Perceptual & Motor Skills: Exercise & Sport
2012, 115, 2, 632-644. © Perceptual & Motor Skills 2012
ANALYSIS OF DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL
KNOWLEDGE IN VOLLEYBALL ACCORDING TO
THE LEVEL OF PRACTICE AND PLAYERS’ AGE1, 2
ALEXANDER GIL and M. PERLA MORENO
LUÍS GARCÍA-GONZÁLEZ
Faculty of Sport Sciences
University of Extremadura
Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences
University of Zaragoza
ALBERTO MORENO and FERNANDO DEL VILLAR
Faculty of Sport Sciences
University of Extremadura
Summary.—The main objective of the research was to analyse the cognitive expertise of volleyball players, according to their level of practice and age, as well
as to verify the existing difference in the knowledge of individuals of the same
age but with different levels of practice. The study sample was comprised of 535
individuals ages 12 to 16 years. The independent variables were the level of practice, i.e., playing category in training and in competition (Under-14 and Under-16),
and the age. The dependent variables were declarative knowledge and procedural
knowledge. An analysis of variance was performed to examine the influence of
the level of practice on the declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge of
the volleyball players in training stages. There were significant differences both in
declarative knowledge and in procedural knowledge according to level of practice.
Significant differences were also observed between consecutive ages at different
levels of practice. These results show that the level of practice in training and competition is a more relevant factor than the change of age in development of specific
knowledge of the sport.
In team sports, performance is not assessed only as the execution of
technical and tactical actions; it is also necessary for the athlete to quickly
understand what is happening in the game situation to transmit an adaptative response (Águila & Casimiro, 2001; Macquet, 2009).
Research in team sports development has attached great importance
to tactics and decision making (Thomas, 1994; Macquet & Fleurance, 2007;
Macquet, 2009; Moreno, Del Villar, García-González, Gil, & Moreno, 2011).
In the decision-making process, the greater and more varied the knowledge, the better the decision-making of the athlete will be and the greater the level of sport expertise will be demonstrated (Thomas, French,
& Humphries, 1986; French & Thomas, 1987; Williams & Davids, 1995;
Nielsen & McPherson, 2001; Starkes, Helsen, & Jack, 2001; Iglesias, Moreno, Santos-Rosa, Cervelló, & Del Villar, 2005; Araujo, Afonso, & Mesquita,
1
Address correspondence to Alexander Gil Arias, Facultad de Ciencias del Deporte, Universidad de Extremadura, Av/Universidad s/n 10071, Cáceres, Spain or e-mail ([email protected]).
2
This study has been made possible thanks to the Predoctoral Research Grant by the Council
for Employment, Enterprise, and Innovation of the Government of Extremadura (Spain).
DOI 10.2466/30.10.25.PMS.115.5.632-644
ISSN 0031-5125
DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE IN VOLLEYBALL
633
2011). Therefore, knowledge and decision-making are essential factors in
cognitive expertise (Thomas & Thomas, 1994; McPherson, 1999; McPherson, 2000; Del Villar, Iglesias, Moreno, Cervelló, & Ramos, 2003).
Within cognitive psychology, the Adaptative Control of Thought, Rational (ACT–R) theory (Anderson, Bothell, Byrne, Douglas, Lebiere, &
Quin, 2004) established two types of knowledge: declarative knowledge
and procedural knowledge. Knowledge has an influence on processes such
as attention, visual behaviour, anticipation, response selection, and execution. Likewise, response selection and the execution define the intermediate
processes (anticipation, recognition, visual behaviour, and attention) and
the knowledge of the athlete (MacMahon & McPherson, 2009). Research
on this cognitive paradigm has focused on clarifying the existing differences in knowledge between athletes with different levels of expertise. Thus
the studies by McPherson (McPherson & Thomas, 1989; McPherson, Dovenmuheler, & Murray, 1992; McPherson, 2000; McPherson & Vickers, 2004;
McPherson & Kernodle, 2007) showed that expert athletes have more extensive and organised tactical knowledge (Moran, 2004; Ruiz, Sánchez, Durán,
& Jiménez, 2006; Evans, Whipp, & Lay, 2012), which means that they make
more adequate tactical decisions during the competition (McPherson, 2000;
Nielsen & McPherson, 2001; Moran, 2004; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, Mazyn, & Phillippaerts, 2007; McPherson & MacMahon, 2008).
