SEAS FOR LIFE
Sustainability
Definitions
A good definition is: ‘the greatest good, for the greatest number, for the longest
time’. Generally, sustainability is about humans having less impact on the
natural world – including animals, plants and natural resources.
Sustainable development came out of the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 when global
nations first got together to discuss the concept of sustainability. Sustainable
development is about humans making decisions, taking action and working
together to achieve solutions. Management and conservation are both part of
sustainable development.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is variety of species at the gene, species and ecosystem level. There
is variety within a population of one species, a community of lots of species and a
range of ecosystem types. For example, a population of crabs are different sizes,
shapes and colours, they live in a rockpool containing anemones, gobies and
seaweed. The intertidal zone is part of the wider marine environment including
shallows seas and the deep sea.
Healthy oceans
Environmental sustainability is about the ecology of the natural world and
enabling biological systems to remain productive and biodiverse over time.
Marine environments like coral reefs are more complex to understand than
terrestrial ones, like forests, because we can’t easily see and explore them. A
long lived coral reef, covered with algae and invertebrates which feed large,
varied populations of adult fish, which can reproduce and restock the ocean, is
an example of a sustainable marine ecosystem.
Ecosystems
Food chains
Food chains are linear chains of species, linked by flows of energy and matter.
Energy and matter are transferred between each link of a food chain.
Every food chain starts with the sun, which every living thing needs for energy to
grow. Primary producers (plants) transform energy from the sun into
carbohydrates (via photosynthesis), which makes the sun’s energy useable by
the rest of the food chain. Primary (herbivorous) consumers eat the primary
producers, followed by secondary, tertiary consumers and quaternary
(carnivorous) consumers.
Marine food webs
A typical marine food chain involves marine algae or phytoplankton (plant
plankton), absorbing the suns energy. Phytoplankton are consumed by
zooplankton (animals - typically small crustaceans), these are then consumed by
filter feeders (molluscs, crustaceans, anemones etc.), then consumed by small
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fish, consumed by larger fish, consumed by marine mammals,
birds and humans. See below for two examples of marine food chains. Lots of
food chains combine to produce food webs. Many marine species are
opportunistic – having a range of food sources, dependant on what is available.
Also, many species are filter and suspension feeders that filter mixed food out of
solution. Marine mammals, like whales for example, take large mouthfuls of
mixed plankton swarms or mixed shoals of fish.
Primary producer:
Phytoplankton
Seaweed
Primary consumer:
Zooplankton
Periwinkle
Secondary consumer:
Mussel
Crab
Tertiary consumer:
Starfish
Mackerel
Quaternary consumer:
Lobster
Dolphin
Notes:
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Plankton, as primary producers, support the whole system and if they were
to disappear, the whole food chain would collapse.

Secondary productivity happens via things growing and reproducing.

Decomposers like bacteria and scavengers work at every level of the food
chain, recycling nutrients

Large predatory species at the top of the food chain (e.g. large fish, sharks,
marine mammals) are reliant on all levels beneath functioning correctly so
are more at risk than lower levels

Slow growing species and those which are slow to reproduce are also
vulnerable as they require conditions to remain the same for longer
periods

Keystone species are species within a food chain, or food web, which
maintain the system and make food available for lots of other species. A
starfish is a keystone species – it eats mussels that colonise rocky shores
heavily and so their numbers need to be kept down to make space available
for other species. Larger species can also eat sea urchins, which graze on
kelp, which is a habitat for many marine species.

Matter passing through the food chain is recycled via the ‘biological pump’.
All the dead bodies and shells of creatures in the higher levels of the ocean,
falls to the seafloor, providing organic matter and nutrients for deep water
species. If the marine food chain collapses this pump does not work.

Coral reefs house phytoplankton (symbiotically) within their tissues. With
climate change related warming of the oceans, these plankton can flee the
coral and the corals die (coral bleaching). This can collapse marine food
chains.
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Fisheries
Fishing is the removal of typically large, predatory species of fish, which have
commercial value. Fishing is either for pelagic (ocean going e.g. mackerel, bass),
demersal (sea bed, deep sea e.g. cod, monkfish) or shellfish (crabs, lobsters)
species.
