FOOD HABITS OF ARAB STUDENTS LIVING
IN THE UNITED STATES
by
BAY AN AHMED OBEIDAT, B.Sc.
A THESIS
IN
FOOD AND NUTRITION
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Approved
August, 2002
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincerest gratitude to my
committee chair Dr. Helen. C. Brittin for her unwavering
guidance and encouragement throughout the process of
conducting this research study. Further appreciation is
extended to the other members of my committee Dr. Mallory
Boylan and Dr. Kenny Wu for their invaluable assistance and
suggestions. I would like to thank the Graduate school at
Texas Tech University for their support in providing a
Graduate School Summer Thesis Research Award.
Finally, I wish to thank my family members. I am
deeply indebted to my parents for their constant support
and encouragements. My deepest gratitude goes to my husband
and son, Aziz and Omar, for providing a relaxing atmosphere
for necessary diversions.
Special thanks go to my best
friends Jawaher and Wesal for their constant cheerleading
and encouragements.
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
ii
v
LIST OF TABLES
vi
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION
1
II.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
4
Arab Culture
4
Arab Americans
6
Traditional Food Habits of Arabs
8
Dietary Islamic Food Law and Food Habits of
Muslims
14
Fasting in Islam
16
Food Habits of Other Immigrant Groups
18
Dietary Pattern, Food Intake, and
Preference
19
Factors of Dietary Change
27
Convenience and Availability of
Ingredients
28
Income Level
29
Relative Price of Food
30
Length of time in the Western Countries
30
Acculturation
31
Food Frequency Questionnaire
34
Measurement of Food Preference
35
Hedonic Scale
36
III. MATERIALS AND METHODS
39
Subjects
39
Questionnaire Design
41
Statistical Analysis
44
IV.
V.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
47
Characteristics of Subjects
48
Changes in Eating Patterns and Food Practices
58
Food Frequency and Preferences
75
CONCLUSION
118
REFERENCES
121
APPENDIX
12 9
A.
E-MAIL SOLICITATION
129
B.
FOOD PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES QUESTIONNAIRE
131
ABSTRACT
Changes in dietary patterns among different immigrant
groups have been reported. However, limited research data
on dietary habits of Arabs living in the United States are
available. The objective of this study was to investigate
dietary patterns of Arab students living in the U.S. A
questionnaire was designed to collect information about
background, degree of acculturation, changes in food
habits, frequency of food consumption, and food
preferences. Potential subjects were Arab students enrolled
at five U.S. universities. Questionnaires were mailed to 70
students. Analysis of variance was used with continuous
variables; chi-square tests were used to analyze
categorical variables. Associations among continuous
variables were examined using correlation analysis. Fortyfive questionnaires were returned. Because of the
availability, cost, and convenience, the consumption
frequency of Arab foods had decreased while the consumption
frequency of some American foods had increased. The
consumption frequency and liking of American foods were
related to age, age entered U.S., length of residence in
U.S., and degree of acculturation.
LIST OF TABLES
1. Demographic characteristics of subjects.
49
2. Acculturation level of subjects.
55
3. Correlation coefficients for acculturation scores
and demographic characteristics for age, age
entered U.S., length of residence in U.S., years
of education, income, and food expenditure of
subjects(n=45).
56
4. Means and standard deviations for eating patterns
of Arab students in country of origin and in United
States (n=45)
59
5. Chi-square values of eating patterns of Arab
students(n=45)in country of origin and living in
United States.
61
6. General food habits of Arab students (n=45) after
living in United States
64
7. Test for independence of change in eating habits
and discrete variables (n=45).
69
8. Means and standard deviations for food consumption
frequency of subjects (n=42) in country of
origin and in United States.
76
9. Means and standard deviations for food consumption
frequency by men and women (n=42).
84
10. Means and standard deviations of hedonic scores for
foods by total subjects, men, and women (n=42).
90
11. Correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and
food consumption frequency in United States by
total subjects, men, and women (n=42).
98
12. Correlation coefficients for food consumption
frequency in United States and general information
for age, age entered U.S., length of residence in
U.S.,years of education, income, food expenditure.
And acculturation scores by total subjects (n=42).
103
13. Correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and
acculturation level for food by total subjects
(n=42).
113
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Changing U.S. demographics is the reason that the
study of culturally based food habits is essential in all
facets of food production and consumption. In recent years,
the significance of culturally based food habits on health
and the need for intercultural competencies in food and
nutrition research and education have been recognized
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001). There is scant information on
dietary habits of Arabs living in the United States
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001). Arabs refer to persons who
speak Arabic and share the values and beliefs of Arab
culture (Abraham, 1995; Patai, 1973).
Food plays a central role in the lives of Arab
families (Meleis, 1981). Wheat, most commonly in bread, is
the primary staple food. Legumes, rice, yogurt, and cheese
also contribute important nutrients. Vegetables are served
often, usually in elaborate preparations that require
considerable time. Fresh fruits are popular as snacks and
desserts (Packard and McWilliams, 1994). Spices and herbs
add vital flavor to foods typical of Middle East culture
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001).
1
Arab foods habits differ along religious lines. While
Christian Arabs have no religious prohibition regarding
pork or alcohol, the religious beliefs of Muslims forbid
their consumption (Chaudry, 1992; Hussaini, 1993; Sakr,
1971; Twaigery and Spillman, 1989) . Faithful Muslims
require meat that is slaughtered according to ritual
letting of blood while speaking the name of Allah (God)
(Chaudry, 1992; Sakr, 1971). Obligatory fasting during the
holy month of Ramadan involves abstaining from all food and
drink from dawn until sunset (Sabini, 1990; Sakr, 1971;
Sakr, 1975) . According to the 1990 census, there were
870,000 persons in the United States who identified
themselves as ethnically Arab or who emigrated from one of
the 21 countries of the contemporary Arab world (Abraham,
1995). More recent immigrants are Muslims, and the number
of Arab Muslims in the United States is growing rapidly
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001).
Several studies have shown changes in food habits
among different immigrant groups (Crane and Green, 1980;
Gardner et al., 1995; Kollipara and Brittin, 1996; Pan et
al., 1999; Story and Harris, 1989; Zhou and Brittin, 1994).
Most studies showed that immigrant groups retained some
native food customs and incorporated some American foods.
2
For example, rice remained a staple food but other native
foods were replaced by cereal, milk, and soft drinks.
Breakfast and snacks were replaced by foods more commonly
consumed by American people (Crane and Green, 1980; Gupta,
1975; Kim et al., 1984; Pan et al., 1999; Yang and Fox,
1979). Researchers have reported that dietary changes were
related to the length of living in the United States,
degree of acculturation, and that changes could be related
to social contact with people in the new culture (Liou and
Contento, 2001; Pan et al., 1999; Yang and Fox, 1979).
Studies showed that younger immigrant groups tend to change
their food habits more than the older immigrant groups
(Gordon et al., 2000; Kim et al., 1984) . However, there was
limited research data on dietary habits of Arabs living in
the United States. Therefore, the purpose of this study was
to determine general food habits of Arab students living in
the United States, factors affecting dietary choices after
living in the United States, consumption frequency of
selected food items of Arab students before and after
living in the United States, and food preferences.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Arab Culture
Arab refers to a person who speaks Arabic and shares
the values and believes of Arabs culture (Patai, 1973) .
With the development of Islam in the seventh century A.D.
and its spread over part of Asia, Africa, and Europe,
Arabic culture and language spread to the newly conquered
people. Over time the Arab identity lost its purely ethnic
roots as millions in the Middle East and North Africa
adopted the Arabic language and integrated Arab culture
with that of their own. Arabic language is the religious
language of the holy book called Qur'an. Today, the term
Arab is cultural, linguistic, and to some extent, a
political designation (Abraham, 1995). The Arab world
consists of 21 countries that span from North Africa to the
Persian Gulf (Abraham, 1995). The Arab countries are
Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait,
Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine,
Yemen, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia,
and United Arab Emirates (Musaiger, 1993) .
Arab customs center on hospitality around food and
socializing with family and friends (Abraham, 1995).
Arab cuisine is known for the flavor and its use of
fresh ingredients. The common ingredients that give the
flavor to Arab cooking are herbs and spices (bitter orange
leaf, black pepper, caraway, cardamom, coriander seed,
cinnamon, cumin, cloves, fennel, galanga, garlic, ginger,
mace, marjoram, mastic, mint, nutmeg, saffron, sumac
berries, and thyme), dried fruits and nuts (dates, raisins,
almond, walnuts, hazelnuts, pinenuts, and pistachios),
fresh fruits (both sweet and sour), sugar and honey,
vegetables (onion, leek, celery root, fresh coriander,
carrots, cabbage, and spinach), rose water, vinegar, and
dairy products are (Kritzman, 1999). The staple in every
Arab's diet is bread. Fats play an essential role in Arab
cooking.
The most common fat is olive oil. Chickpeas, fava
beans, and lentils are also important in the diet. Mostly
fruits are served as desserts after a meal. Eggplant is the
favorite vegetable (Kritzman, 1999; Weeb, 2000). Many Arab
dishes such as stuffed zucchini or green peppers and
stuffed grape or cabbage leaves are highly labor-intensive
(Abraham, 1995). Arab cuisine continues to favor dairy
foods, dates, mutton, and camel hump even after migration
and acculturation (Kritzman, 1999) .
Arab Americans
Arab Americans are Arabic speaking people, usually of
Semitic origin, who were born in an Arab country and
migrated to the United States, or whose parents were born
in an Arab country and who therefore consider themselves of
Arabic origin (Lipson and Meleis, 1983). Immigration of
Arabs to the United States has increased during the latter
quarter of 20*^^ century (Laffrey et al. , 1989). However,
Arab immigrants represent a tiny fraction of the overall
migration to the United States, constituting less than
three percent of the total (Abraham, 1995).
According to the 1990 census, there were 870,000
persons in the United States who identified themselves as
ethnically Arab or who emigrated from one of the 21
countries that constitute the Arab world. The 1990 census
indicates that most Arab Americans are U.S. citizens (82%)
even though only 63 percent were born in the United States
(Abraham, 1995). Arabs began migrating to the United States
in the late 1800s and have continued in waves that have
coincided with a number of political upheavals in the
6
Middle East (Abraham, 1995; Lipson et al., 1987). Early
Arab immigrants came between the late 1800s and World War
I. They were primarily Christians from areas in the modern
countries of Lebanon, Syria, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine,
Yemen, and parts of Iraq (Abraham, 1995; Kittler and
Sucher, 2001; Laffrey et al., 1989; Zanger, 2001).
Immigration resumed after World War II, especially in the
1950s to the mid 1960s, and included many more Muslims
(Abraham, 1995). The third wave of Arab immigration began
in the mid 1960s, following the Immigration Act of 1965
which abolished the quota system (Abraham, 1995). Although
Christian Arabs are still a majority in America, more
recent immigrants follow Islam, and the number of Arab
Muslims in the United States is growing rapidly (Abraham,
1995) .
Most Arab people are located in the Northeast and
Midwest, with significant populations in Boston, Detroit,
New York, and California, particularly in Los Angeles
(Abraham, 1995; Kittler and Sucher, 2001) . Smaller
communities are developing in Texas, Georgia, Alabama, and
other areas in the South (Kittler and Sucher, 2001) . Except
for a small group of Yemenites who are farm workers, ArabAmericans are urban dwellers who work in industry and
7
private business, including a sizable group of professional
or semiprofessionals in all fields (Lipson et al., 1987).
Traditional Food Habits of Arabs
Traditional foods are a significant part of people's
diet and a demonstrator of their cultural uniqueness. Food
plays a central role in the lives of Arab families,
especially in the celebration of special occasions (often
religious) and in the observance of certain events like
weddings and births (Kittler and Sucher, 2001). Love and
care are intertwined with food and it's offering. Family
get-togethers are planned around elaborate meals;
conversations and discussion are only incidental (Meleis,
1981) .
Wheat, most commonly in bread, is the primary staple
food (Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1994).
Rice is also a staple item (Packard and McWilliams, 1994) .
Legumes, such as chickpeas, fava beans, and lentil are
other important ingredients in Arab cooking (Mermelstein,
1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1994). Favorite foods include
hummus (dip based pureed garbanzos), lentil soup, foul
(slow-cooked broad or black beans), and falafel (seasoned
ground bean paste, shaped and deep fried) (Packard and
8
McWilliams, 1993) . Vegetables are served often, usually in
elaborate preparations that required considerable time and
they are also preserved as pickles. Favorite vegetables in
Arab countries include eggplant, okra, green beans,
cucumber, and tomatoes. Beets were also favored and figure
in many dishes. Spinach becomes popular because of its
supposed dietary value. Onions are basic ingredients. Leeks
are used as much as onions. Squash is popular (Kritzman,
1999). Fresh fruits are eaten for desserts and snacks
(Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1994; Packard
and McWilliams, 1993). Fruit and sugar are also used to
make jelly and syrups (Kritzman, 1999).
Olives are eaten with most meals (Packard and
McWilliams, 1993) . Olive oil is frequently used in food
preparation especially in dishes that are to be eaten cold
and for frying fish. Corn or nut oil, clarified butter,
palm oil, or fat from mutton are used for most deep-frying
(Kittler and Sucher, 2001; Packard and McWilliams, 1993;
Weeb, 2 000). Sesame oil and tahini, a sauce made by
crushing sesame seeds, are used commonly; tahini is
especially favored on fried fish (Packard and McWilliams,
1993). Fresh butter is used to spread on bread (Kritzman,
1999) .
Fresh milk is not widely consumed but cheese and
yogurt, made from sheep or goat milk, contribute important
nutrients (Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams,
1994). Plain yogurt is used abundantly as a side dish and
in soups, dips, and cold drinks. Lebneh, a soft cheese
product made by draining the whey from yogurt, is a
standard food at breakfast and supper (Packard and
McWilliams, 1993).
Almost all meats and seafood are eaten, with the
exception of pork in the Muslim countries and pork and
shellfish among observant Jews in Israel. Red meat is
consumed more frequently than fish or poultry, and mutton
and lamb are preferred over beef (Bourne, 1987; Kittler and
Sucher, 2001; Kritzman, 1999; Mermelstein, 1999; Packard
and McWilliams, 1993; Weeb, 2000). Arabs like their meat
tender and well marbled with fat. Meat is often marinated
at least overnight in order to imbue it with the flavor of
herbs and spices. Although recipes for roasted meat are
relatively rare, there is a widespread taste for roast lamb
(Kritzman, 1999) . Various vegetables and meat pieces are
placed onto skewers and grilled or boiled. Sometimes ground
lamb or beef are mixed with spices and rolled into the
shape of nuggets or fingers and then grilled or baked
10
(Packard and McWilliams, 1993). It is common to boil meat
in casseroles with salt, onions, herbs, and spices. A wide
range of other ingredients is often added, along with
vegetables. Stews are frequently thickened by adding soaked
or peeled chickpeas, lentils, or fava beans. Sometimes meat
is fried before boiling (Kritzman, 1999).
Candy, baklava, halwa (sesame paste sweet, usually
made in a slab and studded with fruits and nuts), and
hakoum (gelatinized starch, sweetened with sugar) are the
popular sweets (Mermelstein, 1999). Nuts and seeds are used
widely as snacks and in main dishes, pilafs, and sweets.
Pistachios, almonds, hazelnuts, walnuts, sesame seeds, and
seeds of squash and melon are also popular (Packard and
McWilliams, 1993).
Tea and coffee are the most popular drinks and tea is
consumed sweetened with or without milk (Bourne, 1987;
Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1993) . Herbal
tea is used, sometimes for therapeutic purposes (Packard
and McWilliams, 1993).
Numerous herbs and spices are used to add vital
flavor to foods. Commonly used ones are allspice, black
pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, coriander, cumin, curry, fresh
cilantro, garlic, lemon, mace, mint, nutmeg, oregano,
11
paparika, parsley, poppy seeds, red pepper, saffron, salt,
sumac berries, thyme, and turmeric (Mermelstein, 1999;
Packard and McWilliams, 1993) . These traditional foods and
ingredients are used to prepare such Arabic dishes such as
couscous (a fine semolina grain, usually consumed by
steaming over a simmering stew), homous, foul, falafel, and
shawarma. Shawarma is a fast food that consists of meat
slices layered alternately with slabs of fat onto a
vertical rotisserie. As the outer surface cooks, small
pieces are carved off and served in pita bread with pickles
and a paste made of potatoes and garlic cooked in vegetable
oil. Tabouli is a mixture of finely minced parsley, mint,
green onion, soaked bulgur, diced cucumber and tomato,
olive oil, lemon juice, and a little salt. Koshary is a
dish containing a mixture of lentils with rice. Mansaf is a
lamb meat cooked with yogurt sauce and served on a base of
rice. Kibbeh is a mixture of ground lamb, bulgur, and
spices. Kofte is a ground lamb or beef which has been
spiced and rolled into the shaped of nuggets or fingers.
