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Practicing teachers (N = 255) were recruited through teacher unions and school boards to
participate in the study. Teacher participants completed a questionnaire including items
requesting basic background information, as well as items that assess self-efficacy, attributions
for their vocational stress, and psychological well-being. The study was completed entirely
online. The participation in the study was voluntary and confidential.
7KHUHZHUHWKUHHZD\VLQZKLFKSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHUHFUXLWHG7KHILUVWPHWKRGZDVE\
UHTXHVWLQJPDVVHPDLOVIURPSULQFLSDOVWRSUDFWLFLQJWHDFKHUV0XOWLSOHVFKRROERDUGVLQERWK
4XHEHFDQG2QWDULRZHUHFRQWDFWHGWRREWDLQHWKLFDODSSURYDOWRFRQGXFWWKHVWXG\7KHVHFRQG
PHWKRGZDVYLDPDVVHPDLOVVHQWE\WHDFKHUV¶XQLRQVWRWKHLUWHDFKHUVLQIRUPLQJWKHPRIWKH
())(&762)6(/)-()),&$&<$1'$775,%87,216
VWXG\7KHWKLUGPHWKRGLQYROYHGFRQWDFWLQJSUDFWLFLQJWHDFKHUVHQUROOHGLQ0DVWHURI(GXFDWLRQ
FRXUVHVDVZHOODVVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVDW0F*LOO8QLYHUVLW\(PDLOVZHUHVHQWIURPWKHFODVV
LQVWUXFWRUVRQEHKDOIRIWKHUHVHDUFKHUVWRUHFUXLWLQ-VHUYLFHDQGSUH-VHUYLFHWHDFKHUSDUWLFLSDQWV
7HDFKHUVRIDQ\VXEMHFWDUHDDQGDQ\JUDGHOHYHOZHUHLQYLWHGWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHVWXG\
The 255 participants were composed of teachers from primary/elementary schools
(47.5%, n = 121), and secondary/high schools (52.5%, n = 134). The mean age of teachers was
41.05 years (S D = 9.57) and the range was 23-63 years of age, with 83.9% of participants being
female. Concerning ethnicity, 83.1% were Caucasian, followed by Asian (6.2%), Caribbean
(3.1%), African (1.6%), and other ethnicities (5.9%)0RVWSDUWLFLSDQWVKDGDEDFKHORU¶VGHJUHH
RUDPDVWHU¶VGHJUHH7KHPHDQ\HDUs of experience in the teaching profession
was 12.58 (S D = 8.27), and the range was 1-41 years.
0HDVXUHV
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EHJLQQLQJRIWKHZLQWHUVHPHVWHU7KHVHOI-UHSRUWVFDOHVFRQVLVWHGRISUH-H[LVWLQJ
SXEOLVKHGPHDVXUHVRIVHOI-HIILFDF\7VFKDQQHQ-0RUDQ:RROIRON+R\DWWULEXWLRQVIRU
SHUVRQDOVWUHVV0F$XOH\HWDOPRGLILHGMREVDWLVIDFWLRQ0RHHWDOLQWHQWLRQWR
TXLW+DFNHWHWDODQGEXUQRXW0DVODFKHWDO
6HOI-HIILFDF\7VFKDQQHQ-0RUDQDQG:RROIRON+R\¶V7HDFKHUV¶6HQVHRI(IILFDF\
6FDOHVKRUWIRUPZDVXVHGLQWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\WRH[DPLQHWHDFKHUV¶OHYHOVRIVHOI-HIILFDF\7KH
VFDOHFRQWDLQVLWHPVDQGDVVHVVHVWHDFKHUV¶VHOI-HIILFDF\ZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKUHHGLIIHUHQWIDFWRUV
LQVWUXFWLRQDOVWUDWHJLHVHJ³7RZKDWH[WHQWFDQ\RXFUDIWJRRGTXHVWLRQVIRU\RXUVWXGHQWV´
³HRZPXFKFDQ\RXXVHDYDULHW\RIDVVHVVPHQWVWUDWHJLHV´FODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWHJ³How
much can you do to calm a student who is disruptive or noisy´ ³How well can you establish a
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FODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWV\VWHPZLWKHDFKJURXSRIVWXGHQWV´DQGVWXGHQWHQJDJHPHQWHJ
³+RZPXFKFDQ\RXGRWRPRWLYDWHVWXGHQWVZKRVKRZORZLQWHUHVWLQVFKRROZRUN´ ³+RZPXFK
can you do to get students to believe they can do well in schoolwork.´3DUWLFLSDQWVLQGLFDWHG
what they believed they could do to accomplish the tasks described in each of the 12 statements.