Fishing method
Demersal
(seabed) trawling
Pelagic (mid
water) trawling
Purse seining
Dredging
Drift netting
Longlining
Handlining
Potting
Technique
One or two funnel
shaped nets towed
from the back of one
or two boats along
or just above the
seafloor
Funnel shaped nets
pulled through the
middle of the water
column by either
one or two boats
Large vertical nets
drawn together to
surround a shoal of
fish
Metal framed
baskets, with a rake
and tow bar
attached are pulled
across the seafloor
Passive nets either
suspended in the
water column with
buoys attached or
staked to the seabed
Fishing line
complete with
several branches
and baited hooks is
towed from boat
Species
Demersal species
such as cod,
haddock and
many flatfish
Impacts
Habitat
disturbance and
damage
Pelagic species at
a time such as
mackerel or
herring
Takes whole
populations
Pelagic species
such as mackerel
or herring
Takes whole
populations
Single baited hook
attached to a fishing
rod
Baited baskets
Pelagic and
demersal species
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Shellfish species
Habitat
such as scallops or disturbance and
oysters
damage
Larger species
typically tuna,
squid and shark
Catch of non
target species
(bycatch)
Demersal species Catch of non
such as cod and
target species
haddock as well as (bycatch)
pelagic species
such as tuna
Shellfish such as
crab and lobster
Aquaculture
Aquaculture (typically of shellfish species) should be considered here also. It
was designed to take the pressure of wild stocks, by restocking them, however
disease (spread via escapees) and habitat impacts make it typically
unsustainable. There is also the issue of feed for cultured stock that is produced
from wild species. Examples of better practice do exist within the industry such
as certified organic salmon farms.
Typically, the majority of fish landings in the UK are by large boats, greater than
24 metres in length. The UK inshore fishing fleet is typically comprised of
smaller boats, under 10 metres, which operate in coastal waters. Two of the
largest UK fishing ports are Brixham, in Devon and Newlyn in Cornwall.
Overfishing
Fish stocks are at historically low levels, with essentially too many boats chasing
too few fish. Overfishing is where too many fish are taken, or too quickly,
meaning that the biological system underlying the fishery can’t function.
Approximately 70% of global fish stocks are overfished.
There are different types of overfishing:

Growth overfishing is where fish that are taken are too small or smaller
than the ‘maximum sustainable yield’

Recruitment overfishing is where fish are taken before they have
reproduced and restocked the population

Ecosystem overfishing is where for example too many predatory species
have been taken, or too many form one level of a food chain, so that the
balance within the ecosystem is lost.
Species of fish
In 2005, only 65% of assessed UK fish stocks (largely whitefish) were fished
sustainably and only 35% of fish stocks around the UK were at full reproductive
capacity. In 1998, UK vessels landed £137 million of cod and haddock (about
25% of UK landings by value), but this fell to just £70 million in 2002.
Some species are more vulnerable than others; generally those that are longlived and only start breeding after a relatively long period of immaturity are
most at risk. Sharks, rays and skates, and many species of fish in deep water fall
into this category. Also the
Sustainable choices
Arguably the biggest opposition to sustainable fishing and sustainable stocks of
fish is the market-led nature of the industry. Excessively high demand for
whitefish species for example has decimated many stocks. Ultimately consumer
led behaviour change, demanding a wider variety of seasonally and locally
available fish, supported and supplied by the commercial sector would do much
to allow stocks to recover.
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Ghost fishing
Abandoned fishing gear that can continue to catch fish tends to include passive
gear such as longlines, gill nets drift nets, traps and pots, as opposed to active
fishing gear such as purse and trawl nets. These nets can also damage fishing
boats via entanglement wit the propeller. The problem can be exaggerated when
marine mammals approach the nets to feed of the smaller fish entangled within
them. When these fish and mammals continue to struggle, they then can
entangle themselves further. For baited pots, the problem for the trapped
species is usually more so starvation than the entrapment itself.
Prevention is better than cure here, though clean up operations can be
successful. The solution to ghost fishing is really better policing of fishing vessels
as well as improved net systems and durability thereof. There is also a general
lack of information as to the full extent of the problem so further research is
needed.
Destructive fishing practices
Aside from the damaging fishing equipment and techniques (listed above) there
are certain practices, associated with fisheries management, that are damaging
to marine ecosystems.
