L. Paulo Kushnir, et al., Use of Podcasts in Higher-Ed
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Lecture Capture: Good Student Learning or Good Bedtime Story?
An Interdisciplinary Assessment of the Use of Podcasts in Higher Education
Lena Paulo Kushnir, Ph.D.
Teaching Technology Support Office,
Office of the Dean, Faculty of Arts and Science,
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
[email protected]
Kenneth Berry, M.Sc.
Teaching Technology Support Office,
Office of the Dean, Faculty of Arts and Science,
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
[email protected]
Jessica Wyman, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor,
Faculty of Liberal Studies,
OCAD University
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
[email protected]
Florin Salajan, Ed.D.
Assistant Professor,
School of Education,
North Dakota State University
Fargo, North Dakota, U.S.A.
[email protected]
Abstract: Nowadays podcasts are used in many university courses and often viewed as an effective way to augment
undergraduate education. We present research on the use of podcasts in four disciplines (Art, Dentistry, Design and Psychology).
We surveyed 386 students on their opinions, perceptions, and use of podcasts. We found that students had preconceived notions
that the use of podcasts would help them learn. In spite of students’ perceptions, we found that the use of podcasts did not have a
positive impact on their learning. Also, in spite of a common perception reported in the literature, that is, that the availability of
podcasts leads to increased class absenteeism, we found that the use of podcasts to supplement face-to-face lectures had no
negative impact on class attendance. Variables that explain how podcasts influence learning outcomes are considered and
theories that contribute to our understanding of instructor and student misconceptions around the use of podcasts are discussed.
1. Introduction
The use of podcasts to deliver undergraduate lectures is increasingly popular and often viewed as an effective
way to supplement and enhance undergraduate education (Aguiar et al., 2009; Brotherton & Abowd, 2004; Heilesen,
2010; McKinney et al., 2009; Traphagan et al., 2010; Yunus et al., 2006). Since about 2005, there has been a
tremendous increase in the use of podcasts, and this is likely correlated to an increase in Internet accessibility and
the use of mobile devices for accessing portable media (Abt & Barry, 2007; Bongey, et al., 2006; Karppinen, 2005).
It was not too long ago that lecture podcasts were reported to be among the top two technologies that were
implemented in higher education (Horizon Report, 2006). Generally the literature is positive about the use of
podcasts, and current research shows that students report overwhelmingly positive attitudes towards the use of
podcasts in their courses (Aguiar et al., 2009; Brotherton & Abowd, 2004; Evans, 2008; Goldberg et al., 2006;
McKinney et al., 2009; Nicholson & Nicholson, 2010; Parson et al., 2009; Traphagan et al., 2010; Yudko et al.,
2008). Notwithstanding these findings, a review of the empirical literature investigating the effectiveness of
podcasts in undergraduate education reveals that there are some conflicting and inconsistent findings, particularly
with respect to the impact podcasts have on student grades and class attendance. Instructors who favor the use of
podcasts argue that it does support student learning (Abt & Barry, 2007; Aguiar et al., 2009; Brotherton & Abowd,
2004; Yunus et al., 2006), while putting no restrictions on the time and place of lecture delivery that a face-to-face
class imposes (Aguiar et al., 2009; McKinney et al., 2009; Sutton-Brady, 2009; Taylor, 2009; Walls et al., 2010;
Yunus et al., 2006). Instructors who tend to reject the use of podcasts generally argue that the use of this technology
leads to a decrease in class attendance (Holbrook & Dupont, 2009; Lonn & Teasley, 2009; Walls, et al., 2010;
Wang, et al., 2010), while others are concerned with the implications of having their course materials online and
available to anyone (Bongey et al., 2006; Taylor, 2009).
Still today, the available research does not present much empirical evidence for learning being enhanced with
the use of podcasts; more research needs to be conducted to investigate the effectiveness of this technology (Abt &
Barry, 2007; Aguiar et al., 2009; McKinney et al., 2009; Scutter et al., 2010; Shantikumar, 2009; Traphagan et al.
