
containing innate knowledge of
principles common to all
languages.
in contrast, most psychologists
have argued that language is
processed by general cognitive
mechanisms that are responsible
for a wide range of human
learning and information
processing and requires no
specialized module.
 Children
learn L1 while they face difficulties
Thegrasping
UGlanguage
of human
language
originated
with Chomsky’s
Some
researchers
that (1968)
in
other
kinds
of noted
knowledge.
view on
acquisition.
He systematic
argued that, the
kind of
parents
didL1not
provide
feedback
(cognitive
development)
information
which
mature speakers
of a language
eventually
when
young
children
produced
speechthat
that
UG: Universal grammar
is a theory
in linguistics
suggests
have
of
their
L1could
not
have
been
learned
from
the
not
match
the
adult
language.
 did
Children
with
impaired
intellectual
ability
that
there
are
properties
that
all
possible
natural
human
language
they
hear
round
them.
This
problem
came
to an
be
Chomsky
inferred
that
children
must
have
languages
have.the
Usually
credited
to
Noam
Chomsky,
the
can
learn
called
‘logical
problem
of
language
acquisition
innate
language
faculty,
faculty
theory
suggests
that some
rules ofthis
grammar
areoriginally
hard-wired
referred
to
LAD,
and
later
as
UG
 the
“logical
problem
language
acquisition”
into
brain, and
manifestof
themselves
without
being taught.
There
is still
argument
 LAD
andmuch
later
UG whether there is such a thing
and what it would be.
 Children have L principles, they just have to
use them.
 Critical
age hypothesis and UG in L2, a
controversial issue
 In
L1 no feedback on errors
 In
L2 competence is monitored not the
performance
(The tiger chases the lion or contrary of it?)
This is to test a child’s competence through
performance
 It
shares a number of UG’s assumptions but
its scope is L2.
An early and influential model of second
language acquisition was the “Monitor
 L2 is acquired
without
instruction
or
Model”,
developed
by Krashen
in 1970,
and
it isfeedback
based on
basic hypotheses:
onfive
errors.
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
draws a line between acquisition and
The Monitor Hypothesis
learning
The Natural Order Hypothesis focuses on
communicating
The Comprehensible input Hypothesis
messages and
described as a
The Affective
Filter Hypothesismeanings
conscious
process
 Krashen
 An
early and influential model of second
language acquisition was the “Monitor
Model”, developed by Krashen in 1970,
and it is based on five basic hypotheses:
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
 The Monitor Hypothesis
 The Natural Order Hypothesis
 The Comprehensible input Hypothesis
 The Affective Filter Hypothesis

 The
Monitor Hypothesis: What has been
learned could be used as a monitor for the L2
learner to focus on the accuracy of the
message.
 Natural order hypothesis: Learners go
through the same predictable stages that the
L1 learners do.
 Comprehensible input hypothesis: exposure
to the varied and meaningful linguistic input.
 The affective filter hypothesis: the
motivation of the learner is important for L2
learning.
 Behaviourism
is
described
as
a
developmental
theory
that
measures
observable behaviours produced by a
learner’s response to stimuli. Responses to
stimuli can be reinforced with positive or
negative feedback to condition desired
behaviours. Punishment is sometimes used in
eliminating or reducing incorrect actions,
followed by clarifying desired actions.
 According
to B. Theory all learning including
L learning occurs through a process of
imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit
formation
 Environment provides feedback on learners
performance
 Chomsky attacked it and said that children
utter novel words they do not repeat only.
 One of the points of B. Is that L1 habits
which the learners have interfere with new
habits in L2.
 Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) says L1
helps in L2 learning in case of similarities
between L1 and L2 structures. But in case of
existence of differences between L1 and L2
problems would face L2 learners.
 Finally
many researches concluded that L1
does not support learning L2.
 Cognitive
psychology is the branch of
psychology that studies mental processes
including how people think, perceive,
remember and learn. As part of the larger
field of cognitive science, this branch of
psychology is related to other disciplines
including neuroscience, philosophy and
linguistics.
 No
need for brain linguistic structure as
linguists say
 Learner
attention
should
exert
efforts
and
pay
 Theorists
say L is acquired via Declarative
knowledge which is intentional learning, then
it becomes procedural knowledge
 Other
theorists use Controlled and Automatic
processing.
 Controlled
proc. is not always intentional
 In
controlled proc. the learner access new or
complex information
 Controlled
 Someone
proc. requires mental efforts.
is good in social conversation but
not good in another field.
 It
occurs quickly and with minimal attention
and effort
 Language itself is largely automatic,
attention can be focussed on the content
 Via repeated practice controlled knowledge
becomes automatic

Learning accurse through repeated practice,
controlled knowledge becomes automatic.
 It
is a cognitive process in which the
previously acquired information that has
been somehow stored in separate categories
is integrated and this integration expands the
learner’s competence.
 New errors are made:
Do you know what the children are doing?
*Do you know what are the children doing?
Some researchers of second language
acquisition have argued that nothing is
learned without (noticing)
 Connectionists,
emergentist and parallel
distributed
approach,
all
of
them
hypothesizes
development
of
strong
association between items that are
frequently encountered together (events and
objects too).
 She
goes.
 I go.
(chunk of information are stored in brain)

One of the central questions within psychological
accounts of second language acquisition is why it
is that L1 and L2 learners go through a series of
predictable stages in their acquisition of
grammatical features?