Discarding
Discarding is the non-target parts of the catch that are returned to the sea. The
level of discarding varies according to the species in question. Many fish swim in
mixed shoals and mixed fisheries like this tend to be more at risk of the practice
of discarding.
The two major reasons for discarding are market conditions and management
regulations. Market conditions may result in fish being discarded because they
are completely non-commercial species of low value and not worth keeping; or
are damaged. Quota and catch regulations also restrict the retention of fish
below the legal minimum landing size (MLS) or that which the vessel in question
has no quota and thereby permission to catch.
Bycatch
Bycatch is the accidental catching of non-target species because they make
contact with the nets (e.g. drift nets) or collide with fishing vessels. Bycatch
typically affects larger, predatory species or those that are inquisitive and/or
docile e.g. dolphins and other marine mammals. Surface feeding organisms duch
as turtles are also at high risk of bycatch. One species that has historically been
affected by bycatch is the Common skate (Raja batis), now critically endangered
as a consequence.
Black fish
Black fishing is the illegal landing of fish outside of quota restrictions. Black fish
are any fish which are caught, retained and sold illegally, usually because a vessel
has caught their full quota of a particular species but keep on fishing and
catching it. Black fish are typically commercially viable species and often
endangered, such as Atlantic mackerel, herring and tuna. For example, in the
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mid 2000s suspicions were raised that widespread illegal
fishing was taking place throughout the Scottish pelagic fleet. Elsewhere, 3040,000 tonnes of Atlantic bluefin tuna are thought to be illegally caught each year
in the Mediterranean. These fish are often caught below the MLS and kept in
farm pens known as ‘ranches’, where they are grown to marketable size.
Fisheries management
Fishing provides billions of people with food, jobs and livelihoods. The marine
environment must be managed effectively to support a healthy marine
ecosystem and fish stocks.
EU fisheries are managed through the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP). This
entered into force in 1983 and has been reformed several times since then. The
regulations of the CFP arise out of negotiations between governments, based on
the data provided by fisheries stock assessment models produced by fisheries
scientists. The CFP governs fishing by setting the following, through a process of
negotiation:






Total Allowable Catches (TAC) – total tonnage of a species that can be
landed in the EU
Fishing quotas – individual shares of the TAC for countries and individual
fishing boats
Minimum landing sizes of various species
Mesh size restrictions for fishing nets
Conservation measures such as closed areas and closed seasons
Minimum prices for the sale of species
There is much call to reform the CFP, which is widely regarded as ineffective. The
biggest downfall of the legislation is that within Europe there are many countries
that share territorial waters and many landlocked countries that all have real
and perceived fishing rights. This makes negotiations desperately fraught.
The CFP has been reformed twice since its inception in the 1980s, due to
overfishing and decreasing landing sizes throughout European waters. These
reforms sought to, amongst other things, improve the quota system and increase
the capacity for more regional management of fisheries. A third reform is
currently underway until 2014, focusing on issues of sustainability and
destructive fishing practices such as discarding. Many conservation
organizations are striving for at least Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) for all
fish stocks by 2015. Whether this is really achievable is unknown.
Ownership
Essentially the tragedy of marine environments and there inherent lack of
protection is owing to the lack of ownership, real or perceived of the sea. Out of
sight, out of mind, it is a deep, relatively unexplored and often misunderstood
place.
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Tragedy of the Commons
This is a theory first postulated in an article in Science by Garret Hardin in 1968.
He refers to a commonly owned field where herdsmen graze their cattle. The
field can only support a certain number of cattle before it is ruined. Each
herdsman, getting immediate economic benefit from this addition, feels the cost
of adding a head of cattle. However the cost of grazing, being the deterioration of
the field is split between all herdsmen. The rational herdsman will always add
one more head of cattle, after a cost/benefit analysis. This analogy can be
applied to fishermen as well. The rational fisherman will always add one more
boat to his fleet as the benefit of doing so (increased catch) is his alone, whereas
the cost of doing so (less fish in the sea) is split across everyone. Ultimately
fishermen will always opt for immediate economic benefit at the expense of less
tangible benefits such as the availability of fisheries resources for future
generations.
Often fishing and fishermen are regarded as responsible for the overexploitation
of the oceans, being branded as greedy and selfish. The Tragedy of the Commons
analogy more so shows that fishermen are operating rationally and that it has
much to do simple market economics and human nature.