The age of athletes is a relevant variable when studying knowledge
in sport. Declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge both increase
with age (French & Thomas, 1987; McPherson, 1999; Blomqvist, Luhtanene, & Laakso, 2001). This relationship was found also between level of
sport practice and cognitive expertise, indicating greater development of
specific knowledge of the sport and greater precision in decision making
(Berry, Abernethy, & Côte, 2008; Berry & Abernethy, 2009; Catteuw, Hel­
sen, Gilis, & Wagemans, 2009; Koslowksy & Da Conceição, 2010). Clearly,
since athletes’ knowledge and skill develops over time, the two variables
of age and expertise are confounded to some extent.
In volleyball, Moreno, Moreno, Ureña, García-González, and Del Villar (2008) analysed tactical knowledge in setters in different playing categories (Senior, Under-19, and Under-14). The results indicated that older
female players with a higher level of practice displayed more complex, sophisticated, varied, and structured action plans. This greater development
of tactical knowledge is due mainly to the application, during competition,
of action plan profiles and current event profiles. This greater development
enables them to plan their tactical behaviour, performing an analysis of the
characteristics of the game context as well as of the opponents’ tendencies,
strengths, and weaknesses (McPherson & Kernodle, 2007). Action plan profiles and current event profiles are adaptations of long-term memory, which
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A. Gil, et al.
differ depending on the sport, the sport experience, the age of the athletes,
the level of practice, and the practice of specific tasks (McPherson & Kernodle, 2003; Kannekens, Elferink-Gemser, Post, & Vischer, 2009).
The main objective of the research was to analyse the influences of
levels of sport practice and age on the cognitive expertise of volleyball
players, as well as to verify the existing differences in the knowledge of
individuals of the same age but with different levels of practice. Based on
these objectives, the following hypotheses were established:
Hypothesis 1: There will be significant differences in knowledge according to the
level of practice. Volleyball players who train and compete in a higher playing
category will show significantly greater knowledge than those volleyball players who train and compete at lower playing categories.
Hypothesis 2: There will be significant differences in knowledge between players
of consecutive ages who belong to different levels of practice, whilst no significant differences in knowledge would be found among players of consecutive
ages with the same level of practice.
Hypothesis 3: There will be significant differences in knowledge between individuals of the same age who train and compete at different levels of practice.
Method
Participants
The study population was comprised of 804 athletes, aged between
12 and 16 years, all of whom participated in the Spanish Volleyball Championship in 2010. A sample of 535 participants was taken, which meant
obtaining representative data with the level of confidence of 95% (k = 2)
and a margin of error of ± 2.45, assuming p = q = 0.5. Simple random type
probabilistic sampling was used. Out of the total sample, 261 belonged to
the Under-14 category (years of practice: M = 3.26, SD = 1.62; weekly training hours: M = 5.62, SD = 2.04) and 274 to the Under-16 category (years of
practice: M = 4.32; SD = 1.51; weekly training hours: M = 6.90, SD = 2.87).
Variables
Level of practice and age were the independent variables. Level of
practice was defined as the playing category in which the participants
trained and competed. Previous research has shown that the type of practice developed in Under-14 and Under-16 groups is different, in terms of
the number of weekly training hours, training contents, and number of
competitions (Berry, et al., 2008; Leite, Baker, & Sampaio, 2009; GarcíaGonzález, Iglesias, Moreno, Gil, & Del Villar, 2011; Baker, Bagats, Büsch,
Strauss, & Schorer, 2012; Gil, Moreno, Moreno, García-González, Claver,
& Del Villar, 2012). Age was defined as the chronological age of the study
participants. This variable has been considered in previous research and
acts as a relevant factor to develop knowledge in sport (McPherson &
Thomas, 1989; McPherson, 2000).
DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE IN VOLLEYBALL
635
In this research, the Under-14 athletes were born in 1996 and 1997,
and the Under-16 athletes were born in 1994 and 1995. The year of birth
was taken into consideration in order to assign the athletes to one playing category or another. In sport, there are borderline ages between two
categories. In this study, the age of 14 is borderline between Under-14 and
Under-16. The individuals who participated in our study were aged between 12 and 16 years. The 12- and 13-year-old athletes belonged to the
Under-14 category, whilst the 15- and 16-year-old athletes belong to the
Under-16 category. However, when the data were collected in June 2010,
there were some 14-year-old players in the Under-14 category and some
in the Under-16 category.
The dependent variables were declarative knowledge, which is identified with knowing “Know what” and refers to the knowledge of the rules
and objectives of the game (McPherson, 1994; Thomas & Thomas, 1994),
and procedural knowledge, which is identified with knowing “Know how”
and is defined as a response-selection procedure (which movement must
be carried out in a certain situation) and as a motor procedure (execution
of a motor action; Abernethy, Farrow, & Berry, 2003).
Measures
Declarative knowledge.—The Declarative Knowledge Questionnaire
(Moreno, Moreno, García-González, Gil, & Del Villar, 2010; adapted from
McGee & Farrow, 1987) comprises 24 multiple-choice items. This instrument includes questions related to technique, terminology, regulation,
general knowledge, and strategy [e.g., What aspects contribute to giving
height to the spike jump: (a) approaching in a more diagonal direction; (b)
an adjustment adapted with the setting; (c) the action of the back during
the flight; and (d) the extension of the legs and the movement of the arms
in the approach]. The measure is scored as the frequency of correct answers obtained by each participant, for a maximum of 24 points.
Procedural knowledge.—The Procedural Knowledge Questionnaire
(Moreno, 2006; adapted from McGee & Farrow, 1987) comprises 25 multiple-choice items. This instrument includes questions related to the tactical
behaviour of the athletes in different volleyball game situations: serving,
receiving, setting, attacking, and defending [e.g., When you are going to
spike, what aspects of the opposing team should you pay attention to? (a)
to the block; (b) to the second line defense; (c) both to the block as to the
second line defense; (d) neither of them, the important thing is to make a
spike with maximum power]. The measure is scored as the frequency of
correct answers obtained by each participant, for a maximum of 25 points.
Both instruments have been used in previous research. Declarative
and procedural knowledge increase with experience (Gil, Moreno, Moreno, García-González, & Del Villar, 2011) and level of performance (Moreno, Moreno, García-González, Iglesias, & Del Villar, 2006).
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A. Gil, et al.
Procedure
Before starting the research, contact was made with the people responsible for the clubs to inform them of the objective of the study and ask
for their voluntary collaboration. As the participants were all under age,
written authorisation to participate in the research was requested, to be
signed by their parents. The entire research procedure was fully approved
by the Ethical Research Committee of the University of Extremadura.
Before starting to compile data, the participants were informed of the
procedure used in the research. Their participation was voluntary and
anonymous. The senior investigator was present during the administration of the questionnaires, in order to inform athletes about how to complete the questionnaires and also to resolve any possible doubts that might
arise during the process. Emphasis was always placed on the anonymous
nature of the answers.
The questionnaires were completed by the athletes at their lodgings,
as this was the most appropriate context for them to concentrate. Both
questionnaires were filled in by the players, one after the other, with a 15min. break between the two. The administration protocol required that
both questionnaires be provided in a single document. The procedural
knowledge questionnaire was filled out first, because it required a greater
cognitive effort. After a 15-min. break, the declarative knowledge questionnaire was filled out.
Statistical Analysis
The data normality was tested via the measure of asymmetry, kurtosis, and Kolmogorov-Smirnov with Lilliefors correction, indicating that
the data distribution was normal. Therefore, parametric statistics were
used. A descriptive analysis and an inferential analysis were performed
via one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), to examine the influence of
the Level of practice on Declarative and Procedural knowledge in volleyball players in the two age categories. Likewise, a one-way ANOVA
was performed to assess if there were significant differences in Declarative
knowledge and in Procedural knowledge between consecutive ages with
different Levels of practice.
Furthermore, the effect size (ES) was calculated as partial eta squared
statistic (hp2) to quantify the differences, as it eliminates the influence of
the size of the samples. SPSS Version 19.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) was
used to analyse the data.