Fattoush is mixed salad of cucumber, tomato, onion,
lettuce, parsley, mint flakes, and toasted pita bread
(Mermelstein, 1999; Weeb, 2000) .
12
Foods available to a particular population depend on
the location, season, and storage and transportation
infrastructure of the country. Meal times tend to be later
in the Arab countries than in the United States: breakfast
at 10 a.m., main meal about 2 p.m., and supper after 9 p.m.
The evening meal may be served as late as midnight in
summer (Packard and Williams, 1993).
Breakfast usually consists of tea or coffee, followed
by bread with jams, cheese or yogurt, sliced tomatoes,
cucumbers, and olives. A heavier breakfast meal would
include eggs or legumes, such as falafel, foul, and hummus.
The main meal typically includes meats, grains, vegetables,
and legumes in a dish such as stuffed grape leaves, stuffed
eggplant, or cabbage rolls. It also includes bread and
yogurt. Seasonal fresh fruits always will be offered for
dessert; sometimes milk pudding flavored with rose water or
orange water also is served. A light evening meal consists
of bread, cheese or yogurt, eggs, olives, and salad.
Tabouli and fattoush are the favorite salads (Bourne, 1987;
Packard and McWilliams, 1993).
13
Dietary Islamic Food Law and Food Habits of Muslims
Islam is a comprehensive religion guiding the lives of
its followers through sets of rules governing the personal,
social, and public aspects (Chaudry, 1992). The spread of
Islam, starting in the 7^^ century, has given a basic
character to the food of people in the Middle East
(Mermelstein, 1999). Muslims are expected to eat for
survival, to maintain good health, and not to live for
eating. In Islam, eating is considered to be a matter of
worship of God like prayers, fasting, and other religious
practices. A Muslim eats to maintain a strong and healthy
physique in order to be able to contribute knowledge and
effort for the welfare of society (American Dietetic
Association and American Diabetes Association, 1996; Sakr,
1975) .
Moslem dietary laws are based on the restriction or
prohibition of some foods and the promotion of others,
derived from Islamic teaching in the Koran. Pork and pork
products, such as gelatin, and alcoholic beverages or any
thing that causes stupefaction or deprivation of senses are
prohibited (Chaudry, 1992; Hussaini, 1993; Sakr, 1975;
Twaigery and Spillman, 1992). The flesh of animals
slaughtered in a humane way outlined by Islamic law is
14
halal,
meaning lawful or permitted. All meat used for food
must be slaughtered according to ritual letting of blood
while speaking the name of Allah (God). If the animal is
not slaughtered properly, the meat becomes haram (unlawful
or prohibited) (Chaudry, 1992; Sakr, 1975) . Muslims use
kosher meat products because they know such products have
been slaughtered in the proper manner (Mahan and EscottStump, 2000) . Some foods have also been specially
recommended. It has been mentioned in the Koran that
certain foods have special value. These foods are figs,
olives, dates, honey, milk, seafood, and vegetable oil,
especially olive oil (Sakr, 1975; Williams, 2001).
Religion has also its influence on food manners and
habits of personal cleanliness. Eating always starts with
mentioning the name of God and the right hand is preferred
for eating. Muslims are advised to eat not more than twothird of their normal capacity. Eating slowly and sharing
food are recommended. Food is not to be thrown away,
wasted, or treated with contempt, as it is a provision from
God. Muslims must wash their hands before and after each
meal, and the mouth must be rinsed. It is traditional to
send a dish of food to a neighbor whenever something good
is prepared. If there are guests, the hosts are the first
15
to begin eating and the last to finish, and they are to
care for the needs of their guests before their own. The
drinking of stimulants, such as coffee and tea, is
discouraged, and smoking is strongly discouraged
(Mermelstein, 1999; Sakr, 1975).
Fasting in Islam
Fasting is practiced during the month of Ramadan every
year, which occurs during the ninth month of the Islamic
lunar calendar. During this month fasting is obligatory for
all adult and healthy Muslims during the daylight hours.
Muslims fast completely (do not eat or drink) from dawn to
sunset. They eat or drink only twice a day before dawn and
just after sunset. After sunset and during the night, until
the first light of dawn appears, people may eat and drink.
After sunset they have a large meal. Children under the age
of puberty are exempted from fasting, but the elderly who
are well are not allowed to postpone the fast. The sick,
those traveling, and pregnant, lactating, and menstruating
women are permitted to postpone their fast for Ramadan
until such a time as they less vulnerable; however, they
must make up the fast. People who have chronic disease are
not required to fast (Sabini, 1990; Sakr, 1971; Sakr,
16
1975). A recent study reported that Ramadan fasting was
unlikely to have any untoward effects on the quantity and
quality of breast milk or infant nutrition (Bener et al.,
2001) .
Muslims are also encouraged to fast at other times,
for example, for three days each month, on Mondays and
Thursdays, and for six days during the month following
Ramadan (Sabini, 1990; Sakr, 1971; Sakr, 1975) . Fasting is
considered to be training in controlling one's needs and
desires, in restraining oneself from self-indulgence, and
in deepening one's spiritual life. Muslims also fast to
improve their health, as the prophet Muhammad said:" If you
fast you will have better health," and also, "Eat less; you
will be healthier" (Sakr, 1975). The hunger that Muslims
experience while fasting also enables them to appreciate
the hunger of the poor and the needy (Hussaini, 1993; Sakr,
1975). During fasts Muslims consume two meals a day,
causing some changes to their nutritional habits and
lifestyle (Karaagaoglu and Yucecan, 2000) . These changes
lead to some reduction in the body weights (Hallak and
Nomani, 1988; Husain et al., 1987; Fedail et. al, 1982),
energy balances (Husain et al., 1987) and increase in the
levels of total serum cholesterol, thyroxine, and utric
17
acid (Fedail et al., 1982). During fasting, a Muslim eats a
large meal after sunset in the evening and a relatively
light meal before dawn. Although there is a reduction in
the total food consumption, the variety of food increases
(Hallak and Nomani, 1988). Milk, soups, fruit juices, fresh
and dehydrated fruits, and dates are among regular food
items eaten during this period. Special foods, using
special recipes, are made during this month. Sweets of all
types are prepared during Ramadan (Sakr, 1975) . There is a
tendency to consume more sweets and drinks in the evening
(Fedail et al., 1982).
Food Habits of Other Immigrant Groups
Food habits are an aspect of culture in which
personal, social, and situational factors interplay. When
people are relocated from one society to another,
differences in customs and food production capabilities may
influence the foods they eat.
Many investigations have been reported concerning food
habits and changes in food consumption patterns of
immigrants who have settled in the United States, such as
Chinese, Indian, Korean, Japanese, Vietnams, and Hispanic
(Chavez et al., 1994; Crane and Green, 1980; Gordon et al.,
18
2000; McArthur et al., 2001; Kim et al., 1984; Story and
Harris, 1989; Yang et al., 1979; Wenkam and Wolff, 1970).
Dietary Pattern, Food Intake, and Preference
Dietary pattern and food intake are altered in a new
cultural environment, but the progression of these changes
is dependent on factors such as socioeconomic status,
education, and the length of time since immigration.
A questionnaire survey conducted by Story and Harris
(1989) of 60 Southeast Asian refugee families (Cambodian
and Hmong) living in the United States obtained information
about changes in food habits, compared food intakes and
practices before and after resettlement, and assessed
preferences and adoption of American food. These authors
found that while food-buying practices have changed
drastically in the United States, Southeast Asia refugee
families have maintained strong ties to their native foods
and traditional diet. Rice, the staple food of the
southeast Asia diet, remains the most commonly food eaten
in America and was eaten daily. Fresh fruit, fresh
vegetables, meats, and soft drinks remained highly
preferred foods in the U.S. and were eaten more with the
exception of fish which is eaten less in the United States.
19
Fresh milk and cheese remained the least liked food items
because they are generally not available in Cambodia or
rural Laos.
These results were also confirmed by Wiecha et
al. (2001) . They found that Vietnamese students were much
likely to consume fruits and vegetables than did other
students, but they were less likely to consume dairy foods.
Story and Harris (1989) also reported that most of the
respondents preferred eating native foods but their
children preferred both American and native food. Steak was
the most preferred American food among Southeast Asian
refugee families living in the United States.
Another study conducted by Reeves and Henry (2000) to
investigate the ability of Malaysian students to modulate
their food intake when migrate from a country where the
energy density of food is low to a country where the energy
density of the majority of foods is high. A total of 53
female and 56 male Malaysians of average age 22 years were
recruited from the student body of Oxford Brookes
University. Food intake using 3-day food records and food
frequency questionnaires were measured on arrival in the UK
and after 3 and 6 months of stay. Authors found that there
was a decrease in the consumption of both red and white
meat while meat products such as sausages and burgers were
20
eaten more frequently in the UK than in Malaysia. Fish was
eaten less frequently in UK. Fruits and vegetables
consumption were both observed to decrease. There was an
increase in the consumption of bread and a decrease in the
consumption of rice and noodles. The number of cups of tea
and coffee increased per day but soft drinks and fruit
juices decreased. Also, alcohol consumption did not change
because the majority of the students were Muslims.
Breakfast was the meal has changed the most. The students
were more likely to have toast or cereal for breakfast
instead of rice or noodles while they were residents in the
UK, but dinner was similar to that consumed in Malaysia.
Wenkam and Wolff (1970) described the changing food
habits of the immigrants Japanese in Hawaii. They found
results similar those of Reeves and Henry (2000) . Bread and
crackers were replaced by rice in some meals and the most
conspicuous change was in the breakfast menu. The American
breakfast replaced the rice, soup, and pickled vegetable
meal of the traditional Japanese.
A study conducted by Grane and Green (198 0) to
determine food habits and preferences of 79 Vietnamese
refugee families residing in Leon, Bay, and Escambia
Counties in northern Florida, and to explore the extent of
21
dietary change resulting from resettlement in the United
States. The head of the house was asked to complete the
questionnaire. Although the majority of respondents had
resided in the United States for less than four years, the
authors found a change in their food habits. The refugees
ate more frequently foods characteristic of the American
diet such as milk, beef, butter or margarine, eggs,
potatoes, candy, and soft drinks. Food eaten frequently in
Vietnam such as vegetables, rice, and tea were also eaten
frequently in the United States. No change in the frequency
of the consumption of pork, chicken, canned vegetables,
bread, cooking oil, and coffee was apparent. Authors stated
that the respondents still strongly preferred the
Vietnamese foods and that steak was the only American food
these refugees like as much as or more than the Vietnamese
dishes. Fried chicken, pizza, and French fries were the
next favorite food items.
In a study conducted by Ikeda et al. (1991), 205
volunteer, low income Hmong homemakers completed two
questionnaires on patterns of food intake, variety of food
consumed, food preparation, and equipment; and 24-hour food
recalls. The majority of Hmong homemakers responding
reported consuming two meals per day and their meals
22
usually consist of white unenriched rice, vegetables, and
meat (chicken, pork, and beef were all consumed). While
rice is the staple of the diet and was eaten at every meal,
bread was consumed to a limited degree. Cereals were
consumed primarily by children who were exposed to them
either because of the WIC program or the School nutrition
program. Pork was the preferred meat and chicken was also
well liked and eaten regularly. Beef was consumed less
often than pork and chicken. Some fresh fruits and
vegetables they consumed in their homeland were not growing
in the United States, were only available in Asian-American
supermarkets, and high cost limited their consumption.
Also, low consumption of both milk and cheese was reported.
Snacking was more common among children, but it was not a
common practice of Hmong adults. Food preparation was the
responsibility of the wife. A metal cooking utensil
consisting of an upper and lower pot was used to cook the
staple of the Hmong diet. Also, stovetop cooking was the
most common method of food preparation. In addition, the
authors found that non-pregnant subjects revealed intakes
of less than 80% of the 1989 RDA for riboflavin, calcium,
iron, magnesium, and zinc. Pregnant subjects had lower
23
intakes of these nutrients, as well as of vitamins B-6 and
folacin.
Satia et al. (2000) conducted ninety-minute
qualitative interviews with 30 less-acculturated ChineseAmerican women in their native language to obtain
information regarding food consumption, knowledge,
attitude, and beliefs about diet and disease, and factors
that influence food choices. Also, the researchers
conducted 2-hour-long focus group sessions with 6
participants to cross-validate the interview finding.
Breakfast appeared to be the first meal that changed after
immigration. Most of the subjects consumed a Chinese style
lunch, such as noodles, soup, or rice, and they all
consumed a Chinese dinner. A majority did not eat snack
between meals. Participants seemed to be influenced by both
Eastern and Western concepts, beliefs regarding diet, and
health. Women mentioned "Western" concepts such as "banana
has potassium" and "eggs are high in cholesterol", whereas
they also stated such Eastern beliefs as "soup is good for
the 5 internal organs (heart, lungs, liver, spleen, and
kidneys)" and "ginger soup can unclog arteries to the
heart." Several mentioned that food could cause, prevent,
and treat illness.
24
A questionnaire designed by Pan et al. (1999) was
mailed to 120 Asian students to obtain information on
changes in their dietary patterns before and after
immigration to the United States. Sixty-three
questionnaires were used in the analysis. Results showed
that while women were responsible for food preparation in
their country of origin, more men were preparing food in
the United States. The researchers reported that many
students were Buddhist and still omitting foods (pork,
beef, fish, onion, garlic, and leek) from their diets
because of their religious beliefs. The majority of the
students spent between $100 and $199 per month for food per
person. The number of meals consumed per day had decreased
significantly since immigration to the United States,
subjects skipped breakfast more often than the other 2
meals. The researchers reported a significant decrease in
the number of times per week respondents ate out in the
United States. The participants were consuming more sweet
and salty snack items, chocolate, cookies, candy, and ice
cream. A small number of the students consumed the food
generally served in the United States on the Thanksgiving
and Christmas holidays. Also, there were significant
increases in the frequency of the consumption fats and
25
sweets, dairy products, and fruits and significant
decreases in consumption of meat/meat alternatives and
vegetables. No change was noted in the frequency of
consumption of grains. Most subjects gained weight after
immigrating to the United States.
In another study, qualitative data were collected
through individual interviews with a sample of 23
participants and through a focus group discussion with a
separate sample of 10 respondents to assess maintenance and
change in the food consumption, preparation, and purchasing
practices of Hispanic immigrants currently residing in
Eastern North Carolina who had lived in the United States
for no more than 10 years (McArthur et al., 2001). These
Hispanic immigrants were struggling to retain their
cultural food adapting to a different lifestyle, and being
exposed to a new majority culture food. School-aged
children showed a strong preference for American style
foods over traditional Mexican foods. Similar findings were
reported by Story and Harris (1989) among Southeast Asian
children living in the United States. While Hispanic
mothers were responsible for food preparation in their
country of origin, husbands had a positive attitude toward
participating in food preparation when their wives worked
26
outside the home in the United States. They generally
purchased food at open markets on a daily basis in their
home country, but in the United States they shopped for
food once a week from local supermarkets. Story and Harris
(1989) reported that in Southeast Asia, food was generally
purchased daily from independent vendors who sell meat and
other foods in open markets, but food-buying practices had
changed radically among Southeast Asians in the United
States and they shopped once a week in large supermarkets
or in oriental markets.
Factors of Dietary Change
Many researchers who examined the food habits of
immigrant group not only described the traditional food
ways of these groups but also identify ecological factors
that contribute to change in their dietary practices.
Several authors (Crane and Green, 1980; McArthur et al.,
2001; Pan et al., 1999; Satia et al., 2000; Story and
Harris, 1989) have noted that as immigrant groups become
assimilated into the majority culture, traditional foods
are consumed less often than when they lived in the home
country. Several ecological factors such as food
availability and convenience, quality/freshness, income
27
level, relative price of foods, media exposure, and length
of time in the United States can bring about changes in the
dietary habits.