Ownership of the Sea
Terrestrial ecosystems suffer far less from the tragedy of the commons, as the
majority of the land is privately owned, with very few true commons still in
existence. The sea, in contrast, is not owned, bar a narrow band of water around
the continental shelf of coastal nations. United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS) governs ownership of territorial waters. Coastal states have
ownership of all natural resources within the water column and on the seabed
and rights to control entry out to 24 nautical miles of territorial waters. There is
a further Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) out to 200 nautical miles where coastal
states have exploitation rights over natural resources. Outside of this coastal
strip is the high seas, with freedom to navigate at exploit for all.
Solutions
One solution to the flawed quota system of the CFP is Individual Transferable
Quotas (ITQs). ITQs are catch-sharing systems where a dedicated portion of the
TAC, called quota shares, is allocated to individuals. Quotas can typically be
bought, sold and leased, a feature called transferability. This is a more rational
access system to a common fishery resource where fishing vessels are not
competing to land the quota before other vessels get the chance, the predicament
of the fixed quota system.
Bottom-up approaches
Ultimately however, the top-down approach to fisheries management is
problematic. Engaging with fishing communities to create solutions is the
ultimate goal of modern fisheries management. There are examples of best
practice and more cooperative initiatives such as Project 50% for example. This
is a partnership between CEFAS and fishermen to reduce discarding by 50% and
to design and implement new trawling configurations and net designs.
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Marine Litter
Marine litter can be divided into two forms: Flotsam and Jetsam. Flotsam is
litter, typically of natural origin, that finds its way accidentally into the marine
environment. Jetsam is litter, typically of manmade origin, which is intentionally
dumped into the marine environment. Though a negative presence in the
environment, marine litter can provide a habitat for a range of marine species.
For example, Keel worm, Spiral worm and Goose barnacles are all species that
have a flotsamic lifestyle.
Disturbance
Marine ecosystems can cope with a small amount of disturbance. In fact those
communities, which are disturbed to a certain degree, tend to be the most
biodiverse. Communities with no disturbance, or extreme disturbance tend to be
much lower in biodiversity. However, the type of disturbance here would be of
natural origin e.g. waves and tides and grazing of animals. Marine litter is
disturbance of human origin, putting unnatural items into the environment.
Ballast water and species transfer
Ballast water is used by steel hulled vessels to stabilize, improve propulsion and
compensates for weight lost due to fuel consumption. Though safe and efficient
it poses serious ecological, economic and health problems due to the multitude
of marine species carried in ballast waters deposited in the destination port.
These include bacteria, microbes, small invertebrates, eggs, cysts and larvae of
various species. The transferred species may survive to establish a reproductive
population in the host environment, becoming invasive, out-competing native
species and multiplying into pest proportions. They can also foul physical
structures and have economic impacts for ports, marinas and shipping
industries.
Non-native invasive species (NNIS)
Invasive non-native or ’alien’ species are a global problem that presents a serious
threat to biodiversity and conservation efforts. Increases in shipping,
recreational boating and aquaculture activity have led to an increase in global
introductions of marine aliens.
Scientists first recognized the signs of an alien species introduction in the early
1900s after a mass occurrence of an Asian phytoplankton alga, Odontella
(Biddulphia sinensis) in the North Sea. It was not until the 1970s that the
scientific community began reviewing the problem in detail.
Other transport routes for non-native species include aquaculture, whereby
target species, transferred from country to country, are host species for or are
infected by parasitic species. This is typically shellfish species such as oysters
and mussels. Species can also attach to the hulls of ships as well as being held in
the ballast water.
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Species
Japweed or wireweed
Origin
Japan
Method of transfer
Ballast
Wakame
Japan
Oyster aquaculture
and ship hulls
Green sea fingers
Japan
Shellfish
Harpoon weed
Oyster aquaculture
Chinese mitten crab
Australia
and New
Zealand
China
Slipper limpet
Pacific oyster
USA
Asia
Oyster aquaculture
Aquaculture
Leathery sea squirt
Korea
Ship hulls
Japanese skeleton
shrimp
Darwin’s barnacle
Japan
Ballast
Fast growth,
outcompetes native
species
Takes over seabed
Out competes
native oyster
Fouls vessels and
marinas
Unknown
New
Zealand
Ballast and ship
hulls
Out competes
native barnacles
Oyster aquaculture
Problems
Fast growth and
spread, blocks out
light
Very large, out
competes other
seaweed
Competes with
native sea fingers
Unknown
Climate change
By 2050 the temperature of our coastal waters could rise by 20C. In the marine
environment the impacts of such climate change could include sea level rise,
extreme weather events, flooding, sea temperature and chemistry changes and
changes to ocean circulatory systems.
