Joumal of the American Mosquito Control Association, l4(2):lg6_195, l99g
Copyright O 1998 by the American Mosquito Control Association, Inc.
FIELD EVALUATION OF COLORED LIGHT:EMITTING DIODES AS
ATTRACTANTS FOR WOODLAND MOSQUITOES AND OTHER
DIPTERA IN NORTH CENTRAL FLORIDA
DOUGLAS
A. BURKETT,
JERRY F BUTLER
AND DANIEL
L. KLINE
Department of Entomology and Nematology, [/niversity of Ftorida, Institute of Food and Agricultural
ing 970, Hull Road, P. O. Box 110620, Gainesville, FL 326H-0620
Sciences, Buitd-
ABSTRACT. The attraction of mosquitoes to transmitted light from colored super-bright light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) (100-nm bandwidth) was evaluated by comparison of capture numbers with and without carbon dioxidebaited (200 mVmin) Centers for Disease Control (CDC) traps. Traps with either colored LEDs or control lights
were arranged in Latin square designs at 2 north central Florida woodland locations and checked daily during
July and August 1996. When data were analyzed by species, a significant difference in attractivity of lights was
found in some species. Aedes atlanticus, Aedes dupreei, Aedes infrmatus, Anopheles cruciani s.l.,buliseta
melanura, Culex nigripalpus, Psorophora columbiae, and lJranotaenia sapphirina showed significant color preferences. These results will have potential for use by ecologists, epidemiologists, and mosquito control personnel
for improving collection efficiency of certain species of mosquitoes.
KEY
WORDS
Trap, color, vision, visual ecology, light traps, attractants
INTRODUCTION
Equipment Co., model VTS453B-320, Denton, TX)
and microregulators (Series M, Nupro, Wiloughby,
OH) to maintain a constant gas flow of 200 mVmin.
Carbon dioxide was delivered to the trap tbrough a
3-m length of 8-mm Tygon@ (Norton Performance
Plastics Corp., Akron, OH) tubing secured with a
rubber band so the top of the tubing was even with
the top of the trap opening. Gas flow was checked
each morning and evening using an in-line flowmeter (No. 12, Gilmont Instruments, Great Neck
NY). Mosquitoes attracted near the trap intake were
drawn in by the trap fan and blown through a
screen funnel and into a l-quart polypropylene jar
containing a 3 X 6-cm piece of dichlorvos-impregnated vinyl strip used as a killing agent. Powersonic@ (PowerSonic Corp., San Diego, CA) 6-V 10amp-h rechargeable gel cell batteries were used to
run the fan motor and standard incandescent light.
Six colors with and without CO, (trials I and 2):
From July 15 to 20 (trial 1) and July 22 to 27 (trial
2), 1996, different colored lights were used as attractants in standard CDC-type surveillance traps
using a 6 X 6 Latin square design. Light, day, and
position effects were evaluated using a 3-way analysis of variance (SAS Institute 1985) for the total
number and most cofiunon species represented in
the traps. Multiple comparisons were made using
MATERIALS AND METHODS
the Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsh
multiple range test
Three field trials were conducted using standard (c : O.O5). Trial 1 used CO, as an additional atCDC-type traps (John W. Hock Co., model 512, tractant and trial 2 used the same randomization,
Gainesville, FL) modified by replacing the standard but did not use COr. Four different colored superbulbs with the LEDs. The LED was securedinto a bright Toshiba Tosbrighto (Martech Optoelectronpiece of 2 X 2-cm plexiglass and fastened to the ics, Latham, NY) Ultrabright LEDs were compared
screen atop the lid assembly 3 cm below the alu- to no light and a standard GE@ (John W. Hock Co.,
minum trap lid (Fig. 1). Trial 1 used 9-kg com- Gainesville, FL, CM-47, 6.3 V, 52O millicandela
pressed-gas (carbon dioxide ICOr]) cylinders [mcd]) miniature lamp incandescent bulb used as
equipped with double-stage regulators (Victor controls. The diodes tested were red (613 + 50 nm.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were evaluated as
an alternative light source for use as an adult mosquito attractant. Much of t}te research on dipteran
color preference is based on reflected light (Brett
1938; Bracken et al. 1962; O'Gower 19631.