Results
Declarative knowledge and Procedural knowledge increased with
Level of practice. The inferential analysis indicated that the athletes who
DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE IN VOLLEYBALL
637
Table 1
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics for Declarative and
Procedural Knowledge According to Level of Practice
Measure
Level of
Practice
M
SD
F1,533
p
ηp2
Observed
Power
Declarative
Knowledge
Under-14
Under-16
Under-14
Under-16
14.97
17.20
14.15
16.46
3.46
3.23
3.27
3.39
58.97
< .001
.10
1.00
63.88
< .001
.10
1.00
Procedural
Knowledge
trained and competed in the Under-16 age group showed significantly
greater knowledge compared with the athletes who trained and competed
in Under-14 (Table 1).
No significant differences were observed in Declarative knowledge
between consecutive ages at the same Level of practice, 12 and 13 years
(Under-14), 13 and 14 years (Under-14), 14 and 15 years (Under-16), and
15 and 16 years (Under-16). However, there were significant differences in
Declarative knowledge between consecutive ages that belonged to a different Levels of practice, 13 years (Under-14) and 14 years (Under-16); 14
years (Under-14) and 15 years (Under-16). Furthermore, significant differences were found in the Declarative knowledge of 14-year-old players at
different Levels of practice (Under-14 and Under-16; Table 2).
With respect to Procedural knowledge, there were no significant differences between consecutive ages with the same Level of practice: 12 and
13 years (Under-14), 13 and 14 years (Under-14), 14 and 15 years (Under-16), and 15 and 16 years (Under-16). However, there were significant
differences in Procedural knowledge between consecutive ages that belonged to different Levels of practice: 13 years (Under-14) and 14 years
(Under-16), 14 years (Under-14) and 15 years (Under-16). Significant differences were also found in Procedural knowledge of 14 year-old players
belonging to different Levels of practice (Under-14 and Under-16; Table 2).
Discussion
The main objective of the research was to analyse the influence of the
level of practice and age on the cognitive expertise of volleyball players, as
well as to verify the existing differences in knowledge between individuals of the same age and different level of practice.
The first hypothesis was that there will be significant differences in
knowledge according to the level of practice, in such a way that those volleyball players, who train and compete at a higher level, will show significantly greater knowledge than those volleyball players who train and
compete at a lower level. Significant differences in Declarative knowledge
and in Procedural knowledge were observed according to the level of
638
Table 2
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics for Declarative and Procedural Knowledge According to Level of Practice and Age
Age (Level of
Practice)
43
160
160
58
160
60
58
60
58
159
60
159
159
56
Declarative Knowledge
Procedural Knowledge
M
SD
F (df )
p
ηp2
M
SD
F (df )
p
ηp2
14.04
15.38
15.38
14.55
15.38
16.83
14.55
16.83
14.45
16.97
16.83
16.94
16.94
18.17
3.19
3.38
3.38
3.73
3.38
3.24
3.73
3.24
3.73
3.19
3.24
3.27
3.27
2.94
1.38 (1, 201)
.14
.03
.07
.01
.12
.01
0.92 (1, 216)
.34
.00
9.78 (1, 218)
.00
.04
22.44 (1, 218)
< .001
.09
14.11 (1, 122)
< .001
.10
20.12 (1, 122)
< .001
.14
21.64 (1, 201)
< .001
.09
21.52 (1, 201)
< .001
.09
.00 (1, 216)
.96
.00
1.34 (1, 216)
.25
.00
2.18 (1, 212)
.12
.02
3.74
3.23
3.23
2.96
3.23
3.48
2.96
3.48
2.96
3.36
3.48
3.36
3.36
3.28
3.25 (1, 201)
2.41 (1, 216)
13.39
14.43
14.43
13.96
14.43
16.59
13.96
16.59
13.96
16.31
16.59
16.21
16.21
16.78
1.20 (1, 212)
.27
.00
A. Gil, et al.
12 (Under-14)
13 (Under-14)
13 (Under-14)
14 (Under-14)
13 (Under-14)
14 (Under-16)
14 (Under-14)
14 (Under-16)
14 (Under-14)
15 (Under-16)
14 (Under-16)
15 (Under-16)
15 (Under-16)
16 (Under-16)
N
DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE IN VOLLEYBALL
639
practice. These results are similar to those obtained in previous research,
both on basketball (French & Thomas, 1987), and on football (GonzálezVíllora, García, Gutiérrez, & Contreras, 2010; González-Víllora, García,
Pastor, & Contreras, 2011).