Sea level rise is a big potential problem for marine ecosystems because it may
lead to the loss of delicate coastal habitats such as dune systems and wetlands.
Other impacts of sea level rise and the increased frequency of extreme weather
conditions at sea may lead to increased coastal erosion, which may further
reduce the available habitat for coastal communities. Solutions to these
problems are addresses in the UK by the Shoreline Management Plan (SMP).
Each coastal county has its own SMP, stating the strategy for the coast in the
short, medium and long term. The various approaches that can be adopted
include: Do nothing, Hold the Line (of defence), Maintain the Line, Advance the
Line and Managed Retreat.
Sea temperatures changes may cause the loss of native species, which retract
their southernmost limits. Examples include the marine algae Dabberlocks
(Alaria esculenta) and the Common tortoiseshell limpet (Tectura testudinalis).
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Other, warmer water species will extend their northern
distribution, many of which can be found in the following table of climate change
indicator species.
Climate change also may lead to an increase in non-native invasive species,
which are more suited to warmer sea temperatures.
Ocean acidification
Acid oceans
Sea chemistry changes may lead to ocean acidification, meaning some marine life
will have problems in shell formation. This may include phytoplankton and
invertebrates such as molluscs and crustaceans, all of which have calcium
carbonate exoskeletons.
Ocean acidification is caused by increased absorption by the sea of carbon
dioxide, leading to a decrease in ocean pH. CO2 absorbed by the sea, reacts with
water to create carbonic acid, which further dissociates into bicarbonate and free
hydrogen ions. The balance of this chemical equilibrium is dependant on the
temperature of the water and its alkalinity. Basically the more CO2, the more
hydrogen ions there are and the more acidic the oceans become.
CO2 + H20
=
H2CO3
=
=
HCO3 H+ + CO32-
More acidic oceans mean that less free carbonate molecules are available for
uptake by calcifying organisms. These span the food chain from primary
producers, such as phytoplankton, to consumers and include organisms such as
corals, foraminifera, echinoderms, crustaceans and molluscs. One often cited
example of a group of species affected by ocean acidification is coccolithophores.
These are unicellular phytoplankton, with delicate calcium carbonate skeletons,
taking the shape of a series of overlapping ‘hub cap’ like plates. Such organisms
are the base of and hence support the entire marine food chain. ‘ Coccoliths’, as
they are also known, are extremely important ecologically as their exoskeletons
form a high proportion of marine sediments and the transport of these to sea
floor is an essential source of organic matter for deep sea marine life.
Toxic tides
Algal blooms
Algae are vitally important to marine and fresh-water ecosystems, and most
species of algae are not harmful. Phytoplankton, or marine algae, bloom
naturally in response to warming sea temperatures and upwellings of nutrients
from deep water. These typically occur in spring and autumn when sea
temperatures are of adequate temperature and there is enough mixing of the
water column to put nutrients in solution. Typically in summer, the thermocline
is a boundary to mixing so blooms are not as common.
Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs)
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Abnormally large algal blooms occur in natural waters when
certain types of microscopic algae grow quickly, often in response to changes in
levels of chemicals such as nitrogen and phosphorus in the water. These can
enter the marine environment via run off from the land or via contaminants such
as sewage entering the water. Algal blooms can deplete the oxygen and block the
sunlight that other organisms need to live, and some can produce toxins that are
harmful to the health of the environment, plants, animals, and people. Harmful
algal blooms have threatened beaches and can poison other marine life.
Toxic algal blooms
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and red tides are examples of algae that can
bloom and produce toxins that may be harmful to human and animal health.
Other examples of specific species that are toxic and poisonous include the
diatom Pseudo-nitzschia known to produce the neurotoxin domoic acid, which is
responsible for the human illness called Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP). Also
the phytoplankton Alexandrium catenella is the organism responsible for
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP).