Convenience and Availability of Ingredients
An important feature of ethnic cuisine is the use of
specific ingredients for flavoring (Kittler and Sucher,
2001). McArthur et al. (2001) reported that a Hispanic
immigrants group was pleased that they could easily locate
authentic sauce, spices, and cheeses at mainstream and
Latino grocery stores. When ethnic ingredients were not
locally available, they substituted a similar ingredient in
the recipes. Reeves and Henry (2000) reported that the
availability of certain foods in UK supermarkets influenced
the frequency of how often certain foods were eaten. The
students were not internationally trying to alter their
native diet but typically Malaysian food was not available
and so UK substitutes were purchased. Yang and Fox (1979)
noted similar practices with Chinese people living in the
United States, where American foods were not always eaten
in their natural style, but instead were modified according
to the flavor or texture preferences of the Chinese and
accepted as new 'Chinese-like' foods. Satia et al. (2000)
28
found that many American- women consumed a Western-style
breakfast, such as a bagel with cream cheese. They stated
this was the primarily for convenience, as it is time
consuming to prepare Chinese breakfast meals such as a
fried dumpling. Also, they sometimes ate American foods
because it is difficult for them to find traditional
Chinese foods. Pan et al. (1999) found that Asian students
consumed a large amount of salty and sweet snack items, a
practice that might not be nutritionally desirable. This
increased use of snack items might be attributable to the
availability and convenience of these items. Also, they
were consuming American-style meals (e.g., pizza,
hamburger, sandwich, French fries) when they ate out.
Income Level
The generally improved economic situation of society
provides sufficient income in most cases to give us more
choice. McArthur et al. (2001) reported that migration
provided the Hispanic people with an opportunity to improve
their economic status, which brought about changes in the
kinds and amounts of food they consumed. Respondents
reported that their economic status in their home country
played a major role in determining what food they consumed
29
and how often they consumed them. Meats and fruits were
consumed more in the United States than in home country.
Relative Price of Food
Several studies showed that immigrant people consumed
more beef than fish in the United States because fish was
more expensive in the United States (Crane and Green, 1980;
McArthur et al., 2001; Satia et al., 2000). Reeves and
Henry (2000) found that fruits, vegetables, beef, and fish
consumption were decreased in UK due to the cost. Pan et
al. (1999) similarly found that there were a decrease in
the vegetables and meat in the United States but conversely
found an increase in the consumption of fruits.
Length of Time in the Western Countries
Many researchers (Yang and Fox, 1979; Kim et al.,
1984; Pan et al., 1999) found that dietary changes were
related to the length of stay in the United States. Chavez
et al. (1994) investigated the effect of length of U.S.
residence on food groups intake in 112 non-pregnant Mexican
and Puerto Rican women attending a community health center
WIC clinic by using a food frequency questionnaire. They
found that longer periods of residence in the United States
were associated with decreased intake of fruit and
30
vegetables, protein foods, dairy foods, and breads among
Mexican women. For Puerto Rican women, fruit and vegetables
intake was decreased and dairy food intake was increased.
Acculturation
Acculturation is defined as the process that underlies
the changes in the immigrants' culture beliefs and values
toward those of the host country (Satia et al., 2001).
Cultural, psychological, social, economic, and political
changes are involved (Lee et al., 1999). Acculturation is
typically assessed with undimenstional measures such as
migration status, generation level, length of stay,
language proficiency, and media and social preferences, or
a combination of these which is called multidimenstional
(Dewey et al., 1984; Chavez et al., 1994; Gordon et al.,
2000; Guendelman and Abrams, 1995; Hrobotickly and Krondi,
1984; Lee et al., 1994; Lee et al., 1999; Satia et al.,
2001; Story and Harris, 1989; Romero-Gwynn et al., 1993).
While food habits and beliefs about food difference among
cultures, it has been shown that dietary behaviors are
sensitive to cultural changes that occur with migration
(Axelson, 1986). Many recent investigations examined in
acculturation-related diet and nutrition studies include
31
food use, food pattern, and nutrient composition of diet.
Romero-Gwynn et al. (1993) who studied the dietary
pattern of Mexican Americans living in California, found
that these immigrants became acculturated and exchanged
their traditional diet for a nontraditional diet. The
changes included an increased consumption of flour
tortillas; a decreased use of lard but increased
consumption of margarine, butter, vegetable oil,
mayonnaise, salad dressing, and sour cream; and an
increased consumption of sliced white bread, sugar rich
drinks, and ready to eat breakfast cereals. Also they found
a decreased consumption of chilis and many traditional
dishes with vegetables.
Hrboticky and Krondi (1984)
examined the changes in the perceived flavor, health value
and prestige of common Canadian foods in a group of firstand second-generation Chinese immigrant adolescent males.
They found that the second generation subjects and those
with more acculturated patterns of language use gave higher
hedonic flavor and prestige ratings to dessert, snacks and
fast foods. Also they found that the second-generation
group exhibited better discrimination between nutrient rich
and poor foods.
32
Lee et al. (1994) compared dietary habits, physical
activity patterns, and body mass index of 2488 healthy
Chinese men and women residing in North America and the
People's Republic of China. They found that Chinese in
China consumed more calories and more carbohydrate; but
less fat, protein, vitamin A, beta-carotene, and vitamin C
than did Chinese in North America. Also they reported that
Chinese in China spent more time in vigorous activity,
sleeping, and working than Chinese in North America.
Furthermore, Chinese in China weighed less and were leaner
than North American Chinese.
Guendelman and Abrams (1995) compared the nutrient
intake of second-generation Mexican American women of
childbearing age detriorate with that of first generation
and approximates that of White non-Hispanic women by using
a 24-hour dietary recall. They found that, while first
generation Mexican-American women were of lower
socioeconomic status than were second generation or white
non-Hispanic women of childbearing age, they had a
healthier nutrient intake such as a higher average intake
of protein and vitamins (A, C, and folic acid).
33
Food Frequency Questionnaire
Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) is a technique used
for collecting food intake information. FFQ asks
participants to report their usual frequency of consumption
of each food from a list of food for a specific period
(Block, 1982; Thompson and Byers, 1994). FFQ is designed to
estimate the participant's usual intake of foods. It also
can be used to circumvent recent changes in diet by
obtaining information about individuals' diets. Many food
frequency tools also incorporate portion size questions, or
specify portion sizes as part of each question to estimate
relative or absolute nutrient intake. Advantages of FFQ
that it is a relatively inexpensive to code, can be made to
be self-administered and require little time to complete,
and may be more representative of individual intake than a
few days of dietary records (Block, 1989; Thompson and
Byers, 1994) . However, its validity is highly dependent on
the correct selection of the foods on the list, and on the
correct selection of portion size and nutrient content
assumptions for each food. In addition, FFQ relies on the
participant's self-description of his or her diet and also
is limited in its ability to assess accurately the nutrient
intake of groups with dietary patterns markedly different
34
from the food list. The validity of FFQ was investigated by
Willett et al. (1985). The FFQ was administrated to the 173
participants at the beginning and end of a year to
investigate the relationship between diet and cancer/heart
disease in a population. Four 7-day weighed food records
were collected throughout the year. They found that the FFQ
used generated nutrient intake data that compared favorably
with those from 7-day weighed food records. Also, the
investigators evaluated the usefulness of the FFQ to
reproduce dietary intake information of recent past. The
same FFQ was administered to the same participants in the
previous study that mentioned before 3-4 years after the
weighed food records were collected. The result proved the
validation of the FFQ in assessing usual intake (Willett et
al., 1988) .
Measurement of Food Preferences
Food consumption is predictable and different
measurements have been used to measure food preferences.
The most common measurement is a questionnaire developed
food items in which a hedonic scale is used to rate the
degree of liking of each food (Einstein and Hornstein,
197 0; Meiselman and Waterman, 1978; Peryam and Pilgrim,
35
1957; Pilgrim, 1961; Viljoen and Gericke, 2001 A, B; Weaver
and Brittin, 2001; Wyant and Meiselman, 1984).
Studies reported that there was a relationship
between an individual's food preferences and frequency of
consumption of foods (Knickrehm et al., 1969; Weaver and
Brittin, 2001) . Pilgrim (1961) stated that food preferences
change with age. Region of origin, size of town, and
education level also influence food preference.
Hedonic Scale
This scale is known as a degree of liking scale. The
historical development of the use of hedonic scales for
foods has been traced by Peryam and Pilgrim (1957). The
scales were first used by the Quartermaster food and
Container Institute in 1947 when a seven-point scale of
like and dislike terms provided information on the
preferences of army personnel for menu items (American Meat
Science Association and National Live Stock Meat Board,
1995). A 5-to 9-point balanced scale is used. The most
common hedonic scale is the 9-point hedonic scale. The 9point scale is very simple to use and easy to implement. It
has been shown to be useful in the hedonic assessment of
foods and more sensitive to differences among foods than
36
shorter ones (Jones et al., 1955; Lawless and Heymann,
1999). The hedonic scale assumes that consumer preferences
exist on a continuum and that preferences can be
categorized by responses based on likes and dislikes
(Peryam and Pilgrim, 1957). The words chosen for each scale
option were based on equal interval spacing. This equal
interval option is useful in the assignment of numerical
values to the response choices and to the use of parametric
statistic in analysis of the data (Lawless and Heymann,
1999). It has been reported that the scale is reliable and
has a high stability of response. Peryam and Pilgrim (1957)
stated that the hedonic rating can be affected by changes
in environmental conditions that the absolute magnitude of
the hedonic score may increase or decrease, but all the
samples had relative changes.
In using the hedonic scale, sample are presented in
the succession and the subject is told to decide how much
he or she likes or dislikes each food and to mark the scale
accordingly. The scale is verbally anchored with nine
categories: dislike extremely, dislike very much, dislike
moderately, dislike slightly, neither dislike nor like,
like slightly, like moderately, like very much, and like
extremely. Many different forms of hedonic scales may be
37
used without major effects on the value of the results, as
long as the essential feature of verbal anchoring of
successive categories is retained. Reduction in the
numbered categories to less than five is not advisable
(American Meat Science Association and National Live Stock
Meat Board, 1995). Hedonic scaling can also achieved using
facial scales. These scales are simple smiley faces, or
more representational, involving animal cartoons, or more
realistic pictures of adults. These scales are useful if
the researcher is working with children or illiterate
people (Lawless and Heymann, 1999). The food preferences
questionnaire is designed to explore the attitude toward
the food type based on experiences with food.
38
CHAPTER III
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects
Potential participants were students who were born in
Arab countries, had resided in the United States at least 3
months before the study, and aged 18 years or older.
Sixteen Arab countries were included in the study: namely
Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya,
Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Yemen, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Syria, Tunisia, and United Arab Emirate. Potential
participants for this study were 248 Arab students enrolled
at five U.S. Universities, which were Iowa State
University, New Mexico State University, Texas A&M
University, Texas Tech University, and University of
Kansas. Names of potential participants and contact
information were obtained from the lists of members of the
Arab students' Association and from campus phone directory
at the Universities mentioned above. Potential participants
were contacted by e-mail (Appendix A) to determine
willingness and eligibility to participate in the study, to
ask if they can read the questionnaire in English or if
Arabic is needed, and to obtain/verify name, address and
39
telephone Number. Screening for eligibility was done to
exclude those who had any of the following criteria:
students who are not Arab, Arab students who were not born
in Arab countries, have resided in the United States less
than 3 months, and age under 18 years.
The protocol for this study was approved by Texas Tech
University Human Subjects Review Committee. The
questionnaire was pre-tested on 5 Arab students chosen from
the list of Texas Tech University. Four males and 1 female
from five different Arab countries (Bahrain, Jordan,
Kuwait, Libya, Yemen) completed the questionnaire and
participated in a focus group. The questionnaire was
revised on the bases of respondents' comments before the
actual survey was done. These students were not included in
the subsequent study
To minimize bias the food items listed in the
questionnaire were translated into Arabic. Participants
were asked to complete the questionnaire within 2 weeks.
The questionnaire and a self-addressed, stamped return
envelope were mailed in April and May 2002 to each student
who had previously agreed to participate in the study so
that he or she could easily return the questionnaire to the
researcher. Participants who did not return the
40
questionnaire were contacted by telephone 2 weeks after the
day of distribution and if necessary, again 1 week later.
If subjects did not respond after receiving 3 phone calls,
they were considered not interested.
Subject's responses were kept confidential; only a
code number was written on the questionnaire. Their
participations were entirely voluntary. They could withdraw
at any time. They could refuse to answer any question.
Questionnaire Design
A questionnaire (Appendix B) composed of four-part by
using a multiple choice and fill in the blank format was
developed to collect information about demographic
characteristics, degree of acculturation, general food
habits, factors affecting dietary choices after living in
the United States, consumption of specific food items
before and after living in the United States, and food
preferences for these food items. An explanation of the
project's objectives and request for the student to
participate in the study were included on the first page of
the questionnaire. The questionnaire took approximately 45
minutes to complete. The questionnaire was mailed to 70
students.
41
Part I of the questionnaire was asked about the food
consumption frequency and preference. A food frequency and
preference list of specific food items was developed to
determine the average number of times each day, week, or
month each food item was consumed and the degree of liking
of each food item. Food items were adapted from previous
studies (Mermelstein, 1999; Packard and McWilliams, 1993;
USDA, 1997; Weaver and Brittin, 2001).
The 109 food items
were listed according to the six groups of food guide
pyramid: bread, cereal, rice, and pasta (18 items);
vegetables (19 items); fruits (13 items); meat, poultry,
fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts (20 items); milk, yogurt,
and cheese (14 items); fats, oils, and sweet (13 items).
Beverages (7 items) and some Arabic dishes (5 items) were
also included in the list (Weeb, 2001; Thompson et al.,
1987). Subjects were asked to rate each food item twice;
the first rating reflected frequency of consumption while
living in the country of origin and the second rating
reflected consumption after living in the United States. No
specific questions on portion size of the food were asked
because our focus of this study was frequency of
consumption not quantity or nutrient intakes. Subjects were
also asked to indicate the degree of liking of each food
42
item by using a 9-point hedonic scale, which had range from
dislike extremely to like extremely.
Part II of the questionnaire was 23 questions
developed to collect information about general food habits
and factors affecting dietary choices after living in the
United States. The section on general food habits had
questions about number of meals consumed daily, meal times
and meal types, skipping meals, the main meal, kinds of
fats and herbs/spices used for cooking, and frequency of
snacking and eating out. Additional questions asked about
type of food items consumed more often during snacking and
eating out and about consumption of food generally served
in the United States on Thanksgiving and Christmas
holidays. This section also asked questions about the
gender of person who prepares meals and purchases foods,
and frequency of shopping. Participants were also asked to
identify factors that influence any changes in their food
habits.
Part III of the questionnaire was 23 questions
developed to obtain information about demographic
characteristics. Information on gender, age, weight,
height, country of origin, residence in the U.S., age
entered U.S., marital status, education, length of
43
residence in the U.S., employment, annual income, monthly
food expenditure, weight changes, special diet (weight-loss
diet, vegetarian diet, or for medical condition), chronic
diseases, and dietary supplements (including frequency of
vitamin and/or minerals intake) were obtained. Questions on
religious affiliation to assess adherence to religious
dietary practices in the United States were also included.
Part IV consisted of nine questions adapted from a
research article (Liou and Contento, 2001) to assess the
subjects' degree of acculturation. The subjects were asked
questions to indicate the language(s) in which they read,
speak, and think and read newspapers. The ethnic background
of their friends and health professionals also were
assessed. The types of food that they prefer to eat, what
they usually eat at home, and their favorite types of
restaurants were also asked. Response categories for all
questions were ranged from A (Only Arabic) to E (only
American).
Statistical Analysis
The Statistical Analysis system for windows (SAS,
1989) was used to conduct analysis of variance, X^ tests,
and correlation analysis. The X^tests were used to analyze
44
the relationship between change in eating habits and
discrete variables, and to compare categorical variables of
eating patterns in country of origin and in the United
States. One-way analysis of variance was used to determine
the effect of treatments (in country of origin and in the
United States) on eating pattern, and to determine the
effect of gender on liking of 109 foods and total of each
food group. Two-way analysis of variance was used to
determine the effect of treatments (in country of origin
and in the United States), gender, and their two-factor
interaction on food consumption frequency of 109 foods and
total of each food group.
Pearson's correlation
coefficients were determined between acculturation scores
and demographic variables (age, age entered U.S.,
education, length of residence in U.S., income level, and
food expenditure); hedonic scores and consumption frequency
of each food and total of each food group combined for men,
women, and for total, acculturation score and hedonic
scores of each food and total of each food group, and
between demographic variables, acculturation score, and
frequency of consumption for each food and for total food
group. Duncan's Multiple Range Test was used to determine
which groups differed significantly from each other.
45
Results were reported as mean ± standard deviation. Results
were considered statistically significant at P<0.05.