In volleyball, research performed on athletes with different levels of
expertise has reported that female players with a higher level of practice
and experience presented more sophisticated and complex action plan profiles and current events profiles in the long-term memory (Moreno, Moreno, Ureña, García-González, & Del Villar, 2008; Moreno, Moreno, GarcíaGonzález, García-Calvo, & Del Villar, 2010; Afonso, Garganta, McRobert,
Williams, & Mesquita, 2012). All of this implies that more experienced athletes were able to constantly adapt and modify their interpretations of the
game action (McPherson & Ker­nodle, 2003). This greater development of
knowledge enables athletes with a higher level of practice to solve game
problems in a more sophisticated and elaborated manner, knowing under what conditions a certain action must be carried out, thus making it
possible to make more correct decisions and take quicker action (Singer &
Janelle, 1999; Doods, Griffin, & Placek, 2001; Nielsen & McPherson, 2001;
Del Villar, García-González, Iglesias, Moreno, & Cervelló, 2007; GutiérrezDiaz, González-Víllora, García-López, & Mitchell, 2011).
The second and third hypotheses indicated that there would be significant differences in knowledge between consecutive ages that belonged to
different Levels of practice. Likewise these differences in knowledge will
also be found among individuals of the same age, who trained and competed at different levels of practice. There were significant differences among
consecutive ages at different levels of practice, both in Declarative knowledge and in Procedural knowledge. These same differences in knowledge
have also been found among individuals of the same age, who trained and
competed at different levels of practice. Level of practice in training and
competition is a more relevant factor than age to the development of the
specific knowledge of the sport (Baker, Côte, & Abernethy, 2003).
At higher levels of practice, volleyball is characterised by an increase
in height of the net and a tendency towards a faster and a more complex
play, due mainly to increases in attack tempos (Costa, Mesquita, Greco, Ferreira, & Moraes, 2010; Costa, Ferreira, Junqueira, Afonso, & Mesquita, 2011).
When volleyball players participate at higher levels of practice, in order to
be more competitive, their training practice must be modified in terms of
quantity and quality to be more competitive, as the game conditions require
a greater perceptive-cognitive effort to obtain high sport performance.
The influence of level of practice on cognitive expertise is due to the
fact that athletes with higher levels of practice devote more time to training (Baker et al., 2003; Ward, Hodges, Starkes, & Williams, 2007; Berry &
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A. Gil, et al.
Abernethy, 2009; Gil, et al., 2012) and develop a greater number of essential practices for sport performance (Moreno, Moreno, Ureña, Iglesias, &
Del Villar, 2008; Leite, et al., 2009; Koslowksy & Da Conceição, 2010). Here,
14-year-old athletes with higher levels of practice had significantly greater knowledge than those 14-year-old players who trained and competed
at a lower level of practice. Given the influence of the level of practice on
cognitive expertise, it would be logical for the trainers in training stages to
favour the participation of players in more demanding levels of practice,
so that those athletes who are at borderline ages can acquire sport experience at higher requirement levels, favouring their sport training and their
development toward higher levels of expertise.
Conclusion
By way of conclusion, in this study we have examined the influence
of the level of practice in training and competition on the cognitive expertise of volleyball players in training stages. Based on the results obtained,
we can state that the level of practice is a more relevant variable than the
change of age to develop cognitive expertise. Considering that age is not
a factor that can be manipulated by the trainer, it is necessary to resort to
practice elements to favour sport training, in order to shorten an athlete’s
path towards sport excellence.
Finally, more and more studies must be carried out along this line,
where, apart from considering more levels of practice, additional instruments are applied that permit measuring the action plan profiles and the
current event profiles more directly. On the other hand, it would be important to combine this study with other relevant variables such as training
contents and types of practices carried out.
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Accepted September 13, 2012.