2010; Yunus et al., 2006). We surveyed students in various undergraduate courses that used podcasts to supplement
face-to-face lectures in Art, Dentistry, Design and Psychology. We did this to better understand student opinions
L. Paulo Kushnir, et al., Use of Podcasts in Higher-Ed
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and perceptions about podcasts, and to determine how they used the podcasts in these particular courses. This multicourse and interdisciplinary approach allowed us to explore many aspects regarding podcast use in undergraduate
education that could contribute to our knowledge of principles that inform teaching and best practices.
1.1 What are podcasts?
The noun podcast is one of the top 5 new words added to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Oxford
University Press, 2010). It has many meanings and synonyms associated with it. Normally, it refers to audio files
that are available to be downloaded and saved to a local computer or other device, but we often consider podcasts to
include video, pictures, and in some cases, synchronized images (e.g., PowerPoint slides or whiteboard notes with
synchronized audio). The term podcast is often used synonymously with many other terms, for example, lecture
capture, screencast, web-lecture, vodcast, etc., (Aguiar et al., 2009; Brotherton & Abowd, 2004; Evans, 2008;
McGar, 2009; Taylor, 2009; Traphagan et al., 2010; Rosell-Aguilar, 2007). Although podcasts are often used for
reasons other than just presenting lecture material (e.g., tutorial material, pre-class material that is related to lectures
but frees up class time for additional material to be presented in class, review of difficult concepts, etc.). Despite all
of the different definitions, synonyms and uses of podcasts, for the purposes of this paper, the instructional contexts
in which these terms are used are similar, that is, facilitating students’ access to lecture content using online
technologies (i.e., for the purpose of this paper, podcasts refer to the presentation of online lectures to augment faceto-face lectures).
1.2 Impact of Podcasts on Students’ Learning
Some authors argue for the use of podcasts as an effective and constructive tool for learning in online
environments as there are measurable increases in learning (Abt & Barry, 2007; Aguiar et al., 2009; Brotherton &
Abowd, 2004; Yunus et al., 2006), and there is evidence that podcasts support students with different learning styles
and specific needs (Barsky, 2008; Karppinen, 2005; Larkin, 2010; Lonn, & Teasley, 2009; Piecka et al., 2008;
Taylor, 2009). Some authors have reported increases in student motivation to learn and complete assigned work
(Aguiar et al., 2009; Oliver, 2005), while others suggest that podcasts allow students to concentrate on course
material better than they normally would in face-to-face lectures (Yunus et al., 2006). Young (2008) suggests that
podcasts facilitate retention of course material, and that courses that use podcasts have fewer student drop-outs
compared to courses that do not use podcasts. Parson et al., (2009) found that students who used podcasts reported
that they found them helpful for course review and exam preparation. Brotherton and Abowd (2004) suggested that
podcast use “helps students study more efficiently” (i.e., with less work, p. 147), and Nicholson & Nicholson (2010)
had a similar finding where access to recorded lectures decreased students’ efforts required to complete assignments.
A few authors have reported increases in student grades both in courses that used podcasts to supplement face-toface lectures, and in courses that only used podcasts (McKinney et al., 2009; Young, 2008; Yunus et al., 2006).
While many authors have found no significant increases in student grades, the general consensus is that the use of
podcasts does not hinder student performance and that if anything, podcasts help with other “learning” related
variables discussed here.
Theoretically, the use of podcasts in higher education should help students to learn better than compared to
face-to-face situations. Cognitive psychology and more specifically, Mayer’s (1997) cognitive theory of multimedia
learning (which combines knowledge from various cognitive processing theories and draws on research-based
principles of multimedia learning) helps us to understand why this should be so. Our cognitive processing systems
are made up of multi-modality channels that represent each of our sensory systems, and that feed into corresponding
perceptual and memory systems (e.g., visual sensory input leads to our iconic memory system, auditory sensory
input leads to our echoic memory system, haptic sensory input leads to our tactile memory system, etc.). According
to Mayer, students learn best by using multimodality processing systems simultaneously, specifically, the visual
information processing system and the auditory information processing system. In doing so, students have
opportunities to process course material at a deep level by making meaningful connections and associations between
material presented to each of these systems. (For a more complete description of this theory, see Mayer, 1997.)