A 9-point Likert scale was used, ranging from 1 = nothing to 9 = a great deal. The reliability
analysis conducted by the reseDUFKHUVVKRZHGD&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDRIIRUWKHWRWDOVFDOH
and.86, .86, and .81 for the instruction, management, and engagement subscales, respectively.
7KHLUUHVXOWVVKRZHGWKDWWKHUHOLDELOLW\ZDVYHU\KLJKLQDVVHVVLQJWHDFKHUV¶VHQVHRIHIILFDF\A
UHOLDELOLW\DQDO\VLVZDVDOVRUXQIRUWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDVZHUHIRUWKHWRWDO
scale, and .74, .90, and .76 for the instructional strategies, classroom management, and student
engagement subscales, respectively (see Table 3). Factor analysis with Varimax Rotation was
also conducted and the three themes shown in these results are consistent with 7VFKDQQHQ-0RUDQ
DQG:RROIRON¶V research (see Table 2).
Table 2
F actor Analysis of the Self-Efficacy Scale
Component
1
How much can you do to control disruptive
1
2
3
.855
.088
.205
.331
.064
.771
.340
.151
.743
.070
.181
.850
behaviour in the classroom?
2
How much can you do to motivate students who
show low interest in schoolwork?
3
How much can you do to get students to believe they
can do well in schoolwork?
4
How much can you do to help your students¶ value
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learning?
5
To what extent can you craft good questions for your
.230
.678
.103
.848
.202
.188
.783
.199
.306
.786
.322
.104
.205
.707
.114
.068
.720
.013
.074
.487
.458
.202
.727
.294
4
4
4
students?
6
How much can you do to get children to follow
classroom rules?
7
How much can you do to calm a student who is
disruptive or noisy?
8
How well can you establish a classroom management
system with each group of students?
9
How much can you use a variety of assessment
strategies?
10 To what extent can you provide an alternative
explanation or example when students are confused?
11 How much can you assist families in helping their
children do well in school?
12 How well can you implement alternative strategies in
your classroom?
Number of corresponding scale items
A ttributions. Russell (1982) developed the first Causal Dimension Scale more than
thirty years ago. The original scale was composed of nine questions, and allowed for a given
attribution to be rated according to Locus of Causality, Stability, and Controllability. High
scores on each factor indicated that the perceived causes were internal, stable, and controllable,
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respectively. The original scale was revised 10 years later (McAuley, Duncan, & Russell, 1992)
and the CDS-II scale was used in the present study. The 12 questions allowed for an attribution
provided by the participant to be rated according to four different factors, with each factor rated
using three questions. The Controllability factor was further divided into two parts, Personal
&RQWURODQG([WHUQDO&RQWURO3HUVRQDO&RQWUROLQGLFDWHGWKHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶EHOLHILQEHLQJDEOHWR
manage, regulate, and exert power over the cause, whereas External Control emphasized
SDUWLFLSDQWV¶IHHOLQJWKDWRWKHUSHRSOHFRXOGFRQWUROH[HUWSRZHURYHUDQGUHJXODWHWKHSURFHVVHV
of doing something and the cause. The items to assess the causal dimension of Stability reflected
how persistent teachers believed the cause of their occupational stress to be over time. Finally,
the Internality items assessed whether teachers perceived their occupational stress to be due to
factors within themselves, or to be caused by external factors, such as luck, weather, or other
people.