Multidimensional model was originally developed
as a result of the acquisition of German word
order and on the basis of research with L2
learners of English. L2 learners acquire certain
syntactic and morphological features of the L2 in
predictable stages. These features were referred
to as developmental, variation: appeared to be
learned by some of the learners.
 Developmental
features: L2 learners acquire
certain syntactic and morphological features
in predictable stages
 Within
L2 acquisition the multidimensional
model represents a way to relate underlying
cognitive processes to stages in the L2
learner’s development. Each stage reflected
an increase in complexity; a learner had to
grasp one stage before moving to the next.
 One
of the pedagogical implications drawn
from the research related to the
multidimensional model is the (teachability
hypothesis) that learners can only be taught
what they are psycholinguistically ready to
learn.
 Social
interaction has a role in L2 acquisition
 Speakers adjust their speech to the learners
 Learners use variety of techniques and
adjustment in order to negotiate meaning
 Adjustments include simplification and
modification of phonology, syntax, vocabulary,
and discourse.
 Krashen puts focus on comprehension in language
acquisition.
 But meaning negotiation is not the only way to
develop L2, it needs vocabulary, syntax etc...
 Interactional adjustments improve comprehension
and comprehension allows acquisition.
 There
is a close tie between culture and
mind
 All learning is first social then individual
 Dialogic conversation helps learners jointly
construct knowledge then it is internalized
by the individuals.
 The theorists in this field regard for the
social, cultural and biological factors.
 According
to some researchers, the language
produced by L2 learners did not conform to the
target language, and the (errors) that learners
made were not random, but reflected a systematic,
knowledge of the L2.
 The
term “Interlanguage” was coined to
characterize this developing linguistic system of the
L2 learner.
 Researchers found that many of the L2 errors were
not influenced by L1.
 L1 and L2 learners of English over generalize the
same errors (two mouses and she goed)
 Influence of L1 in L2 was completely rejected
 Researchers focus on similarities in all L2 learners in
a particular language
 Brown’s
longitudinal research on three children
while acquiring L1
 The three of them acquired the grammatical
morphemes in the same way, they made the same
mistakes (‘s and ...ed)
 They
acquired interrogative and negative
sentences in the same way
 They made the same errors (foot = *foots), this
is logical generalization
 Thus language learning goes through an internal
process
 Eventually,
according to researchers L2 learners,
like L1 learners, governed partially by internal
mechanisms
 L2
learners were observed to acquire other
grammatical features of the language in a
predictable order. They have been observed in the
language of L2 learners learning a variety of target
languages.
 For
example in French and English, L2 learners
acquire negative and integrative features in a
similar way that they acquire L1 in their L. also in
German L2 learners acquire word order features in
predicable stages when they have L1 background .

Some researchers and teachers believe that learners
build on their knowledge of other LS. when they try to
learn a new one.

Current studies show L1 influence on L2 developing.
Learners can’t transfer all patterns from L1, they will
learn more about the L1 and L2 differences by changes
that take place.

pronunciation and word order are more likely to show
L1 influence than grammatical morphemes.

Learners will learn it’s not possible to use grammatical
rules of a language in other languages, the learners
will find that some forms are unusual or idiomatic so
they can’t be transferred.
 When
learners reach a developmental stage, they
may slowed down because of particular
interlanguage pattern is similar to a pattern in
their L1. e.g. Spanish learners may use pre-verbal
negation (*I no like that) longer more than learners
that their L1 does not have pre-verbal negation
 German English learners may say: (He plays not
baseball)
 French learners of E, when reach an advanced
stage: Accept (Can he play baseball?) but reject
(Can John play baseball?)
 What
is the role of instruction in L2?
 Instruction can have an important effect on L2
acquisition in terms of rate of learning and long
term success to use language accurately so
instruction does not prevent learners from
developing
 According to Krashen instruction may interfere in
the process of learning, for him exposure to the
natural language is important as well as exposure
to the comprehensible input.
 Certain type of instruction may appear to alter the
developmental path of L2 acquisition. (exposure to
one grammatical form after another in classroom)
(in this way learners learn unusual learner characteristics)
 Communicative
and content-based
teaching are two good methods
language
 But
still there are shortcomings, like not all that
can be communicated outside the class could be
taught. The tenses cannot be exactly taught, for
instance in classes about history in French, or
differences between tu and vous.
 Such
teaching lack high level of accuracy, like
grammatical accuracy
 Learners
can benefit from instruction while
they make semantic or lexical errors,
because
they
cause
the
flow
of
communication stop. But syntactic errors
not.
 Errors that are influenced by L1 and do not
interfere with meaning might be difficult. A
French-speaking learner of English says “she
is wearing a skirt red”
 Overall findings have shown learners in
communicative and content-based classes
benefit from opportunities to focus on
language form when the instructional input is
explicit in nature.
 Since
960 L2 learning has received a lot of
attention and has become a field in its own
right.
 In
1980 it was possible to read everything
written about L2 acquisition
 Today
it has enormous scope and depth both
in terms of variety of topics under
investigation and the research approaches
used to investigate them.