That the current literature (for the most part) is not consistent with Mayer’s theory might be a signal to
instructors, instructional designers and others in this field of study, that in order for us to understand the educational
benefits of new technologies, our methodological approaches must aim to link and apply existing theoretical
frameworks to data that adds to our understanding of the design and use of instructional technologies. This type of
research linking theories to online learning is too often absent in the education literature, and Chalmers (2000),
L. Paulo Kushnir, et al., Use of Podcasts in Higher-Ed
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Kraus et al (2001), and Mayer (1997) suggest that more of this type of linking is necessary so that educators can
make informed, data-based decisions about the most effective implementation of educational technologies.
1.3 Impact of Podcasts on Class Attendance
The most common concern about using podcasts to supplement face-to-face lectures that is reported in the
literature, and the authors of this paper have each discussed anecdotally with colleagues, is the concern that the
availability of lecture podcasts will contribute to a decrease in class attendance. While there are not many published
examples evidencing such decreases (e.g., Holbrook & Dupont, 2009 and Wang et al., 2010;), the bulk of empirical
evidence suggests that there is no negative impact of lecture podcasts on class attendance, and students report that
they prefer to participate in face-to-face classes even when podcasts are available (Brotherton & Abowd, 2004;
Copley, 2007; Parson et al., 2009; Traphagan et al., 2010; Young, 2008; Yudko et al., 2006). In fact, Brotherton &
Abowd (2004), Traphagan et al., (2010) and Yudko et al., (2006) found that, although students believed that the
availability of podcasts would tempt students to skip class, the participants themselves did not report missing classes
just because they could access the lecture material online. As Brotherton and Abowd (2004) and others have
suggested, there is no proof that lecture podcasts have a negative impact on class attendance.
The fact that both instructors and students hold the misconception that podcasts negatively impact class
attendance is interesting. It shows a consistency in reporting causal attributions of student behaviours (i.e., that one
possible cause of students skipping class is students’ knowledge that lecture podcasts are available and can be used
instead of attending face-to-face lectures). Social-cognitive explanations of behaviour help us better understand this
consistent misconception. Attribution theorists explain how we attribute causes of our own behaviours, the
behaviours of others, or events around us, by considering the sorts of biases and attribution errors we commonly
make when trying to explain behaviour (for our discussions here, student behaviour). Briefly, when we explain the
behaviours of others, we have a tendency to use personality-based explanations (or dispositional variables) and
motivation-based explanations as the causes of the behaviours, even though we are not personally familiar with the
individuals whose behaviour we try to explain. Attribution theorists call this the fundamental attribution error.
When explaining our own behavior, attribution theorists suggest that we often fall prey to a self-serving bias. In
explaining positive aspects of our own behaviours (or successes), we tend to use dispositional (or personality-based)
explanations as the causes of behaviours (i.e., taking personal credit for our success). In contrast, when explaining
negative aspects of our own behaviours (or failures), we tend to use situational or external, event related
explanations as the causes of behaviours (i.e., not taking personal responsibility for negative aspects of our
behaviours). (For a more complete description of this theory, see Heider, 1958.)
The data regarding class attendance (e.g., as reported in Brotherton & Abowd, 2004, Traphagan et al., 2010, and
Yudko et al., 2006) are consistent with the predictions of attribution research. When predicting the behaviour of
others, both instructors and students predict that, by and large, students will be tempted to skip class, likely for
various personal reasons, when podcasts are available (i.e., a fundamental attribution error and surely a negative
view of student behaviour). When students report on their own (class attendance) behaviour, they report that they
do not skip classes just because podcasts are available, rather they prefer attending the face-to-face classes and use
the podcasts as a supplement because they enjoy the interactivity of face-to-face classes, they need a structured
learning environment, they experience better student engagement and they are more focused on class discussions
(Brotherton & Abowd, 2004; Copley, 2007). This sort of explanation can represent a self-serving bias and certainly
a positive representation of successful student behaviour.