The revised version of CDS-II scale was used in the present study with minor
modifications made to the item wordings to reflect first-person phrasings. For example,
³\RXUVHOI´ZDVFKDQJHGWR³P\VHOI´DQG³PDQDJHDEOHE\\RX´ZDVFKDQJHGWR³PDQDJHDEOHE\
me´ The Likert scale was anchored from 1 to 9, with each item having unique anchors. The
attributional factors that were evaluated included Locus of Causality (e.g., 1 = ³5HIOHFWVDQ
DVSHFWRIWKHVLWXDWLRQ´ ³5HIOHFWVDQDVSHFWRIP\VHOI´6WDELOLW\e.g., ³,VYDULDEOHRYHU
WLPH´ ³Is sWDEOHRYHUWLPH´([WHUQDO&RQWUROe.g., ³,VVRPHWKLQJRYHUZKLFKRWKHUV
KDYHQRFRQWURO´ ³Is something oYHUZKLFKRWKHUVKDYHFRQWURO´DQG3HUVRQDO&RQWUROe.g.,
1= ³Is not manageable by me´ ³,VPDQDJHDEOHE\PH´). The &URQEDFK¶VDOSKDV for the four
factors are .88, .60, .87, and .90, respectively, which implies that except for the mediocre
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reliability observed for the Stability factor, the internal reliability for the other three factors was
very good.
,QWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\WHDFKHUVZHUHILUVWDVNHGWRLQGLFDWHWKHSULPDU\UHDVRQIRUWKHLU
VWUHVVDVDWHDFKHU7KLVRSHQ-HQGHGTXHVWLRQDOORZHGWHDFKHUVWRZULWHDERXWDQ\WKLQJWKDWWKH\
EHOLHYHGZDVWKHUHDVRQIRUWKHLURFFXSDWLRQDOVWUHVV$IWHUWKDWWHDFKHUVZHUHLQVWUXFWHGWRWKLQN
DERXWWKHSULPDU\UHDVRQWKH\KDGMXVWLQGLFDWHGDQGUHVSRQGWRWKHVXEVHTXHQWLWHPVZLWKWKDW
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Job satisfaction and the intention to quit. 0RHHWDO¶VVFDOHDVVHVVLQJWHDFKHUV¶
job satisfaction was used in the present study. The questionnaire is composed of five questions
rated on a 7-point Likert scale anchored by 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. Some
VDPSOHTXHVWLRQVLQWKLVVFDOHDUH³In most ways my job is close to my LGHDO´³6RIDU,KDYH
JRWWHQWKHLPSRUWDQWWKLQJV,ZDQWLQP\MRE´DQG³,I,FRXOGOLYHP\OLIHRYHU,ZRXOGQRW
FKDQJHWKHFKRLFHVPDGHLQP\MRE´,Q0RHHWDO¶VVWXG\WKHLQWHUQDOUHOLDELOLW\ZDVKLJKZLWK
&URQEDFK¶VDOSKD ,QWKHSUHVHQW VWXG\&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDwas .90, also indicating a very
high level of internal reliability.
7KHVFDOHWRH[DPLQHWHDFKHUV¶TXLWWLQJLQWHQWLRQZDVREWDLQHGIURP+DFNHWHWDO¶V
VWXG\7KHVFDOHFRQWDLQVWKUHHTXHVWLRQVHJ³,WKLQNDERXWTXLWWing the teaching
SURIHVVLRQ´DQGWKHLQWHUQDOUHOLDELOLW\ZDVIRXQGWREHKLJKZLWK&URQEDFK¶VDOSKD Burnout. The Burnout scale that was administered in this study was the Maslach
Burnout Inventory (MBI; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). The inventory assessed three
symptoms of burnout, and was used in a manner similar to previous published studies. The
measures of Emotional Exhaustion, Depersonalization, and Personal Accomplishment consisted
nine, five, and eight questions, respectively. SaPSOHTXHVWLRQVIRUHDFKGLPHQVLRQLQFOXGH³,IHHO
())(&762)6(/)-()),&$&<$1'$775,%87,216
HPRWLRQDOO\GUDLQHGIURPP\ZRUN´(PRWLRQDO([KDXVWLRQ³,IHHO,WUHDWVRPHVWXGHQWVDVLI
WKH\ZHUHLPSHUVRQDOREMHFWV´'HSHUVRQDOL]DWLRQDQG³,FDQHDVLO\XQGHUVWDQGKRZP\
students feel about thingV´3HUVRQDO$FFRPSOLVKPHQWUHVSHFWLYHO\&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDVZHUH
found to be .92, .68, and .74, respectively for the three dimensions indicating that although the
Emotional Exhaustion measure was highly reliable, the remaining measures demonstrated
moderate internal reliability.
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