Granger
1970; Bradbury and Bennett 1974; Browne and
Bennett 1980, 1981; Allan and Stoffolano 1986).
Many authors have shown that mosquitoes are attracted to transmitted light (Headlee 1937, Weiss
1943, Williams et al. 1955, Bargren and Nibley
1956, Breyev 1963, Wilton and Fay 1972, Gjullin
et al. 1973,Browne and Bennett1981).Few reports
detail the response of individual species. Several
colors (100 nm width) ofhighly efficient, low cost,
super-bright LEDs have recently been developed.
These colored LEDs when used in Centersfor Disease Control (CDC) traps have a greater intensity
and require significantly lower amounts of energy
(ca. 0.125 ma/h vs. 150 ma./hfor standard CM-47
bulb). We evaluated the use of LEDs as an inexpensive light source and examined the relationship
between transmitted light color and its attractivenessto woodland mosquito and other dipteran species.
186
JounNaL oF THE AMERTcIN Mosquno
CoNrnol
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25
t
3zo
aa
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ab
O
a 1 5
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Ae. dupreei
Ae. atlanticus
Ae. infimatus
Cs. melanura
70
60
Eso
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J! 40
U'
o
'0
(I)
30
o_
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bs 20
10
An. crucians
Cx. nigripalpus
Cx.(Melanoconion)
Ps. ciliata
Cq.perturbans
W. sapphirina
Fig. 2. Relative percent composition of mosquito species captured in COr-baited Centers for Disease Control
(CDC)-type traps using colored light-emitting diodes or incandescent light only. Means within each species group
having the same letter are not signi{icantly different (Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsh
multiple range test). c - 0.05, n =
6 nishts.
ducted from August 12 to 21, 1996. Because of fluctuating water levels and mosquito populations at the
Austin Cary Forest site, a similar, but more permanent
cytr)ress swamp habitat was chosen north of Gainesville, FL. tn addition to the 4 LED colors and 2 controls previously discussed, 2 additional LED wave-
lengths, infrared (940 + 50 nm, 22' [Martech Optoelectronics, t atham, NY, model MTEl080l) and blue
(450 + 5O nm, 800 mcd, 22" [Panasonic@, Panasonic
Terhnologies, Inc., Princeton, NJI) were evaluated
also. Using an 8 x 8 Latin square design, traps were
placed around the perimeter of the swamp. Each trap
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DIotps As ATTRACTANTS
!30
o
(6
O
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Ae. dupreei
Ae.atlanticus
Ae. infirmatus
Cs. melanura
70
60
950
8+o
u)
Q)
'6
30
o
o_
-; 20
10
An. crucians
Cx. nigripalpus
Cx.(Melanoconion)
Ur. sapphiina
Fig. 3t Relative percent composition of mosquitoes captured in Centers for Disease Control (CDC)-type traps using
colored light-emitting diodes or incandescent light only. Means within each species group having the iame letter ari
not significantly different (Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsh
multiple range test). ct : 0.05, n = O nlgttit.
was baited with 200 mymin CO, as in trial I and
otherwise treated as before.
RESULTS
Six colors with and without CO, (trials I and 2)
During the 6 trap-nights of trials I and 2, 32,059
and 1,916 specimensof mosquitoeswere collected
from traps enhanced with CO, and those without
COr, respectively. The mosquito species compositions attracted to the incandescent light trap agree
with those found by Mann (1993). Responses of the
most numerous mosquito species are shown in Fig.
2a, 2b, and 3a, 3b. Means, standard errors, p values, and signiflcant differences for species represented in large enough numbers are shown in Ta-
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bles 1 and 2. As noted in the tables, trap-position
and day effects were significant for some species.