2. Research Questions and Rationale
This study investigated the following three questions: (1) Does the use of podcasts to supplement face-to-face
lectures in undergraduate courses increase student learning and class absenteeism?; (2) How do students use
podcasts to supplement their learning?; (3) What are students’ experiences with podcasts?
While the second and third research questions were exploratory, we wondered if there were any discipline
specific variables that might have an impact on students’ experiences with podcasts. As outlined in the literature
review, there are mixed findings regarding student learning outcomes and class absenteeism. In exploring students’
experiences and how students used podcasts, we hoped to better understand what we describe as misconceptions
about the impact of podcasts on student grades and class attendance. This study is part of a larger project and more
data is being collected. The results of this introductory study will guide us through subsequent research.
L. Paulo Kushnir, et al., Use of Podcasts in Higher-Ed
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3. Design of study
3.1 Description of study
We conducted three surveys and surveyed students in three groups: (i) Art & Design, (ii) Dentistry, and (iii)
Psychology. One of three different podcast surveys (an Art & Design survey, a Dentistry survey or a Psychology
survey) was deployed to students in each of the specific groups. All students were asked if they used the lecture
podcasts, if they thought it helped them learn course material, if they wanted to see more courses in the university
use podcasts, if the knowledge that podcasts were available tempted them to skip class, and what their experiences
were with using podcasts. While the surveys for each of the three groups were not identical, many of the questions
were very similar. For example, to facilitate course specific factors, there were some minor modifications in the
wording of survey questions administered to Dentistry and Psychology students. For Art & Design students,
instructors asked extra questions and many more open-ended questions about students’ use and experience with
using podcasts in those courses. The psychology course instructor had included an extra measure and correlated
students’ final course grades with their survey responses. We developed different surveys for each of the groups in
order to accommodate individual instructor’s research goals and instructional needs. Students’ participation in
completing the surveys was voluntary and they were encouraged to complete the surveys to help with the continuing
development of the courses and of the use of podcasts within these disciplines.
3.2 Participants
Participants were three hundred and eighty-six undergraduate students enrolled in one of two universities. One
was a large urban centre university, the other a small urban center university. Data were collected from six courses
using lecture podcasts to supplement face-to-face lectures (i.e., one Art course, two Dentistry courses, one Design
course, and two Psychology courses). Participants were enrolled in one of two second year Introductory Psychology
courses (n= 108), a second year Art History course or third year Design course (n=156), or a third or fourth year
Dentistry course (n= 122).
3.3 Procedure
All participants were given several opportunities to complete the survey online using the institutional learning
management systems (LMS), with the exception of participants enrolled in the Psychology courses. Those students
completed a paper-pencil version of the podcast survey in class, at the end of the term in which the online data from
Dentistry, Art and Design were collected. Use of the lecture podcasts was voluntary and each of the instructors (of
the courses included in this study) used the podcasts as a supplement to the face-to-face lectures. Podcasts were
made available shortly after the face-to-face classes met, and were accessible through the LMS and integrated media
storage facilities associated with each institution. Students accessed their course podcasts through the separate
course shells in the course management tool of the LMS.
3.4 Analyses
Analyses of the data included response frequencies of the quantitative survey questions across the three groups,
and independent samples t-Tests to measure any differences between final course grades of students in the
Psychology courses who used the lecture podcasts compared to those who did not use the podcasts. Qualitative
analyses of the open-ended survey questions included weighted word lists that were calculated and puzzled out into
word clouds that were generated from the students’ text answers. The word clouds represented a summary of the
text that students wrote in their open-ended answers. A user generated word cloud visualizes information that is
related to a specific survey question and, in essence, it depicts visually, the frequency of specific topics that students
write about in their survey answers. The importance (or frequency) of specific words is often displayed through font
size (as in our examples below), font colour, or some other attribute (see Bateman et al., 2008 for an overview of
word/tag clouds).
L. Paulo Kushnir, et al., Use of Podcasts in Higher-Ed
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4. Results and Discussion
In this study, we investigated whether podcasts had any impact on student learning and class attendance; we
also attempted to get a better understanding of how students used podcasts and what their experiences were when
they relied on podcasts to supplement their learning. Response frequencies for students in Dentistry and Psychology
are presented in Table 1; response frequencies for students in Art & Design are presented in Figures 1 through 10.