46
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Information concerning food practices and preferences
was obtained by surveying Arab students at Iowa State
University, New Mexico State University, Texas A&M
University, Texas Tech University, and University of
Kansas. Of the 70 questionnaires mailed, 45 were returned
(64.3%) . A returned questionnaire was considered usable if
the demographic and general food habits sections were
completed. Three subjects did not complete the food
frequency and preferences section and were not included in
food consumption frequency and preference analysis, but
they were included in other analyses. Every effort was made
to contact students who did not return questionnaires. Of
the 25 not returned, six students said they thought the
questionnaire would take more time than they were willing
to give, five went to their home country, and the remainder
were not contacted after 3 follow-up phone calls.
Quetelet's body mass index (BMI) was calculated by dividing
weight in kilograms by height in meter^ (kg/m^) (Deyoung,
2000). The frequency of intake of each food in the food
frequency section was calculated as times per month
47
(daily=30, weekly=4.29, monthly=l, yearly=0.083). The Sum
total of each food group of the consumption frequency and
the average of each food group of liking were calculated
and named as a total.
Characteristics of Subjects
Table 1 shows the general demographic characteristics
of the subjects. Subjects had a mean age of 29.0±4.7 years
(range=2 0-41years), with more male (80%) than female (20%).
The average weight and height for males were 84.2+19.0 kg
and 1.77±0.08 m, respectively. The average weight and height
for females were 64.5+8.9 kg and 1.6+0.05 m, respectively.
The average BMI in males was 26.7+5.0 (range=20.3-41.3), and
in females was 24.6±3.5(range=19.3-30.2). The desirable BMI
range for healthy adults is 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m^, which
reflects a healthy weight for height (Deyoung, 2000). All
subjects were Arabic, but they originated from nine
different countries (53.4% from Jordan, 11.1% from Egypt,
8.9% from Yemen, 6.7% from Lebanon, 6.7% from Syria, 4.4%
from Morocco, 4.4% from Oman, 2.2% from Saudi Arabia, and
2.2% from Sudan). The majority of subjects lived in Texas
(68.9%); they reported their marital status as married
48
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of subjects (n=45).
Variable
Mean+SD'
Age (years)
Weight (kg)
Men
Women
Height (m)
Men
Women
BMI^ (kg/m^)
Men
Women
Age of arrival in United States (years)
Education (years)
Length of residence in the United States
(years)
Annual income before taxes ($)
Monthly food expenditure per person($)
29.0±4.74
84.2±19.0
64.5±8.8
1.8±0.08
1.6±0.05
26.7±5.0
24.6±3.5
25.9+5.5
19.2+2.9
3.2+2.6
23706.7+21289.9
205.1+102.0
Number
Variable
Gender
Men
Women
Marital status
Single
Married
Country of origin
Jordan
Egypt
Yemen
Lebanon
Syria
Morocco
Oman
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
49
36
9
80.0
20.0
19
26
42.2
57.8
24
5
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
53.4
11.1
8.9
6.7
6.7
4.4
4.4
2.2
2.2
Table 1. Continued.
Variable
Number
State of residence in U .S.
Texas
Iowa
Kansas
New Mexico
Employed
Full-time
Part-time
Unemployed
Religion
Islam
None
Fast during Ramadan
In home country
Yes
No
In 2001
Yes
No
Degree of adherence to religious
dietary practices in, U.S.
Always
Almost always
Usually
Seldom
Never
Living in U.S.
Alone
With family
With friend
Number of people in family
1
2
3
4
5
50
9
1
,1
,9
31
5
5
4
68
11
11
8
7
23
15
15 .6
51 .1
33 .3
44
1
97.8
2.2
44
1
97.8
2.2
42
3
93.3
6.7
27
11
4
2
1
60.0
24.5
8.9
4.4
2.2
12
27
6
18
12
8
3
4
26.7
60.0
13.3
40.0
26.6
17.8
6.7
8.9
Table 1. Continued.
Variable
Number
Special diet
In country of origin
Yes
No
In U.S.
Yes
No
Reason for a special diet
In country of origin
Weight loss diet
Vegetarian diet
Medical condition
In U.S.
Weight loss diet
Vegetarian diet
Medical condition
Have any type of chronic disease
Yes
No
Type of chronic disease
Diabetes
Heart disease
Cancer
Other disease
Change weight after living in U.S.
Yes
No
How much weight change
Lost 5-15 pounds
Lost 16-25 pounds
Lost over 25 pounds
Gained 5-15 pounds
Gained 16-25 pounds
Gained over 25 pounds
51
3
42
6. 7
93. 3
8
37
17. 8
82. 2
2
1
0
66. 7
33. 3
0. 0
4
1
3
50. 0
12. 5
37. 5
2
43
4. 4
9 5 . ,6
^
0
0
5 0 , .0
0 .0
0 .0
50 . 0
36
9
80 . 0
20 . 0
7
1
0
21
3
4
19 . 4
2 .9
0 .0
58 . 3
8 .3
11 . 1
Table 1. Continued,
Variable
Number
Reasons for gained weight
Food in U.S. is fatting and makes
One gained
The U.S. life style leads to weight
gained
Other reasons
Take vitamin or mineral supplements
Yes, fairly regularly
Yes, but not regularly
No
^Mean±standard deviation.
'^BMI=Body mass index.
52
14
50.0
19
67.9
3
10.7
5
7
33
11.1
15.6
73.3
(57.8%), and their spouses from Arab countries (100%). The
mean of age entered U.S. was 25.9±5.5 years (range=13-40
years). The mean years of education was 19.2+2.9 (range=1426 years). The mean of length of residence in U.S. was
3.2+2.6 years (range=0.4-10 years). Most of the subjects
were employed (51.1% were part-time employed and 15.6% were
full-time employed). Although the majority of subjects were
Muslims (97.8%) and they fast during Ramadan in their home
countries, some of them (6.7%) did not fast in year 2001.
Most of the subjects always adhered to religious dietary
practices in U.S. (60%) and they lived with family (60%).
The mean income (before tax) was $23706.7+$21289.9
(range=$9,600-120,000). The mean monthly food expenditure
per person was $205.1+$102, with range from $50-600. Of
these 45 subjects, 3 (6.7%) reported that they were on a
special diet in their countries of origin; (2 had weight
loss diets and 1 had a vegetarian diet). The number of
subjects having a special diet increased from 3 (6.7%) to 8
(17.8%) after they lived in U.S., with 4 having a weight
lost diet (50%) and 3 a medical condition (37.5%). Most of
the subjects did not have any type of chronic disease
(95.6%), and they reported a change in their weight after
53
immigrating to U.S. (80%). The majority of subjects gained
5-15 pounds (58.3%); influencing factors included
availability of fattening food in U.S (50%), the U.S. life
style such as eating more and sleeping well (67.9%), and no
time to exercise (10.7%). In general, dietary supplements
were not widely used by this population: only 12 (26.7%) of
subjects took vitamin and/or mineral supplements, and only
5 (11.1%) took them fairly regularly.
The subjects' levels of acculturation are presented in
Table 2. Scale of 1-5, with 1 being "only Arabic" and 5
denoting "only English (American)." The means for reading,
speaking, and thinking in language were 3.1, 2.6,and 2.2,
respectively. The average of reading newspapers was 3.1.
The means for choosing close friends and health
professionals were 2.0 and 2.7, respectively. The mean for
preferring types of food was 2.1. The means for kinds of
food usually eat at home and favorite restaurants were
2.1 and 2.7, respectively. The overall mean for degree of
acculturation for was 2.5.
Table 3 shows correlation coefficients for
acculturation scores and demographic characteristics
54
Table 2. Acculturation level of subjects (n=45).
Item
Mean+SD^
What language (s) do you read?
3.1+0.8''
What language(s) do you speak?
2.6+0.7
What language do you think in?
2.2+1.0
What newspapers do you usually read?
3.1+1.3
Your close friends are:
2.0+0.9
If you choose a family doctor or other health
professionals, whom do you prefer?
2.7±0.9
What kinds of food do you prefer?
2.1+0.7
What do you usually eat at home?
2.1+0.8
What is/are your favorite restaurant(s)?
2.7+1.2
Overall
2.5±0.5
^SD=standard deviation.
''Scale: l=only Arabic; 2=Arabic more than English; 3=both
equally; 4=English/American more than Arabic; 5=only
English (American)
55
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for age, age entered United States, education, length of
residence in the United States, income, and food
expenditure. There was a significant and negative
correlation coefficient between the acculturation score of
reading newspapers and age entered United States,
indicating Younger subjects read more American newspapers
than the older subjects did. Significant and positive
correlation coefficients were found between the
acculturation scores for prefer family doctor or other
health professionals and years of education and of kinds of
food eat at home and length of residence in the United
States. Thus preference for American doctor or health
professionals was associated with more education, and
subjects living in the United States longer consumed more
American food and less Arabic food. A significant and
positive correlation coefficient found between the
acculturation score of close friends and monthly food
expenditure; subjects spent more money on food when they
had more American friends. A significant and positive
correlation coefficient was found between overall
acculturation score and length of residence in the United
States; longer residence in the United States was
associated with more acculturation.
57
Changes in Eating Patterns and Food Practices
Table 4 shows the results of change in eating patterns
of Arab students between time living in country of origin
and in the United States. The number of meals consumed per
day by Arab students decreased significantly (P<0.01) while
living in the United States. Pan et al. (1999) also found
that the number of meals consumed per day by Asian students
decreased after immigrating to the United States. Meal time
changed significantly (P<0.01) while breakfast time did not.
The subjects ate lunch and dinner earlier in the United
States than in country of origin. Lunch was eaten around 2
p.m and dinner around 9 p.m in country of origin while in
United States they were eaten around 1 p.m and 8 p.m,
respectively. Packard and Williams (1993) stated that meals
were eaten late in the Arab countries. The number of times
per month subjects ate snacks had increased States but not
significantly after living in the United. The number of
times per month subjects ate out had increased although not
significantly after living in the United States. Subjects
shopped only one-half as frequently in the United States as
in country of origin (P<0.01).
58
Table 4. Means and standard deviations of eating patterns
of Arab students in country of origin and in United States
(n=45).
Variable
Meals per day
In country
of origin
In United
States
2.8+0.6
2.4±0.8**
Meal time (hr)
Breakfast
Lunch
Dinner
8.7±1.3
14.3±1.2
20.8+1.2
8.5±1.4
13.4±1.8**
19.8±2.0**
Snacks per month
28.0+24.2
32.8±33.0
Eating out per month
6.7+6.3
8.9±7.8
Shopping times per month
16.3+15.5
8.1+5.1**
*, ** Means in a row differ (P<0.05, P<0.01, respectively)
59
Table 5 shows chi-square analysis results concerning
eating patterns. There was a significant difference in
skipping meals in country of origin and in the United
States More than half of the subjects stated that they
skipped breakfast more often than the other 2 meals in
country of origin and in the United States (60% in country
of origin, 55.5% in the United States). Lunch was also
commonly skipped in the United States (26.7%), while dinner
was commonly skipped in country of origin (33.3%). The
present finding that breakfast is the most skipped meal
agrees with previous research (Pan et al., 1999; Story and
Harris, 1988) that found that breakfast was the most
frequently skipped meal by Asian students and southeast
refugee adolescents after immigration to the United States.
The main meal of day changed significantly (P<0.01) after
living in the United States. Most of subjects reported that
lunch meal was the main meal in country of origin (71%)
while dinner meal was the main meal after living in the
United States (55.6%). There was no significant difference
in fats used in country of origin and in the United States,
although fewer subjects indicated that they used olive oil
and more subjects used other vegetable oil in the United
60
Table 5. Chi-square values of eating patterns of Arab
students (n=45) in country of origin and in United States.
Variable
In country
of origin
In United
States
Total
df
Chisquare
value
Number of subjects
Skip meals
Breakfast
Lunch
Dinner
Main meal
Lunch
27
3
15
25
12
8
52
15
23
2
7.60*
32
13
45
2
16.37*
*
Dinner
Varies
Fats used for
cooking/serving
food
Olive oil
Vegetable oil
Butter
Shortening
Eat snacks between
meals
Yes
No
Snack items
Potato chips
Cookies
Crackers
Chocolate candy
Ice cream
Fruits
Fruit juice
Soft drinks
Coffee
Other
9
4
25
7
11
35
37
20
4
24
42
19
5
59
79
39
9
3
2.31
34
11
33
12
67
23
1
0 .80
22
12
6
14
17
25
19
21
15
4
21
22
9
17
18
20
24
26
20
1
43
34
15
31
35
45
43
47
35
5
9
6 .51
61
Table 5.Continued.
Variable
In country
of origin
In United
States
Total
df
Chisquare
value
Number of subject
Kinds of food
eaten out
Arabic
American
Chinese food
Indian food
Mexican food
Other
Gender of person
responsible for
food preparation
Men
Women
Both
43
18
5
3
1
4
13
41
22
8
20
2
56
59
27
11
21
6
51.82**
1
42
2
17
23
5
18
65
7
21.06**
**P<0.05, P<0.01, respectively.
62
States. Almost equal numbers of subjects ate snacks betwe
en
meals in country of origin and in the United States (75.5
in country of origin, 73.3% in the United States. After
living in The United States, more subjects consumed cooki
es
(66.65%), crackers (27.8%), chocolate candy (51.5%), fruit
juice (72.7%), soft drinks (78.8%), and coffee (60.6%) and
fewer students consumed fruits. Kinds of food eaten out
differed significantly (P<0.01). After living in the United
States, more subjects ate American food (91.1%), Chinese
food (48.9%), Indian food (17.8%), and Mexican food (44.4%)
when they ate out, while fewer subjects ate Arabic food
(28.9%) and other (Italian) food (4.4%). Gender of person
responsible for food preparation was significantly
different in the United States than in country of origin.
Most of subjects reported that women were responsible for
food preparation in their country of origin, while in the
United States more men were preparing food, more both men
and women were responsible for food preparation.
Table 6 shows general food habits of subjects after
living in the United States. Breakfast was the meal that
had changed most. The majority of subjects consumed both
Arabic and American meal for breakfast (60%) since living
63
Table 6. General food habits of Arab students
living in United States.
Variable
(n=4 5) after
Number
Meal type usually eaten
Breakfast
Arabic meal
American meal
Both
Lunch
Arabic meal
American meal
Both
Dinner
Arabic meal
American meal
Both
Herbs and spices used for cooking
All spices
Black pepper
Cinnamon
Garlic
Mint
Nutmeg
Oregano
Other herbs or spices
Type of meals more economical to prepare
Arabic meals
American meals
Both are the same
Consume more Western/American dishes
Yes
No
Reasons for Consuming more
Western/American dishes
Availability
Convenience
Preference
Like to try new food
64
10
8
27
22. 2
17. 8
60. 0
17
7
21
37. 8
15. 5
46. 7
18
2
25
40. 0
4. 4
55. 6
26
38
23
37
14
^
^
4
57. 8
84. 4
5 1 . ,1
8 2 , ,2
31,.1
4 .4
11 .1
8 .9
"^
28
10
15 .6
62 .2
22 .2
24
21
53 .3
46 .7
J-^
14
0
64 .3
50 .0
0' . 0
2 5 ;.o
"^
Table 6. Continued.
Variable
Number
Kind of supermarket is used for buying
food
Arabian supermarket
American supermarket
Avoid eating certain food because of
religious beliefs in country of origin
Yes
No
Maintain same religious dietary
regulation is in U.S.
Yes
No
Consume the food generally served in U.S
on Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays
Yes
No
Feeling about overall diet in U.S.
compared with in country of origin
More healthy
Less healthy
Just healthy as in my country
Change eating habits in U.S.
Yes
No
65
0
45
0.0
100.0
40
5
88.9
11.1
31
1
97.5
2.5
24
21
53.3
46.7
11
23
11
24.5
51.0
24.5
37
8
82.2
17.8
in the United States, whereas more subjects ate Arabic
meals at lunch and dinner. Chau et al. (1990) found that a
mix of American and Chinese foods were consumed at
breakfast whereas afternoon and evening meals were
predominantly composed of traditional Chinese food.