Bioaccumulation
Filter feeding species such as molluscs including mussels, scallops and oysters
and suspension feeders such as prawns and crabs can bioaccumulate toxic algae
from the water column. The toxins accumulate in the tissues of these
invertebrates at a faster rate than they can be broken down. Other organisms,
including copepods, krill, mussels, anchovies, and mackerel, have been found to
also retain toxins from phytoplankton in their bodies. These organisms are often
not affected by the toxins, but act as vectors (carriers) that transport the toxins
up the food web. If these species are human food sources they can causes serious
illness and even death.
Many toxic phytoplankton species have a hibernation or ‘cyst’ phase, allowing
them to remain dormant for a period of time, then bloom in response to
favourable changes in the marine environment. The cyst phase of algal species
also enables them to be transported to other areas on surface currents, often
over long distances. In this way, toxic algal cysts can easily be transported, as
non-native invasive species in the ballast water tanks of ships.
Sewage
Indicator species
Indicator species are species whose presence of absence can be indicative of a
certain environmental scenario, or species whose populations, abundance or
characteristics change in response to certain environmental conditions.
Intertidal indicators
Marine scientists look to the intertidal zone as a window on the wider marine
world. Species on the coast often have high tolerances to a range of
environmental conditions including the tidal cycle and fluctuations in
temperature, salinity, turbidity etc. Intertidal species often change and adapt
very quickly in response to fluctuating nature of the physical and chemical
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marine environment and therefore, the coast is a great place to
observe and record changes to marine biodiversity as a response to things like
climate change and pollution.
Climate change indicator species
Many intertidal species are extending their range north in response to climate
change, as sea temperatures warm. These include the following:











Honeycomb worm – a segmented worm which builds large colonial
structures from sand. Found in Cornwall in places like Widemouth Bay
Peacock’s tail – brown seaweed, Nationally scarce
Volcano barnacle
Strawberry anemone
Gem anemone
Snakelocks anemone – greenish tentacles which are always extended due
to them housing symbiotic, photosynthetic algae
Black footed and Tortoiseshell limpet
Thick and flat topshells
Montagu’s crab
Worm pipefish – same family as the seahorse
Shore clingfish
Many migratory marine species are being seen to change their migratory
behaviour in response to climate change. Most important ecologically is
plankton, blooms of which are occurring at different times and in different areas.
As these support the marine food web, higher species will change their biological
life histories in response. Such species include many commercial fish whose
juvenile phases feed heavily on the plankton. Other species include filter feeders
such as whales and basking sharks. Migratory species such as Leatherback
turtles also are changing their migrations, with more individuals appearing in
the Atlantic. This is likely in response to jellyfish blooms, which potentially are
in response to blooms of plankton, as a consequence of climate change and
nutrient pollution. Other warmer water species being observed off the UK coast,
in response to warming sea temperatures include: Barracuda, Ocean sunfish and
Bluefin tuna.
Other pollutants
Some pollutants introduced into the marine environment can have toxic effects
and lead to obvious declines in species. For example, anti-foulant paint used on
the hulls of boats caused severe damage to non-target species in the wider
marine environment. Particularly noticeable was that female dog whelks,
exposed to TBT, developed male sex characteristics.
Marine Conservation
Marine Protected Areas
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are zones of the seas and coasts where wildlife is
protected from damage and disturbance. Specifically, MPAs enable marine
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ecosystems to be protected and restored, ensuring species and
habitat diversity, and reducing the impacts of physical disturbance, pollution and
climate change.
They also provide areas for safe recreational use of the sea and coastline as well
as scientific study.
A range of marine habitats and species are protected under the 1992 EU Habitats
Directive. These include priority habitats such as Special Areas of Conservation
(SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) for bird species. In total the directive
protects over 1000 animals and plant species and over 200 so called "habitat
types" (e.g. maerl beds, eelgrass beds and wetlands), which are of European
importance. There are also marine SSSIs under the Wildlife and Countryside Act
1981 and non-statutory conservation areas such as the five Voluntary Marine
Conservation Areas (VMCAs) in Cornwall.