No significant differences were observed for the
total number of mosquitoes captured at different colors in either the COr-baited or unbaited trials (P :
0.08, P : O.24, respectively). However, differences
were observed for individual species. In trial I, Aedes dupreei (Coquillett), Aedes infirmaras (Dyar and
Knab), An. crucians s.1., Culiseta melanura (Coquillett), and Uranotaenia sapphirina (Osten Sacken) showed significant color preferences. In trial 2,
oriy Ae. atlanticus, An. crucians s.1., and Ur. sapphirirn
showed significant preferences. Aedes dupreei was the predominant species and was the only
species preferring the COr-baited trap using no light.
This species was also abundant in the no light control. Three female Lutzomyia shannoni (Dyar) and
one Lutzomyia vexator (Coquillett) were collected
during trial l. None were collected in trial 2.
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During the 8 trap-nights, 4,668 specimens of
mosquitoes, l, I 89 tabanids (Diac hlorus fernt gatus
Osten Sacken), 3,667 chaoborids (Corethrella
spp.), and 3 phlebotomine sand fly specimens were
collected. Responses of the most numerous mosquito species are shown in Figs. 4a, 4b. A highly
significant difference was found in the total numbers of mosquitoes captured for the different colors
(P : 0.0001). Means, standard errors, P values, and
significant differences for species represented in
large enough numbers are shown in Thble 3. As
seen in trials I and 2, trap-position and day effects
were significant for some species. Overall capture
of mosquitoes was significantly greatest with the
standard white broad-spectrum incandescent, followed by blue, green, orange, yellow, red, no light
control, and infrared, respectively. When collections were classified by mosquito species, clear
preferences were seen between species. Anopheles
crucians s.1., Cs. melanura, Culex nigripalpus
Theobald, Psorophora columbiae (Dyar and Knab),
and Ur. sapphirina showed significant color preferences. White light captured the most An. crucians
s.1.. The greatest numbers of Cs, melanura were
captured in traps with white, green, and orange.
The most Ps, columbiae were collected in traps
with blue, and significantly more (/r. sapphirina
were captured in traps with standard white or blue,
No colors were found to be repellent to mosquitoes
when compared to the no light controls. No significant difference (P :0.26) for color attraction were
obtained for the tabanid D. ferrugatus. Conversely,
the chaoborids (Corethrella spp.), showed significant color attraction (P : 0.002), preferring white
and blue over the other colors.
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191
DIoDES As ATTRAcTANTS
DISCUSSION
Many common Florida woodland mosquitoes are
medically important. Although one of the primary
JOURNALoF THE AMERTCANMosquno
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Fig. 4. Relative percent composition of mosquitoes captured in COr-baited Centers for Disease Control (CDC)type traps using colored light-emitting diodes or incandescent light only. Means within each species group having the
multiple range test). ct = 0.05, n : 8 nights.
same letter are not significantly different (Ryan-Einot-Gabriel-Welsh
means of evaluating the presence or absence and
relative abundance of certain mosquitoes is through
the use of light traps, few studies have evaluated
mosquito response to different wavelengths of
transmitted monochromatic light. Even fewer stud-
ies have detailed the response of individual specres.
Browne and Bennett (1981) tested filtered light of
known wavelengths to equate host preference with
landing rates for Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker). They found shorter wavelengths (40O-6OO nm
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JounNeLop run AMr,nrcnNMosquno Cotrnol AssocrlloN
or blue-green) attracted significantly more mosquitoes than did longer wavelengths. Their results correspond well to ours in trial 3. In Georgia, Bargren
and Nibley (1956) found Aedes yexans (Meigen),
Culex salinarias (Coquillett), and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say) to have varying levels of attraction
to New Jersey traps using different colored bulbs
of similar intensities. Other species, such as Cx. nigripalpus, showed no preference for any of the 4
color bandwidths (447, 57O, 659, 670 nm) tested.
This finding agrees with ours in trials 1 and 2, but
differs from those of trial 3, which found significant
color preferences (blue, green, white) for Cx. nigripalpus. Vavra et al. (1974) tested several types
and colors of light and found no significant differences in the total numbers of mosquitoes attracted
to each of the colors. Attraction of individual species of mosquitoes was not examined. In a laboratory test using Culex tarsalis (Coquillett), Cx. quinquefosciatus (Say), and Anopheles sierrenis (LudIow), Gjullin et al. (1973) tested New Jersey light
traps equipped with either ultraviolet light, or ceramic-dipped bulbs colored red, green, blue, orange, and white. They found no significant differences in attraction between any of the colors tested.