Subjects reported that they use a variety of herbs and
spices to season foods in the United States. These include
all spices (57.8%), black pepper 84.4%), cinnamon (51.1%),
garlic (82.2%), mint (31.1%) nutmeg (4.4%), oregano
(11.1%), parsley (4.2%), and basil (4.2%). The majority of
subjects (62.2%) said that American meals were more
economical to prepare. More than half of subjects (53.3)
stated that they consume more western/American dishes
(e.g., steak, pizza, hamburger, hotdogs) since living in
the United States. The reasons most commonly given to this
change were availability (64.3%), convenience (50%), and
like to try new food (25%). All of the subjects (100%)
indicated that they purchased most of their food at
American supermarkets. Most of subjects (88.9%) avoided
eating and drinking certain foods such as pork and
alcoholic beverages because of religious beliefs in their
country of origin, and the majority of them (97.5%)
maintain the same religious regulation in the United
66
states. In addition, more than half of the subjects (53.3%)
consumed the food generally served in the United States on
Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays. Most of the subjects
(51%) indicated that their overall diet was less healthy in
the United States than in their country of origin. The
reasons most commonly given for that were more fat and less
fruits and vegetables. The majority of subjects (82.2%)
indicated that their eating habits had changed since living
in the United States. Influencing factors included no time
to prepare traditional foods (62.2%); convenience (62.2%);
unavailability of Arabic foods (78.3%); poor quality of
Arabic food (35.1%)); Arabic foods being more expensive in
the United States (67.6%); not knowing how to cook (16.2%);
seafood, lamb, and vegetables being more expensive in the
United States than in Arab countries (29.7%); chicken and
beef being cheaper in the United States (40.5%); drinking
more milk in the United States (29.7%), good quality of
some foods in the United States (10.8%), exposure to
nutrition related information (10.8%), and un availability
of halal meat in the United States (43.2%). Betts et al.
(1994), using focus group interviews with young adults 18
to 24 years old, similarly found that convenience, lack
time to cook, expense, quality of food, taste, health
67
concern, and the availability of food were the most common
factors influencing food choice.
Table 7 shows the chi-square test for independence of
change in eating habits and other items. There were no
significant differences between change or not change in
eating habits and gender, marital status, country of
origin, state of residence in U.S., education, length of
residence in U.S., employed, religion, fasting during
Ramadan in 2 0 01, degree of adherence to religious dietary
practices in U.S., living alone or with family or friends,
number of people in family, annual income before taxes,
monthly food expenditure, special diet in U.S., have any
type of chronic disease, change in weight after living in
U.S., take any vitamin or mineral supplements, read
language, speak language, think language, read newspapers,
close friends, choose health professionals, prefer kinds of
food, kind of food eat at home, or kind of restaurant.
There were significant differences (P<0.05) between change
or not change in eating habits and age and age entered
United States.
68
Table 7. Test for independence of change in eating habits
and discrete variables (n=45).
Variable
Change eating habits
Yes
No
Total
Age (years)
20 or less
0
21-30
29
7
31-40
1
41 or more
Gender
28
Men
9
Women
Marital status
17
Single
20
Married
Country of origin
19
Jordan
5
Egypt
Yemen
2
3
Lebanon
3
Syria
Morocco
2
1
Oman
1
Saudi Arabia
1
Sudan
State of residence in
U.S.
26
Texas
4
Iowa
5
Kansas
New Mexico
2
Age entered U.S (years1)
3
20 or less
30
21-30
4
31-40
Education (years)
c;
>13-16
>16-19
>19
• ^
16
17
Chi
df
square
value
1
3
4
0
1
32
11
1
3
8.99*
8
0
36
9
1
2.43
2
6
19
26
1
5.3
5
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
24
5
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
8
7.66
5
1
0
2
31
5
1
4
3
4.00
1
3
4
4
33
8
2
7.53*
1
3
3
6
19
20
2
0 . 01
69
Table 7. Continued.
Variable
Length of residence in
U.S. (years)
1 or less
>l-2
>2-3
>3
Employed
Full-time
Part-time
Unemployed
Religion
Islam
None
Fast during Ramadan in
2001
Yes
No
Degree of adherence to
religious dietary
practices in U.S.
Always
Almost always
Usually
Seldom
Never
Live in U.S.
Alone
With family
With friend
Number of people in
family
1
2
3
4
5
Change eating habits
Yes
No
Total
Chisquare
value
df
4
14
8
12
3
2
1
1
7
16
9
13
3
4.83
5
21
11
2
2
4
7
23
15
2
2 .67
36
1
8
0
44
1
1
0.22
34
3
8
0
42
3
1
0.70
23
10
2
2
1
4
1
2
0
0
27
4
4.53
10
23
5
3
3
1
13
26
6
2
0 . 88
14
9
8
3
3
4
3
0
0
1
18
12
8
3
4
4
3.19
70
11
4
2
1
Table 7. Continued.
Variable
Annual income ($)
9,000-18000
18,001-27,000
27,001-36,000
>36,000
Monthly food
expenditure ($)
<5 0
51-100
101-150
151-200
>200
Special diet in
U.S
Yes
No
Have any type of
chronic disease
Yes
No
Change in weight
after living in
U.S.
Yes
No
Take any vitamin
or mineral
supplements
Yes, fairly
Regularly
Yes, but not
Regularly
No
Change eating habits
Yes
No
Total
df
Chisquare
value
22
6
4
5
7
1
0
0
29
7
4
5
3
2.80
1
7
10
6
13
0
0
2
4
2
1
7
12
10
15
4
5.32
8
29
0
8
8
37
1
2.10
2
35
0
8
2
43
1
0.45
30
7
6
2
36
9
1
0.15
5
0
5
2
3.54
7
2
7
25
8
33
71
Table 7. Continued.
Variable
Change eating habits
Yes
No
Total
Read language
0
Only Arabic
Arabic more than
6
English
Both equally
17
English/American
13
more than Arabic
1
Only English
(American)
Speak language
0
Only Arabic
Arabic more than 13
English
Both ecjually
20
English/American
4
more than Arabic
0
Only English
(American)
Think in language
8
Only Arabic
Arabic more than 14
English
10
Both ecjually
English/American
5
more than Arabic
0
Only English
(American)
Read newspapers
5
Only Arabic
Arabic more than
8
English
9
Both equally
English/American
10
more than Arabic
5
Only English
(American)
0
4
0
10
3
1
20
14
0
1
1
3
1
16
4
0
24
4
0
0
3
3
11
17
2
0
12
5
0
0
0
3
3
0
5
1
1
11
12
1 r\
10
r-J
2
72
7
df
Chisquare
value
3
4.78
3
5.52
-^
1
3
1 . 77
•^ T
4
4.91
Table 7. Continued,
Variable
Close friends
Only Arabic
Arabic more than
English
Both equally
English/American
more than Arabic
Only English
(American)
Choose family
doctor or other
health
professionals
Only Arabic
Arabic more than
English
Both equally
English/American
more than Arabic
Only English
(American)
Prefer kinds of
food
Only Arabic
Arabic more than
English
Both equally
English/American
more than Arabic
Only English
(American)
Change eating habits
Yes
No
Total
11
16
2
6
13
22
6
4
0
0
6
4
4
4
2
3
6
7
25
3
2
1
27
4
7
21
2
3
9
24
9
0
3
0
12
0
73
df
Chiscjuare
Value
3.57
6.35
1.01
Table 7. Continued.
Variable
Kind of food eat
at home
Only Arabic
Arabic more than
English
Both equally
English/American
more than Arabic
Only English
(American)
Kind of restaurant
Only Arabic
Arabic more than
English
Both equally
English/American
more than Arabic
Only English
(American)
Change eating habits
Yes
No
Total
9
17
1
6
10
23
10
1
1
0
11
1
0
0
0
7
7
2
3
9
10
11
9
2
1
13
10
3
0
3
*P<0.05.
74
df
Chisquare
value
2.28
2 .26
Food Frequency and Preferences
Two-way analysis of variance was used to determine the
effect of treatment (in country of origin, in the United
States), gender, and of their two-factor interaction on
consumption frequency of each of 109 foods. The results are
shown in Tables 8 and 9.
Table 8 shows the means and standard deviations for food
consumption frequency of subjects in country of origin and
in United States. For the bread, cereal, rice, and pasta
group, white bread, pita bread, and bulgur were consumed
significantly less (P<0.05) in the United States. There was
a significant increase (P<0.05) in the consumption frequency
of dinner rolls, hotdogs or hamburger rolls, pies, readyto-eat cereals, and pizza in the United States. There was
no significant difference in total consumption frequency
for the group in the United States and in country of
origin. For the vegetable group, there was a significant
decrease (P<0.05) in consumption frequency of green beans,
tomato, cauliflower, eggplant, cucumber, squash, cabbage,
olives, okra, and total in the United States, while
broccoli and ketchup or salsa were consumed significantly
more (P<0.05) in the United States.
75
Table 8. Means and standard deviations for food consumption
frequency of subjects (n=42) in country of origin and in
United States.
Food
Bread, Cereal, Rice, & Pasta
White bread
Brown or whole wheat bread
Dinner rolls
Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls
Cakes
Cookies
Doughnut
Pies
Ready-to-eat cereals
Muffins
Pancakes
Pizza
Tortilla
Pita bread
Pasta
Rice
Bulgur
Popcorn
Total
Vegetables
French fries
Baked potato
Potato chips
Beets
Green beans
Carrots
Corn
Spinach
Tomato
In Country
of origin
37.6 +28.3''
14.4+27.8
1.2+4 . 8
3.4±6.3
8.4+13.3
12.1+25.6
1.6+5.0
0.6+1.6
2.8+7.1
0.8+2.4
3.3+18.5
1.5+2.2
2.4+5.6
53.2+30.1
4.9+5.5
18.6+9 .4
1.7±3.2
1.4+1.5
157.7+60.3
7.1+6.8
1.4±2.4
5.8+7.6
1.4+5.6
3.8+5.0
10.7+11.7
4.1+7.8
4.4+7.9
29.0±16.4
76
In United
States
25.7±24.3*
15.7+21.8
5.2+8.7*
10.4+16.1*
11.2+28.7
13.3+19.2
3.0+3.7
2.4+4.2*
7.2+10.1*
1.3+2.5
2.6+5.6
3,5+2.6*
6.1+11.0
18.4+23.8*
4.6+4 . 4
14.5+10.6
0.5+0.9*
2.0+3.0
147.5+68.7
8.6+6.9
2.0+3.1
6.6+6.5
0.4+2.0
1.5+2.2*
10.6+11.7
4.6+9.7
1.9+4.8
20.7+17.5*
Table 8. Continued,
Food
In Country
of origin
In United
States
Green salad
Cauliflower
Broccoli
Eggplant
Cucumber
Squash
Cabbage
Olives
Okra
Ketchup, salsa
Total
20.7+15.1
3.3+3.3
0.310.9
5.1+5.1
25.9±26.5
16.1+13.5
1.7+2.7*
1.3+2.7*
1.6+2.5*
9.1±9.0*
1.6+2.7*
2.0+4.5*
11.5+23*
1.1+1.9*
12.0+12.0*
116.0+68.9*
Fruits
Apples
Bananas
Orange
Orange juice
Peach
Strawberries
Watermelon
Cantaloupe
Mango
Guava
Cherry
Grapes
Figs
Total
6.0+6.3
5.5+10.2
27.8+26.2
4.2+5.8
5.1+6.9
.72.0+83 .2
14.3+13.8
13.1+11.9
14.7+16 .4
8.5+10.1
4.6+4 . 8
2.1+4.4
11.3+9.5
5.5+5.6
3.8+6.8
4.4+6.3
2.4+3.7
9.8+10.9
5.7+10.1
96.6+58.9
16.3+14.4
17.5+14.3
6.9+7.3*
21.0+19.6*
2.3±2.8*
4.3+6.5*
4.8+8.0*
2.8+4.8*
1.4+1.5*
0.9+3.0*
0.7+1.4*
4.6+5.0*
0.1+0.3*
82.9+46.4
2.2+5.0
3.2+4 . 0
9.0+7.9
6.8+8.1*
4.6+7.8
5.9+5.0*
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry
beans. Eggs, & Nuts
Hamburger
Steak
Other beef
77
Table 8. Continued,
Food
In Country
of origin
In United
States
Fried chicken
Other chicken
Lamb
Fish (fresh)
Fish (canned)
Pork
Veal
Shrimp
Hot dogs
Lunch meat
Frozen dinner
Liver
Legumes
Eggs
Nuts
Peanuts
Seeds
Total
4.5+4.4
7.7±7.2
8.5+6.5
4.7+6.0
1.9±3.2
0.02+0.15
4.0+3.7
0.8+1.6
0.8±1.8
4.2+7.0
0.05+0.21
2.1+2.3
15.0+10.5
16.8+12.0
7.1+7.3
7.0+14.8
9.2+10.9
109.7+4 8.5
5.8+5.7
10.9+9.2
3.2+4.7*
2.4+4.2*
3.3+4.5
0.02+0.1
1.7+2.8*
1.411.6
1.6±2.7
3.016.1
1.313.2*
0.711.1*
6.416.7*
12.719.7
4.717.0
4.918.7
1.0+1.8*
81.9+38.6*
10.8+15.4
2.216.9
2.7+7.9
1.3+5.1
3.3+5.4
2.1+5.2
17.4+14.0
10.8+12.6
0.1+0.5
3.417.3
8.6+9.1
15.2+11.4
1.5+3.4
12.0+16.2
5.4+10.0
2.517.0
1.314.9
1.614.2
3.116.1
4.916.6*
10.4114.0
0.511.5
6.6112.0
9.719.5
7.917.4*
3.515.3*
Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese
Whole milk
2% milk
Low-fat milk (1% or less)
Skim milk
Buttermilk
Chocolate milk
White cheese
Process cheeses and spreads
Cottage cheese
Cheddar cheese
Ice cream
Plain yogurt
Flavored yogurt
78
Table 8. Continued,
Food
Labaneh
In Country
of origin
(drained yogurt)
In United
States
Total
12.8110.9
91.0149.1
5.018.0*
69.9145.0*
Fats, Oil, & Sweets
Olive oil
Other vegetable oil
Butter
Ghee
Cream cheese
Salad dressing
Mayonnaise
Tahini
Chocolate candy
Honey
Dates
Baklava
Total
27.5116.3
19.0117.7
5.918.2
4.616.5
4.417.1
2.817.9
2.013.8
10.0+9.4
7.9+9.1
8.1+11.6
7.9+9.9
4.6+6.1
110.6157.8
18.0116.9*
13.4111.4
2.9+5.8
0.5+2.0*
4.217.0
5.917.6
4.715.1*
2.513.9*
7.818.5
4.616.1
2.916.5*
0.611.4*
72.4141.0*
24.2117.0
19.6123.3
2.416.8
4 0.512 8.5
0.0510.31
1.913.5
0.412.0
90.1146.1
31.1121.3
2.817.7*
18.0122.9*
21.4119.4*
2.016.5*
2.719.5
0.211.3
8 0.213 5.9
Beverages
Soft drinks
Arabic coffee
American coffee
Hot tea
Ice tea
Herbal tea
Beer, wine
Total
79
Table 8. Continued.
Food
Arabic dishes
Houmous
Falafel
Tabouleh
Shawerma
Stuffed grape leaves
Total
In Country
of origin
13.6110.2
14.8114.4
4.115.5
6.115.7
2.713.0
40.9125.1
In United
States
4.216.4*
1.112.0*
1.1+1.8*
0.7+1.4*
0.5+1.0*
7.2+8.5*
*Food consumption frequency is number of times eaten per
month.
*Means in a row differ (P<0.05).
80
For the fruit group, there was a significant decrease
(P<0.05) in the consumption frequency of orange, peach,
watermelon, cantaloupe, mango, guava, cherry, grapes, and
figs, whereas the consumption frequency of orange juice and
strawberries increased significantly (P<0.05) in the United
States. There was no significant difference in the total
consumption frequency for the group in the United States
and in country of origin.
For the meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts
group, there was a significant increase (P<0.05) in
consumption frequency of hamburger and frozen dinner. Beef
other than hamburger and steak, lamb, fresh fish, veal,
liver, legumes, seeds, and total were consumed
significantly less (P<0.05) in the United States. Other
researchers reported that fresh fish was consumed
significantly less by immigrants group in the United States
and in the United Kingdom because of the cost (Crane and
Green, 1980; Reeves and Henry, 2000; Story and Harris,
1989).
For the milk, yogurt, and cheese group, there was a
significant decrease (P<0.05) in the consumption frequency
of white cheese, plain yogurt, labaneh, and total in the
81
United States, while the consumption frequency of flavored
yogurt increased significantly (P<0.05).
For fats, oil, and sweets group, there was a
significant decrease (P<0.05) in the consumption frequency
of olive oil, ghee, tahini, dates, baklava, and total in
the United States, while consumption frequency of
mayonnaise increased significantly (P<0.05). For Asian
students in the United States, Pan et al. (1999) similarly
found no significant change in frequency consumption of
grains, a decrease in consumption of vegetables and
meat/meat alternatives, but conversely found an increase in
consumption of dairy products and of fats and sweets.