While explicit measures of learning where computed only for students enrolled in the psychology courses, all
students’ perceptions of whether they believe podcasts help them learn were measured across the three groups (i.e.,
Art & Design, Dentistry, and Psychology). Our measures of the impact of podcasts on student learning yielded no
differences between groups. We found no statistically significant differences between the scores of students in
Psychology who used the lecture podcasts and those who did not, F (38, 12) = 1.03, p = 0.3730 for one course, and
F (28, 24) = 1.13, p = .7440 for another. Interestingly, across the disciplines, students responded in similar ways
when asked if they thought the podcasts helped them learn. For example, as depicted in Figure 1, 80% of Art &
Design students reported that they “strongly agreed” or “somewhat agreed” that “the podcasts increased” their
“understanding of the material covered in class”, and as shown in Table 1, question 2, 81% of Dentistry and 87% of
Psychology students reported that “yes” they believed “that the use of podcasts in this lecture course helped” their
learning. These data support what others have reported in the literature, that is, that there is not much empirical
evidence showing that podcasts have a positive impact on learning outcomes, but that students believe that podcasts
help them earn higher grades.
Table 1. Response frequencies (%) for students in Dentistry† and Psychology††
Dentistry
1.
2.
Did you use/listen to/review the podcasts made available on our
course Web Site?
Do you believe that the use of podcasts in this lecture course helped
your learning?
Psychology
Yes
No
Yes
No
95%
5%
65%
35%
81%
18%
87%
5%
3.
Would you like to see more courses in this Faculty making use of
podcasts?
74%
26%
83%
6%
4.
If you used the lecture podcasts, did you find that having the podcasts
available tempted you to miss classes if you knew ahead of time they
would be available for you to review?
42%
56%
22%
65%
If you DID NOT use the Podcasts, do you think you’d be tempted to
miss class if knew ahead of time that podcasts were available?
32%
59%
23%
54%
5.
† n = 122
†† n = 108
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Figure 1: Art & Design students’ perception of the impact of podcasts on learning
Across all groups, instructors reported that there was not a detectable decrease in class attendance, and with the
exception of Dentistry, students’ reports of whether they were tempted to miss class (because of the availability of
the podcasts) were consistent with Instructors’ reports of no decline. As shown in Table 1, questions 4 and 5, 42%
and 32% of students in Dentistry reported that they were tempted to skip class, whereas only 22% and 23% of
students in Psychology. As depicted in Figure 2, only 4% of students in Art & Design reported this. Interestingly,
four of the six courses included in this study (i.e., the Psychology, Art and Design courses) were taught at one
particular institution that has a student-class-attendance-policy, plus, the two Psychology courses had surprise
quizzes on 7 out of 8 possible “quiz-fair” days (some classes were deemed unfair quiz days for various reasons, e.g.,
first day of class in which none of the students would be prepared for a quiz, classes in which a term test was
administered, and the last class when students generally had a large assignment due). These institution and course
specific factors introduce confounds that made it difficult for us to decipher whether podcasts had no impact on
attendance, or if institutional and course factors made it undesirable to skip class. None of these factors where
present for the Dentistry courses and yet almost 40% of students predicted that they would be tempted to skip class.
So while we are tempted to suggest that our data support the majority of the literature which suggests that podcasts
have no negative impact on attendance (Brotherton & Abowd, 2004; Copley, 2007; Parson et al., 2009; Traphagan et
al., 2010; Young, 2008; Yudko et al., 2006) , that would be premature given our data. We do not know how much
of the “no impact on attendance” is related to podcasts (if at all), or if it is more related to institutional and course
specific factors.
Figure 2: Art & Design students’ report of class attendance
L. Paulo Kushnir, et al., Use of Podcasts in Higher-Ed
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A large proportion of students reported that they used the podcasts made available to them (i.e., as shown in
Table 1, question 1, 97% of Dentistry students and 65% of Psychology, and as depicted in Figure 3, below, 97% of
Art and Design students). Figure 4 shows how Art & Design students used podcasts in their learning. It makes
sense that students believed that podcasts helped them learn, Figure 4 indicates that they used them for the right
reasons, or at least for reasons that should have affected behaviours that support learning (i.e., specifically reviewing
and studying).