Wilton and Fay (L972) tested Anopheles stephensi
(Liston) against a clear incandescent bulb and monochromatic light of various wavelengths. They
found this mosquito highly attracted to bandwidths
of 29O and 365 nm in the ultraviolet region and
690 nm, but blues, greens, and yellows (bandwidths
of 490, 540, and 590 nm, respectively) were not as
attractive as the clear bulb.
Allan et al. (1987) stated that crepuscular and
nocturnal biting flies are unlikely to have well-developed color vision, but their abilities ro detect differences in intensity contrast are likely to be well
developed. Spectral sensitivity (i.e., relative sensitivity of the retina to light of different wavelengths)
studies consistently showed that most flies possess
a bimodal spectral response with peaks around 340
and 525 nm (White 1985). Considering the variation in mosquito species' attraction to light traps
(Huffaker and Back 1943, Bidlingmayer 1967), it
is not unreasonable to expect differences in color
preference based on variations in their spectral sensitivities.
Alternatively, attractiveness may not be due to
color per se. Different wavelengths may be physiologically perceived as more intense and subsequently more attractive. Barr et al. (1963) concluded that more intense light (up to a point) is more
attractive than less intense light. Electroretinographs (ERGs) conducted by Muir et al. (L992)
showed Aedes aegypti (L.) to have spectral sensitivities ranging from ultraviolet (323 nm) to orangered (621 nm) with sensitivity peaks in both the ultraviolet (345 nm) and green (523 nm) wavelengths. By studying the relationship between illumination and suitability of an oviposition site for
Ae. aegypti, Snow (1971) found a similar bimodal
V o L . 1 4 ,N o . 2
response. Unfortunately, all mosquito spectral sensitivity studies have focused on Ae. aegypti; none
have been conducted on nocturnal or other species
commonly attracted to artificial light.
Unlike standard bulbs that radiate light in a 360"
pattern, the diodes emit a narrow beam (8 or 22"),
which in these tests was oriented upwards and reflected off the shiny surface of the aluminum pan
covering the CDC trap. If the mosquitoes are responding to differences in perceived intensity, an
assortment of several of the most promising LED
colors (e.9., blues and greens) could be arranged to
produce a 360'pattern and perhaps greatly increase
the efficiency of the trap. Several LEDs in series
would be many times brighter and still use significantly less battery power than a single incandescent bulb. Several of the ERG studies previously
mentioned have shown peak dipteran spectral activity from bandwidths ranging from 450 to 550
nm. Based on the numbers of certain mosquito species that were attracted to the blue and green wavelengths, LED wavelengths between 450 and 550
nm may produce excellent results. Currently, technology limits production of LEDs producing these
wavelengths. Super-bright blues (450 nm) have
only recently become available, and perhaps future
technology will produce a blue-green diode peaking
at about 500 nm.
Light-emitting diodes run on significantly lower
amounts of energy (ca. I ma/8 h) than incandescent
bulbs, resulting in substantial savings in battery life
and expense. Hours of use (means -f SEM) with
the no light control (69 + 7.5), blue (63 + 9), and
green (63 -+ 5.7) were found to last significantly
more hours (n : 4, P : O.O2) than the standard
white bulb (36 t 0). For convenient use, LEDs can
be soldered in series directly into the existing trap
circuitry. Best results for all colored LEDs except
blue (100 O) were obtained using 200-.f) resistors
connected to the light motor assembly. Future studies should focus on combinations of colors oriented
in different directions. The use of super-bright
LEDs warrants serious consideration as a replacement for standard incandescent bulbs used in light
traps. These results have potential for use in population dynamics studies or for enhancing the attractivity for certain species.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank John Reinert and Henry McKeithen,
who helped with mosquito identifications and Peter
Perkins, who identified the sand flies. We would
also like to acknowledge Diana Simon, Tim Robson, and Hayes Brown, who helped with field sampling. This article is published as Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series R-05768.
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