For beverages, there was a significant decrease
(P<0.05) in the consumption frequency of Arabic coffee and
hot tea in the United States, while consumption frequency
of American coffee and ice tea increased significantly
(P<0.05). There was no significant difference in the
consumption frequency of the total group in the United
States compared with in country of origin.
For Arabic dishes, the consumption frequency of all
Arabic dishes decreased significantly (P<0.05) in the United
States. Possible explanations for the decreased in the
82
consumption frequency of Arabic dishes included
unavailability of ingredients, cost, not knowing how to
cook, and limited time to prepare them.
Approaching significance between the frequency of
consumption in county of origin and in the United States
occurred for 12 foods. There was an increase in the
consumption frequency of tortilla (P=0.06), other chicken
(P=0.08), shrimp (P=0.09), 2%milk (P=0.08), and salad
dressing (P=0.07) in the United States. The consumption
frequency of rice (P=0.06), spinach (P=0.09), eggs
(P=0.09), other vegetable oil (P=0.09), butter (p=0.06),
and honey (P=0.08) decreased in the United States.
Table 9 shows means and standard deviations for food
consumption frequency by men and women. Men consumed
pancakes and rice more frequently and bulgur less
frecjuently than women did (P<0.05) . Weaver and Brittin
(2 001) similarly found that men consumed more pancakes than
women did. Women consumed eggplant and cucumber more
frequently than men did (P<0.05). Weaver and Brittin (2001)
reported that women consumed more vegetables than men did.
Women consumed peach, watermelon, and cherry more
83
Table 9. Means and standard deviations for food consumption
frequency by men and women (n=42).
Food
Men
Women
Bread, Cereal, Rice, & Pasta
White bread
Brown or whole wheat bread
Dinner rolls
Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls
Cakes
Cookies
Doughnut
Pies
Ready-to-eat cereals
Muffins
Pancakes
Pizza
Tortilla
Pita bread
Pasta
Rice
Bulgur
Popcorn
Total
33 .7±27.7^
15.8±24 .0
3.3±7.2
7.8±13 .6
15.1±20.0
19.8±15 .8
2.6±4 .8
1.6±3.4
5.0±9.0
1.3±2.4
9.3±2.7
2.7 + 2 .8
4.2±9 .1
34.4 + 28 .9
4.7±3 .9
17.7±10.4
0.8±1.3
1.6±2.5
154.9±60.7
24.0± 23.0
12.4 + 28 .3
2.6±7.9
3 .7±7.3
8.3±29.4
10.8±38.0
1.2±2.3
Vegetables
French fries
Baked potato
Potato chips
Beets
Green beans
Carrots
Corn
Spinach
Tomato
Green salad
Cauliflower
Broccoli
Eggplant
8.2±6 .9
1.9±3 .0
6.2±7 .2
1.1±4.7
2.4±2 .8
10.3±12.2
4.2 + 9 .2
3.3±6.6
24.7±16 .8
19.1±15.3
2.5±3.3
1.0±2.3
2.7 + 2 . 7
84
1.1+3.1
4.8±8.8
1.0±2.8
1.2±28.6*
1.8±1.6
4.6±8.4
41.0±42 .7
5.0±7.8
12.4±8.6*
2.1±4.6*
2.1±1.9
144.3±77.9
6.5±6 .7
1.0±1.6
6.1±6.6
0.1±0.3
3.4±6.9
12.3±9.5
4 . 9±6 .7
2.7±6.9
25.2 + 19 .7
15.6±10.1
2.5±2.2
0.2±0.4
5.6±7.6*
Table 9. Continued.
Food
Men
Women
Cucumber
Squash
Cabbage
Olives
Okra
Ketchup, salsa
Total
15.2±16.0
3.5±4.7
3.5±8.3
18.6±23.9
3.0±5.0
9.5±11.0
141.5±79.0
26.0±34.2*
5.1±7.2
4.8±7.5
23.5±32.7
1.2±1.4
5.0±5.9
155.1±88 .9
Fruits
Apples
Bananas
Orange
Orange juice
Peach
Strawberries
Watermelon
Cantaloupe
Mango
Guava
Cherry
Grapes
Figs
Total
15.1±14.8
15.2±13.9
11.0±13.9
15.7+17.1
3.0+3.8
2.6+4.4
6.9±8.5
4.0±5.6
3.0 + 5 .6
2.9±5.7
1.2±2.1
7.8+9.5
1.7+8.4
89.4+55.3
16.2±11.2
15.7±10 .7
10.0±10.6
11.4±15.3
5.1±4.6*
5.3±8.5
12.2±11.1*
4.7±4.2
1.4±1.6
1.7±2.9
3.0±4.7*
5.0±5.2
3.2±3.2
91.2±45 .4
1. 8±7. 7
4. 3±6. 8
7.,5±6. 1
5,.4±5.,4
10,.3±8..8
5 .2±5,.8
3 .3±5 .1
2 . 9±4.2
0 .0±0 .0
3 . 0±3.4
5. 1±2. 4
2 .2±2 .4
7. 4±9. 1
.
4,, 5±4,1
5,.8±5,.3*
8 .4±7 .4*
4 .4±6 .0
1 . 1±2.2
0 .1±0 .3*
2 .4 + 3 .6
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry
beans. Eggs, & Nuts
Hamburger
Steak
Other beef
Fried chicken
Other chicken
Lamb
Fish (fresh)
Fish (canned)
Pork
Veal
85
Table 9. Continued.
Food
Men
Women
Shrimp
Hot dogs
Lunch meat
Frozen dinner
Liver
Legumes
Eggs
Nuts
Peanuts
Seeds
Total
1.1+1.7
0.9±1.9
3.8±6.9
0.7±2.6
1.4±2.0
10.5±9.4
14.8±10.8
5.3+6.4
5.4±12.4
4.5±8.1
96.0±45.4
0.8±1.2
2.3±3.2*
2.9±4.8
0.4±1.1
1.3±1.7
11.5±11.2
14.5+12.2
8.1±9.4
8.1±11.2
7.2±11.0
95.2±48.6
Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese
Whole milk
2% milk
Low-fat milk (1% or less)
Skim milk
Buttermilk
Chocolate milk
White cheese
Process cheeses and spreads
Cottage cheese
Cheddar cheese
Ice cream
Plain yogurt
Flavored yogurt
Labaneh (drained yogurt)
Total
12.4±16.6
3.1±7.7
2.6±7.3
1.3±5.4
2.8±5.4
2.7±6.1
10.0±12.4
9.2+12.3
0.4±1.3
4.6±10.0
8.2±8.8
11.1±10.1
2.7±4.6
7.8±9.7
76.1±49.9
7.8±11.7
6.2±11.7
2.7±7.9
1.3±3.5
0.9±2.2
2.2±3.5
15.4±12.5
15.6±15.5
0.0±0.0
6.2±10.0
12.7±10.2
11.8±11.6
1.9±4.4
12.8±11.6*
96.4±37.1
Fats, Oil, & Sweets
Olive oil
Other vegetable oil
Butter
Ghee
Margarine
Cream cheese
20.4±16.2
16.4±16.0
4 .4 + 6.5
2.5±4.6
8.1±17.0
4.5+7.0
31.2+18.5 *
15.4±11.6
4 . 5 + 9.6
2.6±7.3
1.7+2.4
3.5±7.2
86
Table 9. Continued,
Food
Men
Salad dressing
Mayonnaise
Tahini
Chocolate candy
Honey
Dates
Baklava
Total
Beverages
Soft drinks
Arabic coffee
American coffee
Hot tea
Ice tea
Herbal tea
Beer, wine
Total
4.9±8.6
3.7±5.1
6.1±7 .7
7.8±8.6
6.6±9.8
5.0±8.2
2.7±4 .8
91.2±52 .9
28.8±20 .6
11.8±20.7
10.1±19.1
31.1±26.3
0.9±3.9
2.6±7.9
0.3±1.5
87 .5±43.1
Women
2.0±3 .6
2.3±2.3
6.7±9.3
7.7±9.8
5.4±7 .9
6.9±10 .6
2.3±5.0
92.3±56.8
23.3±14 .4
8.9 + 12 .2
10.5±16.7
30.6±25 .7
1.7±7.1
1.0±2.2
0.6±2.4
76.5±34.0
Arabic dishes
8.8±9 .9
7.9±12 .8
2.5±4.1
3.7±5.4
1.4+1.9
23.9±26.2
Houmous
Falafel
Tabouleh
Shawerma
Stuffed grape leaves
Total
9.2±9 .2
8.0±10.6
2.9±5.2
2.3±2.5
2.5±4.0
24.7±22.0
-Food consumption frequency is number of times eaten per
month.
*Means m
a
row for differ (P<0.05).
87
frequently than men did (p<0.05). Men consumed chicken
(other than fried chicken) more frequently than women did,
whereas women consumed lamb and hot dogs more frequently
than men did (P<0.05). The results showed that women
consumed pork, whereas the men did not (P<0.05); the
explanation is that all subjects held Muslim beliefs except
the one woman who consumed pork. Women consumed labaneh
more frequently than men did (P<0.05). Women consumed olive
oil more frequently than men did (P<0.05). There was no
significant difference for individual beverage and for the
total of the group between men and women. There was no
significant difference for individual Arabic dish and for
the total between men and women.
Approaching significance between frequencies of
consumption by men and women occurred for 6 foods. Women
consumed hamburger (P=0.07), white cheese (P=0.06), process
cheeses and spreads (P=0.07), ice cream (P=0.07), and
stuffed grape leaves (P=0.06) more frequently than men did.
Men consumed canned fish more frequently than women did
(P=0.09) .
A significant interaction (P<0.05) occurred for 2 of
the 109 foods. These foods were cherry and white cheese.
88
The mean of consumption frequency of cherry was 5.3+5.8 by
women and 1.612.5 by men in the country of origin while in
the United States was 0.611.4 by women and 0.711.5 by men.
The mean of consumption frequency of white cheese was
26.0+6.4 by women and 15.1114.6 by men in country of origin,
while in the United States was 4.816.1 by women and 4.916.8
by men.
Table 10 shows the mean and the standard deviations of
hedonic scores for foods by total subjects, men, and women.
Most of the foods in the bread, cereal, rice, and pasta
group were liked (means 5.5 or higher on 9-point hedonic
scale). Dinner rolls, pies and muffins were neither liked
nor disliked (means 4.8, 5.3 and 4.9, respectively). The
total of the group was liked slightly (mean 6.1). No
significant difference between foods likes or dislikes
among men and women occurred in the bread, cereal, rice,
and pasta group.
All of the foods in the vegetables group were liked
(means 5.7 or higher on 9-point hedonic scale) by total
subjects, with the exception of beets and broccoli which
were disliked (means 4.1 and 4.6, respectively). The total
of the group was liked slightly. Women liked tomato and
89
Table 10. Means and standard deviations of hedonic scores
for foods by total subjects, men, and women (n=42).
Food.
Total
Men
Women
Bread, Cereal, Rice, & Pasta
White bread
Brown or whole wheat bread
Dinner rolls
Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls
Cakes
Cookies
Doughnut
Pies
Ready-to-eat cereals
Muffins
Pancakes
Pizza
Tortilla
Pita bread
Pasta
Rice
Bulgur
Popcorn
Total
6.611.55.711.9
4.811.6
5.511.5
6.811.3
6.611.5
5.711.9
5.311.9
5.612.0
4.912.1
5.511.8
7.Ill.1
6.Ill.6
7.311.7
6.611.7
7.411.1
5.612.0
6.Ill.6
6.110-7
6.711.3
5.812.0
5.Oil.5
5.511.6
6.711.3
6.711.4
5.911.8
5.311.9
5.512.0
5.012.1
5.411.8
6.911.9
6.Ill.5
7.511.3
6.511.8
7.511.0
5.611.9
6.011.7
6.110.7
6.112.1
5.311.4
4.Ill.8
5.611.0
7.411.1
6.212.1
5.012.2
5.211.9
5.912.1
4.712.5
5.712.1
7.610.9
6.Oil.9
6.712.7
6.911.3
7.311.2
5.812.5
6.411.1
6.010.5
7.Ill.3
5.911.8
6.611.3
4.112.1
5.911.6
6.511.4
6.311.4
6.Ill.8
7.211.2
7.411.2
5.912.0
6.911.4
5.811.9
6.611.4
3.912.1
5.711.7
6.411.4
6.Ill.4
5.911.7
6.911.1
7.211.2
5.912.0
Vegetables
French fries
Baked potato
Potato chips
Beets
Green beans
Carrots
Corn
Spinach
Tomato
Green salad
Cauliflower
90
7.610.7
6.211.4
6.710.9
4.812 . 2
6.411.0
6.811.5
7.111.4
6.811.9
8.011.1*
7.811.1
5.911.8
Table 10. Continued,
Food
Total
Men
Broccoli
Eggplant
Cucumber
Squash
Cabbage
Olives
Okra
Ketchup, salsa
Total
4.612.1
6.5+1.5
7.0+1.4
6.5+1.6
6.711.5
7.311.4
5.712.2
5.812.0
6.210.9
4.712.1 4.611.9
6.411.2 6.712.2
6.711.4 8.011.0*
6.311.7 6.911.1
6.511.6 7.411.1
7.211.4 7.811.6
5.912.0 5.113.0
6.112.0 5.012.1
6.Ill.0 6.610.6
Fruits
Apples
Bananas
Orange
Orange juice
Peach
Strawberries
Watermelon
Cantaloupe
Mango
Guava
Cherry
Grapes
Figs
Total
7.Oil.1
7.311.1
7.411.2
7.311.5
6.811.7
7.Oil.4
7.311.5
7.Oil.4
7.411.3
6.911.8
6.811.7
7.311.2
7.Ill.7
7.110.9
7.111.0
7.311.1
7.411.1
7.311.5
6.611.8
7.011.4
7.211.6
6.811.4
7.4+1.2
6.7+1.2
6.7+1.8
7.2+1.3
7.1+1.7
7.110.9
Meat, Poultry,
Eggs, & Nuts.
Hamburger
Steak
Other beef
Fried chicken
Other chicken
Lamb
Women
6.911.4
7.411.4
7.311.4
7.211.5
7.410.9
7.311.2
7.811.0
7.411.4
7.4+1.5
7.6+1.4
7.2+1.5
7.3+1.1
7.0+1.7
7.310.5
ans.
Fish, Dry beans.
6.411.3
6.811.6
6.611.3
6.911.6
7.Ill.2
7.411.7
91
6.311.4
6.911.7
6.711.0
7.011.5
7.Ill.1
7.411.8
6.711.3
6.311.4
6.112.2
6.711.9
6.811.5
7.711.6
Table 10. Continued,
Food
Total
Men
Women
Fish (fresh)
Fish (canned)
Pork
Veal
Shrimp
Hot dogs
Lunch meat
Frozen dinner
Liver
Legumes
Eggs
Nuts
Peanuts
Seeds
Total
7.211.9
5.412.3
1.711.9
6.512.0
6.212.5
4.412.1
5.112.2
4.012.2
5.612.4
7.Ill.7
6.6+1.4
7.3+1.2
6.5+1.8
6.0+2.3
6.1+0.9
7.212.0
5.5+2.2
1.5+1.7
6.811.7
6.412.2
4.412.0
5.212.3
4.012.1
5.712.3
7.Oil.8
6.611.4
7.411.1
6.512.0
5.812.5
6.Ill.0
7.Oil.6
4.912.8
2.312.7
5.212.5*
5.713.3
4.612.8
4.812.0
4.012 .5
5.312.7
7.710-7
6.611.6
6.911.4
6.910.8
6.811.4
5.910.6
Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese
Whole milk
2% fat milk
Low-fat milk (1%: or less)
5.6+2.3
4.7+1.9
4.1+2.0
3.6+2.0
4.9+2.7
5.8+2.1
7.3+1.2
6.7+1.8
4.0+2.2
5.512.1
7.411.3
6.711.7
5.711.9
6.911.9
Skim milk
Buttermilk
Chocolate milk
White cheese
Process cheeses and spreads
Cottage cheese
Cheddar cheese
Ice cream
Plain yogurt
Flavored yogurt
Labaneh (drained yogurt)
92
5.312.2
4.6+2.0
4.112.0
3.612.1
5.112.7
5.712.0
7.Ill.1
6.612.0
4.212.2
6.412.7
5.211.4
4.Ill.9
3.711.7
4.212.8
6.112.7
8.210.8*
7.Ill.3
3.312.2
5.412.1 6.112.3
7.Ill.2 8.410.7*
6.711.6 6.812.0
5.712.0 5.711.7
6.712.0 7.711.2
Table 10. Continued.