Figure 3: Art & Design students’ report of podcast use
Figure 4: Art & Design students’ report of how they use podcasts to learn
Figures 5 to 8 show how podcasts affected students’ experiences. Again, data in Figure 5 supports what one
would think helps students to learn (e.g., supplement note-taking) , and the word clouds depicted in Figures 7 and 8
corroborate the findings displayed in Figure 5 (e.g., that podcasts helped with “missed” classes, “notes”, “points”,
etc., and that podcasts changed students’ class experience with “note-taking”, “review”, “missed lectures”, etc.,).
The larger the words in the word clouds, the more often students used the terms in their responses about how
podcasts affected them. Interestingly, data in Figure 6 is consistent with the literature that suggests that podcasts
support students with different learning styles and specific needs (Barsky, 2008; Karppinen, 2005; Larkin, 2010;
Lonn, & Teasley, 2009; Piecka et al., 2008; Taylor, 2009). Our data here show that students reported that podcasts
helped them with comprehension of course material, helped students for whom English is a second language, and
helped students with learning disabilities.
L. Paulo Kushnir, et al., Use of Podcasts in Higher-Ed
Figure 5: Art & Design students’ report of how podcasts affect note taking
Figure 6: Art & Design students’ report of how podcasts help them
Figure 7: Word cloud of Art & Design students’ report of how podcasts help them
8
L. Paulo Kushnir, et al., Use of Podcasts in Higher-Ed
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Figure 8: Word cloud of Art & Design students’ report of how podcasts affect classroom experience
Table 1 (question 3) and Figures 9 and 10, below, show (overwhelmingly) other ways that podcasts impact
students and ways that students would like to see podcasts used in the future. For example, students reported that
they want more of their courses to use podcasts (i.e., Table 1, question 3: 74% of Dentistry and 83% of Psychology
students), for reasons other than just supplementing lectures (i.e., Figure 9: e.g., for guest speakers, interviews, other
faculty and other types of lectures), and, as discussed earlier (Aguiar et al., 2009; Brotherton & Abowd, 2004;
Evans, 2008; Goldberg et al., 2006; McKinney et al., 2009; Nicholson & Nicholson, 2010; Parson et al., 2009;
Traphagan et al., 2010; Yudko et al., 2008), students reported very positive attitudes toward using podcasts (i.e.,
Figure 10).
Figure 9: Word cloud of Art & Design students’ report of what other types of podcasts they would like to have
L. Paulo Kushnir, et al., Use of Podcasts in Higher-Ed
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Figure 10: Word cloud of Art & Design students’ comments about podcasts
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
The findings in this study suggest that although students believed that the podcasts helped them to learn, that
students seemed to use them in pedagogically sound ways, that they liked having them as part of their learning
experience and that they wanted more of them, we did not find any significant impact on learning. When Mayer’s
(1997) cognitive theory of multimedia learning is considered, these findings do not make much sense; the
technology should help student learning. Given this, it might be that there is something in the way instructors
implement this technology. Future research will need to drill down to the component parts of podcast use and
investigate how closely instructors follow best practices and research-based principles of multimedia learning, and if
instructional materials are grounded in theories of meaningful learning. It seems fair to say that given the
inconsistencies found in the literature that merely making podcasts available is not sufficient to impact student
learning.
Also, future research should systematically measure what students are doing with these podcasts. Perhaps they
simply apply the same good or poor study habits when using the technology that they normally apply in face-to-face
contexts. It might be that high performing students use the same effective strategies when using podcasts that they
use when studying, attending lectures, etc., and that low performing students might use the same ineffective
strategies when using podcasts. If poor performing students are not good listeners in class, are not skilled at
synthesizing information and processing it deeply, then they might not be good listeners “in podcasts”, and might
be ineffective at synthesizing and processing information deeply from podcasts. This type of transferring of current
skill sets and capacities might result in a null effect of new technologies that are intended to facilitate learning.
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