About 6% of UK waters are in MPAs but often protection does not stretch to
safeguarding against fishing and other activities that can take place in them. At present, less than 1% of the UK waters are afforded complete protection for
conservation reasons. Three Marine Nature Reserves (MNRs) do exist being
Lundy (the first MNR designated in 1982), Skomer Island in Wales and
Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland. These are the country's only No Take
Zones (NTZs), places in which fishing and other extractive activities are banned.
Several fisheries boxes are already in use in Europe, such as the Norway pout,
mackerel and plaice boxes or boxes that protect spawning herring. Since fishing
is not totally prohibited, these boxes are not true NTZs since they may be closed
only seasonally, protect only some fish stocks and restrict only certain types of
vessels or gears. Examples of voluntary NTZs do exist in other areas also.
Spillover effect
One of the most difficult scientific and political questions in MPA planning is that
of whether no-take marine reserves can serve to increase fish catches in
surrounding fished areas. The spillover effect, as proposed by many leading
marine scientists basically outlines that because reserves contain more and
larger fish, protected populations can potentially produce much more offspring
than can exploited populations. Increased reproductive output is predicted to
supply adjacent fisheries through export of offspring on ocean currents. In
addition, as fish stocks build up reserves are predicted to supply local fisheries
through density-dependent spillover of juveniles and adults into fishing grounds.
Many fishermen are understandable concerned about Marine Protected Areas
however with both ecological and economic advantages and with the correct
implementation, all parties should, in theory, benefit.
Marine Conservation Zones
Marine Conservation Zones are conservation areas designated for conservation
reasons, coming out of the Marine and Coastal Access Act 2009. A three-year
public consultation, incorporating a range of stakeholder groups ran until March
2013. The government recently announced it only plans to protect 31 of the 127
MCZs, however discussions are ongoing.
Sciart Solutions June 2013
Future direction - The Ecosystem Approach
The Ecosystem Approach is a concept that integrates the management of land,
water and living resources and aims to reach a balance between three objectives:
conservation of biodiversity; its sustainable use; and equitable sharing of natural
resources. It is the primary implementation framework of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD).
Historically both marine and terrestrial conservation and management
approaches have been very species and habitat focused. Though conservation in
this vein has it’s place, the scientific understanding now is that management
should be much more holistic, taking into account all aspects of both the biotic
and abiotic environment, allowing ecosystem services to function. For example,
management measures for cod, need to take into account changes to ocean
circulatory systems, sea temperatures, plankton migrations and blooms, seabed
characteristics, as well as food sources for both larval and adult populations (i.e.
the entire marine food web that support cod). Management in this vein, taking
into account all aspects of the marine ecosystem and involving as many
stakeholders as possible, is the future direction marine conservation should take.
Sciart Solutions June 2013
References
http://www.cefas.defra.gov.uk/our-science/fisheries-information/discards-andfishing-gear-technology/project-50.aspx
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/index_e
n.htm
http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14798/en
http://www.marinemanagement.org.uk/fisheries/
http://www.marinemanagement.org.uk/fisheries/statistics/documents/ukseafi
sh/2011/landings.pdf
http://www.goodcatch.org.uk/start-improving/gather-information/fishingmethods/
http://www.imo.org/ourwork/environment/ballastwatermanagement/Pages/
Default.aspx
http://www.marlin.ac.uk/marine_aliens
http://www.mcsuk.org/what_we_do/Fishing+for+our+future
http://www.msc.org/
http://www.seafish.org/fishermen/responsible-sourcing/protecting-fishstocks/discards
Organisations
The Centre for Fisheries and Aquaculture Services (CEFAS) is the government’s
leading marine and freshwater scientific research centre.
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) regulates and manages ballast
water transfer.
The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) works with the fishing industry to
promote sustainable fishing methods and help consumers make sustainable
choices. It does this via a certification system.
The Marine Conservation Society is a UK charity that promotes the conservation
of marine ecosystems and provides comprehensive guidelines for the public on
eating sustainable seafood via the ‘Good fish guide’, suggesting fish ‘to eat’, ‘to eat
with caution’ and ‘to avoid’.
The Marine Life Information Network (MarLIN), in partnership with Natural
England, operates the Shore Thing, a programme to survey, monitor and raise
awareness of intertidal life and the threats it faces. They are also responsible for
the Marine Aliens project.
Sciart Solutions June 2013
Sciart Solutions June 2013