Food
Total
Men
Total
5.611.1
5.511.2
7.311 .3
5.811 ,3
5 ,511 .7
5 .112 .4
5 .311,.6
5..6+2 .3
5,.3+2 .3
5,.6+1 .7
6 .4+1 .6
6 .4+2.0
6 .8+1.5
7.511.2
7.212.0
6.111.0
7
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
Fats, Oil, Sc Sweets
Olive oil
Other vegetable oil
Butter
Ghee
Margarine
Cream cheese
Salad dressing
Mayonnaise
Tahini
Chocolate candy
Honey
Dates
Baklava
Total
Beverages
Soft drinks
Arabic coffee
American coffee
Hot tea
Ice tea
Herbal tea
Beer, wine
Total
7.Ill.1
6.6+2 . 0
6.0+1.7
7.2+1.4
4.1+2.0
4.9+2.2
1.511.6
5.310.8
93
Women
5.910.7
7. 311.2
5. 610.9
4 .8+2.0
4, 4+2 .7
5 1+1.5
5 8+1
4 ,1+2
511.8 5 .8+1
, 111.6 6 .2+1
6 .411
,412
7.111
5 9+2.0*
7.511
7 8+0.8
7.211
7 .0+2.4
6.310
5 .711.2
211 ,3
811 .5
611 .6
312 .3
311 .7
512 .4
612 .1
7.211.2
6.712.1
6.311.7
7.211.4
4.112.0
4.912.3
1.511.5
5.410.8
811.0
112.1
Oil.4*
911.4
111.8
911.8
1.712.0
5.010.9
Table 10. Continued,
Food
Total
Men
Women
Arabic dishes
Houmous
Falafel
Tabouleh
Shawerma
Stuffed grape leaves
Total
7.311.7
7.611.5
7.212.0
7.711.2
7.212.2
7.4+1.4
7 ., 1 1 1 . 8
8 . 1 1 1 . 12
7 ,. 5 1 1 . 7
8 ., 0 1 0 ., 9
8 ,, 2 1 0 ,. 7
6 .912.1
6 .912.4
7 .811 .3
8 .211 .1
7 .311.5
8 .110 . 9
7 .711.1
-Scale: l=dislike extremely; 2=dislike very much; 3=dislike
moderately; 4=dislike slightly; 5=neither like nor
dislike; 6=like slightly; 7=like moderately; 8=like
very much; 9=like extremely.
*Means m
a row for men and women differ (P<0.05)
94
cucumber more than men did (P<0.05) . Wyant and Meiselman
(1984) and Weaver and Brittin (2001) found that women liked
vegetables more than men did.
All foods in fruits group were liked (means 6.8 or
higher on 9-point hedonic scale). The total of the group
was liked moderately. No significant difference, between
foods likes or dislikes among men and women occurred in
fruits group.
Most of the foods in meat poultry, fish, dry beans,
eggs, and nuts group were liked (means 5.6 or higher on 9point hedonic scale). Canned fish and lunch meat were
neither liked nor disliked (means 5.4 and 5.1,
respectively). Pork, hot dogs, and frozen dinner were
disliked (means 1.7, 4.4, and 4.0, respectively).
Inconsistent with another study (Weaver and Brittin, 2001),
we found that subjects liked liver. The total of the group
were liked slightly (the mean was 6.1). Men liked veal more
than women did (P<0.05) . Wyant and Meiselman (1984) reported
that men liked meat than women did.
Most of the foods in the milk, yogurt, and cheese
group were liked (means 5.5 or high on 9-point hedonic
scale). Two % fat milk and buttermilk were neither liked
95
nor disliked (means 4.7 and 4.9, respectively). Low-fat
milk, skim milk, and cottage cheese were disliked (means
4.1, 3.6, and 4.0, respectively). The total of the group
was liked slightly (mean 5.6). Women liked white cheese and
ice cream more than men did (P<0.05).
Most foods in the fats, oil, and sweets group were
liked (means 5.5 or higher on 9-point hedonic score). Ghee,
margarine, and salad dressing were neither liked nor
disliked (means 5.1, 5.3, and 5.3, respectively). The total
of the group were liked slightly (mean 6.1). Men liked
honey more than women did ((P<0.05).
In the beverage group, soft drinks, Arabic coffee,
American coffee, and hot tea were liked (means 6.0 or
higher on 9-point hedonic scale). Herbal tea and total of
beverages were neither liked nor disliked (means4.9 and
5.3, respectively). Ice tea and beer, wine were disliked
(means 4.1 and 1.5, respectively). Men liked American
coffee more than women did (P<0.05).
All Arabic dishes were liked (means 7.2 or higher on
9-point hedonic scale). The total of Arabic dishes was like
moderately (mean 7.4). No significant difference in food
likes/dislikes between men and women occurred in Arabic
96
dishes. Overall, women liked more foods significantly more
than men did, in agreement with previous research (Weaver
and Brittin, 2001)
Pizza, French fries, orange juice, fried chicken,
steak, ice cream, and soft drinks were the most liked
American foods in the present study. Crane and Green (1980)
and Story and Harris (1989) found that steak was the most
preferred American food among immigrant groups.
Table 11 shows the correlation coefficients for
hedonic scores and frequency of consumption for foods in
the United States for total subjects, men, and women. For
the bread, cereal, rice, and pasta group, significant
positive correlation coefficients were found for brown or
whole wheat bread, dinner rolls, hot dogs or hamburger
rolls, doughnut, pies, ready-to-eat cereals, muffins,
tortilla, pasta, and bulgur. For the vegetables group,
significant positive correlation coefficients were found
for baked potato, cauliflower, broccoli, and ketchup and
salsa. For the fruits group, significant positive
correlation coefficients were found for apples, bananas,
orange juice, and peach. For the meat, poultry, fish, dry
beans, eggs, and nuts group, significant positive
97
Table 11. Correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and
frequency of consumption for food in United States by total
subjects, men, and women (n=42).
Food
Bread, Cereal, Rice, & Pasta
White bread
Brown or whole wheat bread
Dinner rolls
Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls
Cakes
Cookies
Doughnut
Pies
Ready-to-eat cereals
Muffins
Pancakes
Pizza
Tortilla
Pita bread
Pasta
Rice
Bulgur
Popcorn
Total
Total
0.08
0.36*
0 .49**
0.38*
-0.21
0.18
0 .38*
0.39*
0.33*
0.39*
0.22
0.23
0.37*
0.03
0 .42**
0.29
0 .44**
0.26
-0.14
Vegetables
French fries
Baked potato
Potato chips
Beets
Green beans
Carrots
Corn
Spinach
Tomato
Green salad
Cauliflower
Broccoli
-0.01
0.32*
0.29
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.1
0.29
0.19
0.1
0.43**
0.41**
98
Men
0.01
0.34
0.48
0.39
-0 .20
0.14
0.26
0.37
0 .40
0.43
0.19
0.34
0.38
-0.09
0.40
0 .23
0.31
0.30
-0.14
0.03
0.34
0.27
0.29
0.28
0.22
0.07
0.33
0.18
0.06
0.44
0.42
Women
0.19
0.55
0.58
0.37
-0.42
0.26
0.78
0.47
0.09
0.24
0.28
0.001
0.37
0.21
0.65
0.59
0.67
-0.26
-0.17
0.25
0.41
0.51
0.55
0.22
0.38
0.21
0.54
0.33
0.52
0.39
0.71
Table 11. Continued,
Food
Total
Eggplant
Cucumber
Squash
Cabbage
Olives
Okra
Ketchup, salsa
Total
0.14
0.27
0.26
0.13
0.20
0.24
0.39*
0.01
Fruits
Apples
Bananas
Orange
Orange juice
Peach
Strawberries
Watermelon
Cantaloupe
Mango
Guava
Cherry
Grapes
Figs
Total
0 .49**
0.31*
0.14
0.46**
0.38*
0.24
0.22
0.21
0.27
0.30
0.19
0.05
-0.03
-0.01
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry
beans. Eggs, & Nuts
Hamburger
Steak
Other beef
Fried chicken
Other chicken
Lamb
Fish (fresh)
Fish (canned)
Pork
0.09
0.15
0.23
0.08
0.51**
0.25
0.06
0 .42**
0.35*
99
Men
-0 .12
0.26
0.13
0.19
0.24
0.19
0.35
0.02
0.57
0.34
0.35
0.45
0.42
0.17
0.28
0.28
0.36
0.06
0.26
0.17
-0.02
0.27
0 .15
0.36
0.26
0.16
0.46
0.22
0.07
0 .47
Women
0.30
0.40
0.66
-0.27
0.22
0.73
0.48
0.29
0.33
0.25
-0.05
0.53
0.25
0.63
0.25
0.41
0.54
0.12
0.55
0.43
0.22
0.09
0.65
0.61
0.22
-0.21
0.77
0.36
0.17
0.25
0.51
Table 11. Continued,
Food
Total
0.01
0 .40**
0 .45**
0.27
0.36*
0.39*
0.21
0.24
0.15
0.36*
0.22
0.22
Veal
Shrimp
Hot dogs
Lunch meat
Frozen dinner
Liver
Legumes
Eggs
Nuts
Peanuts
Seeds
Total
Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese
Whole milk
2% fat milk
Low-fat milk (1% or less)
Skim milk
Buttermilk
Chocolate milk
White cheese
Process cheeses and spreads
Cottage cheese
Cheddar cheese
Ice cream
Plain yogurt
Flavored yogurt
Labaneh (drained yogurt)
Total
0.56**
0.51**
0 .45**
0 .45**
0.33*
0 .42**
0.05
0.26
0 .45**
0.49**
0.37*
0 .42**
0.51**
0.27
0.39*
Fats, Oil, & Sweets
Olive oil
Other vegetable oil
Butter
Ghee
Margarine
0 .37*
0.24
0.27
0.07
0.13
100
Men
-0.08
0.35
0.47
0.27
0.46
0.41
0.32
0.37
0.15
0.41
0.26
0.31
0.68
0.45
0.42
0.48
0.35
0.16
0.16
0.31
0.49
0.47
0.44
0.40
0.51
0.25
0.37
0.26
0 .28
0.33
0.06
0.14
Women
0.001
0.58
0.46
0.22
-0.30
0.47
-0.26
-0.12
0.17
0.09
-0.04
-0.57
0.45
0.81
0.60
0.29
0.37
0.07
-0.53
0.08
0.45
-0.06
0.52
0.51
0.28
0.49
0.73
•0.03
0 .27
0.49
0.04
Table 11. Continued.
Food
Total
Men
Women
Cream cheese
Salad dressing
Mayonnaise
Tahini
Chocolate candy
Honey
Dates
Baklava
Total
0.40*
0.56**
0.31*
0.07
0.33*
0.22
0 .26
0.16
0.06
0.44
0.54
0.36
0.06
0.39
0.18
0.32
0 .18
0.03
0.16
0.77
0.03
0.13
-0.01
0.43
0.1
0.01
0.16
Beverages
Soft drinks
Arabic coffee
American coffee
Hot tea
Ice tea
Herbal tea
Beer, wine
Total
0 .52**
0.25
0 .42**
0.33*
0.31*
0.27
0.63**
0.17
0.44
0.22
0.40
0.23
0.38
0.28
0.77
0 .14
0.79
0.40
0.64
0.71
0.20
0.35
,0.19
0.10
0.09
0.03
0.09
-0.001
0 .28
0.13
0.11
-0.01
0.09
0.03
0.15
Arabic dishes
Houmous
Falafel
Tabouleh
Shawerma
Stuffed grape leaves
Total
tp<o.o5, **P<0.01 for total
101
-0.72
-0 .21
0.60
0 .16
0 .19
-0 . 23
correlations were found for other chicken, canned fish,
pork, shrimp, hot dogs, frozen dinner, liver, and peanuts.
For the milk, yogurt, and cheese group, significant
positive correlation coefficients were found for all foods
in the group and the total except white cheese, process
cheeses and spreads, and labaneh. For the fats, oil, and
sweets group, significant positive correlation coefficients
were found for olive oil, cream cheese, salad dressing,
mayonnaise, and chocolate candy. For beverages, significant
positive correlation coefficients were found for all foods
except Arabic coffee, herbal tea, and total. No significant
positive correlation coefficients were found for Arabic
dishes. Weaver and Brittin (2001) found that food liking
and consumption were related.
Table 12 shows correlation coefficients for frequency
of consumption for food in the United States and general
information for age, age entered United States, length of
residence in the United States, years of education, income,
food expenditure, and overall acculturation score by total
subjects. There were significant positive correlation
coefficients between age and frequency of consumption of
white bread, rice, carrots, green salad, okra, apples.
102
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110
total fruits, liver, whole milk, ghee, and herbal
tea.
Significant negative correlation coefficients were found
for cakes and pancakes, indicating that frequency of
consumption of these foods was associated with younger age,
There were significant positive correlation
coefficients between age entered United States and the
consumption frequency of rice, green salad, okra, apples,
total fruits, ghee, hot tea, and herbal tea, indicating
that these foods were consumed less frequently by younger
subjects. Significant negative correlation coefficients
were found for cakes, pancakes, tortilla, hamburger, hot
dogs, flavored yogurt, ice tea, and stuffed grape leaves,
indicating that these foods were consumed more frequently
by younger subjects.
There was a significant positive correlation
coefficient between years of education and frequency of
consumption of liver. A Significant negative correlation
coefficient was found for education and white bread.
There were significant positive correlation
coefficients between length of residence and frecjuency of
consumption of doughnut, muffins, pancakes, tortilla,
popcorn, total breads, baked potato, beets, green beans,
corn, broccoli, olives, steak, flavored yogurt, ice tea,
111
shawerma, and stuffed grape leaves. Significant negative
correlation coefficients were found for pita bread, other
vegetable oil, and total fats, oil, and sweets.
There were significant positive correlation
coefficients between income and frequency of consumption of
pancakes, pizza, tortilla, broccoli, olives, ketchup and
salsa, hamburger, hot dogs, ice tea, shawerma, and stuffed
grape leaves.
There were significant positive correlation
coefficients between monthly food expenditure and frequency
of consumption of tortilla, mango, frozen dinner, low-fat
milk, skim milk, and chocolate milk. Significant negative
correlation coefficients were found for lamb, seeds, and
olive oil.
There were significant positive correlation
coefficients between acculturation scores and frecjuency of
consumption of ready-to-eat cereals, broccoli, frozen
dinner, low-fat milk, skim milk, flavored yogurt, American
coffee, and ice tea. Significant negative correlation
coefficients were found for rice, cherry, other chicken,
and Arabic coffee. Table 13 shows the correlation
coefficients for hedonic scores and overall acculturation
112
Table 13. Correlation coefficients for hedonic scores and
acculturation scores for food by total subjects (n=42).
Food
Acculturation score
Bread, Cereal, Rice, Sc Pasta
White bread
Brown or whole wheat bread
Dinner rolls
Hotdogs or Hamburger rolls
Cakes
Cookies
Doughnut
Pies
Ready-to-eat cereals
Muffins
Pancakes
Pizza
Tortilla
Pita bread
Pasta
Rice
Bulgur
Popcorn
Total
0. 23
0. 07
0. 19
0. 003
0. 07
0. 27
0. 02
0. 26
0. 37*
0. 32*
•0 . 12
-0. 09
0. 33*
-0. 32*
-0. 15
-0.,11
0,,01
-0,.19
0 .17
Vegetables
French fries
Baked potato
Potato chips
Beets
Green beans
Carrots
Corn
Spinach
Tomato
Green salad
Cauliflower
Broccoli
Eggplant
Cucumber
0 .01
0 .13
-0 .17
-0 .06
0 .06
0 .06
-0 .07
0 .31*
-0 .10
-0 .15
-0 .13
0 .20
0 .37*
-0 .28
113
Table 13. Continued,
Food
Acculturation score
Squash
Cabbage
Olives
Okra
Ketchup, salsa
Total
Fruits
Apples
Bananas
Orange
Orange juice
Peach
Strawberries
Watermelon
Cantaloupe
Mango
Guava
Cherry
Grapes
Figs
Total
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
02
13
02
06
16
02
0. 16
0 ., 2 9
0,, 0 1
0,, 0 5
•0 . 1 4
•0 . 0 3
•0
.32*
-0 . 0 4
-0 . 0 2
-0 . 0 6
-0 . 1 7
0 .13
-0 . 0 2
-0 . 1 4
Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry beans.
Eggs, & Nuts
-0.04
0.24
0.23
0.22
0.07
-0.11
-0.13
0.15
0.19
-0.12
0.11
0.22
-0.03
Hamburger
Steak
Other beef
Fried chicken
Other chicken
Lamb
Fish (fresh)
Fish (canned)
Pork
Veal
Shrimp
Hot dogs
Lunch meat
114
Table 13. Continued,
Food
Acculturation score
Frozen dinner
Liver
Legumes
Eggs
Nuts
Peanuts
Seeds
Total
0. 20
0. 16
0. 29
0. 16
0. 05
0. 07
0. 03
0. 19
Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese
Whole milk
2% milk
Low-fat milk (1% or less)
Skim milk
Buttermilk
Chocolate milk
White cheese
Process cheeses and spreads
Cottage cheese
Cheddar cheese
Ice cream
Plain yogurt
Flavored yogurt
Labaneh (drained yogurt)
Total
0. 03
07
• 0 . 03
0. 14
0. 15
0. 21
-0. 07
0.,18
-0,,18
-0,.15
0 .40**
-0 .07
-0 .03
-0 .03
0 .19
•0.
Fats, Oil, & Sweets
Olive oil
Other vegetable oil
Butter
Ghee
Margarine
Cream cheese
Salad dressing
Mayonnaise
Tahini
Chocolate candy
Honey
-0 .14
0 .07
0 .08
-0 .002
0 .23
-0 .08
-0 .004
-0 .13
0 .13
-0i.21
c1.01
115
Table 13. Continued.
Acculturation score
Food
Dates
Baklava
Total
0 . 13
0 . 13
0 . 03
Beverages
Soft drinks
Arabic coffee
American coffee
Hot tea
Ice tea
Herbal tea
Beer, wine
Total
0 . 03
0 . 02
0 . 02
• 0 . ,14
0,, 2 5
•0,.21
0 .05
0 .18
Arabic dishes
Houmous
Falafel
Tabouleh
Shawerma
Stuffed grape leaves
Total
-0 . 1 0
0 .01
-0 .22
-0 .14
-0 .08
0 .05
*P<0.05, P<0.01.
116
score for total subjects. Significant positive correlation
coefficients were found for ready to-eat cereals, muffins,
tortilla, spinach, eggplant, and ice cream. Significant
negative correlation coefficients were found for pita bread
and watermelon. Thus more acculturation was associated with
more liking of ready-to-eat cereals, muffins, tortilla,
spinach, eggplant, and ice cream while less acculturation
was associated with more likely of pita bread and
watermelon.
117
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
The dietary practices and food preferences of Arab
students aged 20-41 years was investigated. A significant
positive correlation coefficient was found between the
overall acculturation scores and length of residence in the
United States. The number of meals consumed per day
decreased significantly while living in the United States.
The main meal of day changed significantly after living in
the United States. The subjects ate their meal earlier in
the United States than they did in their country of origin.
Despite no significant change in the frequency of snack
consumption, the majority of subjects were consuming more
salty and sweet snack items. No significant change was
noted in the frequency of eating out, but subjects were
selecting more American style-food when they did eat out
because of convenience, availability, and like to try new
food. A significant decrease was noted in the frequency of
shopping. Subjects shopped only half as frequently in the
United States as in country of origin.
There were
significant differences between change and not change in
eating habits based on age and age entered United States.
118
The majority of subjects indicated that they thought their
eating habits had changed since their arrival in the United
States. Influencing factors included no time prepare Arabic
foods; convenience; unavailability of Arabic foods; Arabic
foods, seafood, lamb, and vegetables were more expensive in
the United States while chicken and beef were cheaper in
the United States; and it is hard to find halal meat in the
United states. Significant decreases were noted in the
consumption frequency of Arabic foods such as pita bread,
bulgur, olives, guava, figs, lamb, legumes, seeds, white
cheese, plain yogurt, labanah, olive oil, ghee, tahini,
dates, Arabic coffee, hot tea, and Arabic dishes after
living in the United States. Significant decreases were
noted in common food such as green beans, tomato,
cauliflower, eggplant, cucumber, squash, cabbage, okra, and
total vegetables; orange, peach, watermelon, cantaloupe,
mango, cherry, and grapes; fresh fish, veal, and liver
since living in the United States. Significant increases
were noted in the consumption frequency of American foods
such as dinner rolls, hot dogs or hamburger rolls, pies,
ready to eat cereals, pizza, broccoli, ketchup and salsa,
orange juice, strawberries, hamburger, frozen dinner,
mayonnaise, American coffee, and ice tea since living in
119
the United States. Frequency of consumption of some foods
was significantly greater for women than men. Pizza, French
fries, orange juice, fried chicken, steak, and ice cream
were the most liked American foods among subjects. For the
foods which were rated significantly different in liking by
men and women, women rated the most of foods higher. Food
liking and frequency of consumption of American foods were
significantly positively related. The food consumption
frequency and liking of American foods were related to age,
age entered United States, length of residence in the
United States, and degree of acculturation. A limitation of
this study is the small number of subjects, especially
women. Further studies are needed in which larger numbers
of subjects, especially women. This study was of students,
who were mostly young adults; further research could
investigate other age groups of Arabs living in the United
States. Additional measures such as portion sizes would be
allow researchers to examine nutrient content.
120
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127
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11^*"
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128
APPENDIX A
E-MAIL SOLICITATION
129
REQUEST FOR ARAB SUBJECTS
April 17, 2002
Dear Arab student:
My name is Bayan Obeidat. I am an Arab graduate student in the Food and
nutrition Program at Texas Tech University. My chairperson is Dr. Helen
Brittm. We want to study food practices and preferences of Arab
students living in the United States. University students who were born
m Arab countries, have resided in the United States at least 3 months,
and are age 18 years or older are eligible to participate. We request
your help in this study.
The objectives of this study are to obtain information about general
food habits of Arab students living in the United States, factors
affecting dietary choices after living in the United States,
consumption frequency of selected food items before and after living in
the United States, and food preferences. Your opinions are very
important. They are needed by food and nutrition professionals working
with Arab students, clients, and patients to help them have diets that
are enjoyable and healthy.
You will be asked to fill out a questionnaire about your food practices
and preferences. The questionnaire and a self-addressed stamped return
envelope will be mailed to you. Completing this questionnaire will take
approximately 45 minutes. The questionnaire will be mailed Wednesday,
April 27, 2002. Please complete and mail the questionnaire within two
weeks. Your responses will be kept confidential; only a code number
will be written on the questionnaire. Your participation is entirely
voluntary. You may withdraw at any time. You may refuse to answer any
question.
If you will participate please complete the following form and return
it by email. Thank you for your time and consideration. If you have any
questions, please contact me (806-745-4427, evening; bo.beidat®ttu.e<"iu) .
Sincerely,
Bayan Obeidat
I am 18 years old or older.
D Yes
D No
I was born in an Arab country.
0 Yes
D No
I have resided in the United states at least 3 months.
D Yes
No
I can read a questionnaire in English.
D Yes
D No
I need a questionnaire in Arabic.
D Yes
D No
Name:
Telephone Number:
Mailing Address:
130
D
APPENDIX B
FOOD PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES QUESTIONNAIRE
131
SURVEY OF FOOD PRACTICES AND
PREFERENCES OF ARAB STUDENTS
UVlNe IN THE UNITED STATES
Code#
A survey is being conducted by the Food and Nutrition program at Texas Tech University.
The objectives of this study are to obtain information about general food habits, factors
affecting dietary choices, consumption frequency of selected food items, and food
preferences in relation to yourself before and after living in the United States. Your
opinions are very important. They are needed by food and nutrition professionals working
with Arabic students, clients, and patients living in the United States to help them have
diets that are enjoyable and healthy. Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary.
You may withdraw without penalty. You may refuse to answer any question. Your
responses to these questions will be kept confidential. Thank you for your time
Please complete and return this questionnaire to:
Bayan Obeidat/Dr.Helen Brittin
College of Human Sciences Box 41162
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, TX 79409-1162
132
F O O D PRACTICES AND PREFERENCES SURVEY
FOOD FREQUENCY AND PREFERENCES
' ""
"'
M c a t e how often you eat the food listed below in a day or week or month or you rarely/never eat whUe you
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Beets
Green beans
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133
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Peach
Strawberries
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Eggplant
Cucumber
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Cherry
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Figs
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^ j
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134
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States
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Lamb
Fish (fresh)
c_i_5> ^
g j vj. e - U - —
Fish (canned)
c u i i j u e_kft—^
Pork
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Veal
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Shrimp
Hot dogs
J
/
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t.>eKi
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135
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' Mow dftfenlatl?'
(Number uf times)
: Po"d l*refcrences
l u t h e O iiitedStat cs .
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5"
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*--L3^_3 r - » ;
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4 J Vy.£. o_>-J^
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c 3 j i j G^—^
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Cream cheese
Salad dressing
6>iii; / ri>riy'=Cj'
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^
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/_y^^
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•
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136
—
•
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,
•
1
.
.
.
.
,
.
-
,
GENERAL FOOD HABITS AND FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD CHOICE
Please fiU in the informaUon requested. Check the answer that best indicates your response.
1. How many meals do you consume in a typical day? (excluding snacks) In your country
In the USA_
2. If you skip meals, which meal is the most commonly skipped?
In your country of origin
In the United States
0 Breakfast 0 Lunch D Dinner
Q Breakfast D Lunch D Dinner
3. What is your main meal?
In your country of origin
In the United States
D Lunch D Dinner D Varies
D Lunch D Dinner D Varies
4. Usually at vAxat time do you eat your meals?
In your country of origin
Breakfest:
^morning
Lunch;
afternoon
Dinner:
evening
In tlie United States
Breakfast:
^morning
Lunch:
afternoon
Dinner:
evening
5. What type of meal do you usually eat at breakfest since migrating to U.S?
D j^abic meal 0 American meal D Both
6. What type of meal do you usually eat at lunch since migrating to U.S? D Arabic meal D American meal D Both
7. What type of meal do you usually eat at dinner since migrating to U.S? D Arabic meal D American meal D Both
8. What fats are used for cooking /serving food in your home? (check all that apply)
In country of origin: D Olive oil D Vegetable oil • Butter D Shortening D Ghee D Other (specify):
In the United States; D Olive oil D Vegetable oil D Butter D Shortening D Margarine D Other (specify):_
9. What herbs and spices are commonly used for cooking in your home in the U.S? (check all that apply)
D Allspice D Black pepper D Cinnamon DGarUc OMint D Nutmeg D Oregano D Other (specify):
10. In your opinion, which type of meals are more economical to prepare?
D Arabic meals D American meals D Both are the same
11. Are you consuming more Western/American dishes (e.g., steak, pizza, hamburger, hotdogs) since migrating to
U.S.? a Yes DNo
If your answer is yes, Why?
0 Availabilify D Convenience D Preference D Like to try new foods D Other (specify)
12. Do you eat snacks between meals?
In your country of origin D yes D No
In the United States • Yes • No
If your answer is yes, how often?
times/day or
times/week
If your answer is j'es, how often?
times/day or
times/week
If your answer is yes, what snack items?
(check all that apply)
• Potato chips • Cookies • Crackers
D Chocolate candy D Ice cream 0 Fruits
D Fruit juice D Soft drinks D Coffee
• Other (specify);
.
If your answer is yes, what snack items?
(check all that apply)
D Potato chips 0 Cookies D Crackers
D Chocolate candy Dice cream • Fruits
• Fruitjuice •Softdrinks • Coffee
• Other (specify);
137
__
What kinds of foods did you eat? (check all that apply)
• Arabic food Q American food • Chinese food • Indian food D Mexican food • Other (specify):
14. On average, how often do you eat out at restaurants or fast food places in the United States?
tunes/week or
times/month or
times/year
What kinds of foods do you eat? (check all that apply)
Q Arabic food • j\merican food • Chinese food D Indian food D Mexican food • Other (specify):
15. When you wert living in your country, who was responsible for food preparation in your home'
• You
D Mother
DWife
• Husband
• Other (specify):
16. IntiieU.S. who is responsible for food preparation in your home?
• You
•Mother
DWife
• Husband
• Other (specify):
17. How often did you shop for food in your country of origin?
18. How often do you shop for food in the United States?
times/day or
times/day or
times/week
timesAveek
19. Where do you buy most of your food? • Arabian supermarket • ji^erican supermarket
20. In your country of origin, did you avoid eating certain foods in because of religious beliefs? • Yes • No
If your answer is yes, what foods did you avoid?
Have you maintained this religious dietary regulation in the U.S.? • Yes • No
21. Do you consume the food generally served in the U.S. on the Thanksgiving and Christmas holidays?
• Yes DNo
22. What do you feel about your overall diet in the U.S. compared with in coimtry of origin?
• More healthy • Less healthy • Just as healthy as in my country
Why?
23. Have your eating habits changed since you arrived in the United States? • Yes • No
If your answer is yes, what are important factors that caused these changes? (check all that apply)
• No time to prepare traditional foods; American foods are quicker and easier to prepare.
• It is easier and more convenient to shop for American foods than for j^ab foods.
D Some Arab foods are not available or are hard to find in the U.S.
• Arabic foods are available but poor qualify.
• Arabic foods are more expensive in the U.S.
• I do not know how to cooL
• Seafood, lamb, and vegetables are more expensive in the United States than in Arab countries.
• Chicken and beef are cheaper in the U.S, so I eat more chicken and beef in the U.S.
• 1 drink more milk in the United States because it is cheaper.
• The qualify of some foods, such as beef, milk, ice cream, and candy, is better in U.S. than in Arab countries.
138
• Exposure to nutrition related information e.g., nutrition class, TV.
• It is hard to find halal meat in the U.S.
• Other (specify)
GENERAL INFORMATION
Please All in the information requested. Check the answer that best indicates your opinion.
1. Age:
years
2. Sex; • Male
• Female
3. Weight
kg or
^Ib
4. Height:
cm or
ft
^inch
5. Coimtry of origin;
6. Residence in the U.S.; State
7. Age entered United States:
8. Marital Status; • Single
Cify
years
• Married
• Widowed
• Divorced/Separated
If your answer is married, spouse is from: • Arab country
9. Education (years of school and college completed):
10. Length of residence in the United States:
years
OU.S.
• Other (specify):
years
^months
11. Employed: • Full-time DPart-time •Unemployed
12. Religion: • Islam
D Christianify
• Judaism • Other (specify)
^
13. Did you usually fast during Ramadan in your home country? • Yes • No
14. Did you fast during Ramadan in 2001? • Yes • No
15. Degree of adherence to rehgious dietary practices in the United States:
• Always • Almost always • Usually • Seldom • Never
16.DoyoulivealoneorwithyDurfamify/friend(s)intheUSA?DAlone
•Withfamity • With friend(s)
If your answer is live with family, number of people in family:
17. Amiual income before taxes (for you if hve alone or with friend; for famifyif live with famify):
18. Average monthly food expenditure per person;
$
19. Were you on a special diet in the country of origin? • Yes • No
If your answer is yes, why were you on a special diet?
• Weight loss diet • Vegetarian • For medical condition • Other (specify)__
139
$
20. Aie you on a special diet in the U.S.? • Yes • No
If your answer is yes, why are you on a special dief?
• Weight loss diet •Vegetarian • For medical condition • Other (specify).
21. Do you have any type of chronic disease? • Yes • No
If your answer is yes, what type?
• Diabetes • Heart disease •Cancer
DOther (specify)
22. Have you lost or gained more than 5 pounds since migrating to the United States? •Yes • No
If your answer is yes, • Lost 5-15 pounds • Lost 16-25 pounds • Lost over 25 pounds Q Gained 5-15 pounds
• Gained 16-25 pounds • Gained over 25 pounds
If your answer is gained weight, why do think you gained weight?
• Food in the United States is fattening and makes one gain.
• The United States life sfyle (eating more and sleeping well, little physical activify) leads to weight gain.
• Other (specify)
^
23. Are you currently taking any vitamin or mineral supplements? (e.g., vitamin A, vitamin C, Zinc)
• Yes, fairly regularly • Yes, but not regularly • No
If your answer is yes, please hst the kinds and the amounts: ^
For the following questions (1-9), use the scale below and circle the letter which best describes your response.
Onfy Arabic
Arabic more than
Both Equally
English
B
A
C
English/American
Only English
More than Arabic
(American)
D
E
1 In general, what language(s) do you read?
A
B
C D E
2 In general, what language(s) do you speak?
A
B
C
D E
3 In general, what language(s) do you think in?
A
B
C
D E
4 What newspapers do you usualfy read?
A
B
C
D E
5 Your close friends are:
A
B
C
D E
6 If you choose a family doctor or other health professionals, whom do you prefer?
A
B
C
D E
7 What kinds of food do you prefer?
A
B
C
D E
8 What do you usually eat at home?
A
B
C
D E
9 What is/are your favorite restaurant(s)7
A
B
C
•^
THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR COOPERATION
140
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