INTRO TO COPO
STUDENT NOTES 2
II. Sovereignty, Authority, Power
• A State is a political system that has
sovereignty over a population in a particular
territory, based on the recognized right to
self-determination. It is one of the most basic
units of study in comparative politics.
• Early-forming states tend to be more
economically developed and peaceful while
late-forming states tend to be less
economically developed and have yet to
consolidate their sovereignty
II. Sovereignty, Authority, Power
•
Regimes are the fundamental rules and
norms of politics.
•
•
Stems from regimen – guidance, rules
Regimes can be institutions and/or
individuals.
–
Examples of changes in regimes:
•
•
•
•
French Revolution overthrowing the monarchy
South Africans overthrowing apartheid white rule
Louis XIV “I am the state”
Iraq and Saddam Hussein.
II. Sovereignty, Authority, Power
• SOVEREIGNTY: The ability to carry out actions (legal authority)
independent of internal actors w/I a territory
• Rests with those who have ultimate right to make political decisions
II. Sovereignty, Authority, Power
• Government is the leadership or the elite in charge of
running the state.
– Organizations of individuals who have the power to make binding
decisions
– Operators of politics
– Weakly institutionalized – not seen as irreplaceable
• THINK: Government are the people, politics is the process
by which they make decisions.
II. Sovereignty, Authority, Power
• Governments may be democratically elected or
it may be ruled by dictators.
• However they are structured, each government
holds its own ideas about freedom and equality
and uses the state to realize these ideas.
• Governments are less institutionalized than
states or regimes because they may come and
go, whereas, states and regimes tend to have
more staying power.
INSTITUTIONS
• Executive, legislative, judiciary, and
bureaucracy
• Organizations that are self-perpetuating and
are intrinsically valued
• The US has a democratic regime in which the
people are sovereign but give authority to
levels of government – the government are
the people in charge of the regime,
implementing the rules. Institutions can be
thought of as procedures and tools used to
support the regime in a state.

“The state is the machinery of politics and the
regime is its programming, the government is the
operator."
POLITICS
• The struggle in any group for power that will
give a person or people the ability to make
decisions for the larger group
REVOLUTION
• Uprising of the MASSES
• Usually followed by fundamental change
COUP D’ETAT
• Conducted by MILITARY forces
• Few individuals
• Often leads to military rule
LEGITIMACY
• Acceptance of the government’s right to
rule
• The popular and voluntary acceptance of
an authority
• Usually a blend of three types of
legitimacy
TRADITIONAL LEGITIMACY
• The way its always been
• Rooted in tradition,
historical myths and
legends
CHARISMATIC LEGITIMACY
• Legitimacy based on the power of ideas and
the ability to sell those ideas
RATIONAL-LEGAL LEGITIMACY
• Legitimacy based on the rule of law
Constitution
• A supreme law that defines the structure of a
nation-state’s regime and the legal processes
governments must follow
• When followed, this establishes rule of law
• Needn’t be one document
• Contains a set of decision rules
Rule of Law
• A governance system operating predictably
under a known and transparent set of
procedural rules (laws)
• Also know as, constitutionalism
• In all disputes, no matter how important or
influential the person is, “the piece of paper
wins!”
II. Sovereignty, Authority, Power
• Nation: Refers to a reasonably large group of
people with a common culture that occupy a
particular territory
• Bound by unity arising from shared beliefs
and customs (religion, language, values,
institutions)
NATIONALISM
• Pride in one’s people and the belief that they
have a unique political destiny
II. Sovereignty, Authority, Power
• Some NATIONS do not have STATES
– Can you provide an example?
– Nation-state: territory of a state is occupied by
only one distinct nation or people
– Japan, Poland, Denmark
When classifying governments, you can ask five
questions to help you classify them:
1. Who can participate?
2. How is power distributed?
3. How are the legislative, executive, and
judicial branches structured?
4. What is the relationship between the
legislative and executive branch?
5. What type of electoral systems do they
have?
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
1.) Who can participate?
►
►
►
The two classifications are authoritarian
or democratic
The fundamental difference between
democracies and non-democracies is who
has the power to choose and remove
leaders. Leaders are subject to the people
in a democracy.
NEVER use the word democracy without
the following: substantive, procedural,
liberal, illiberal
LIBERAL DEMOCRACY
• SUBSTANTIVE DEMOCRACY
• A democracy with strong protections of civil
rights and liberties, access to information,
political competition and economic freedom
• Focuses substantially on ELECTIONS
– Should be competitive and results are likely
representative of the political views of the
population w/ peaceful transitions
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
1.) Who can participate?
• LIBERAL DEMOCRACY: limits the power of the
government
– Sustained and recurring national elections
– Competitive political parties
– Civilian control over the military
– An independent judiciary
– Usually a fairly high level of economic development
– Civil liberties/human rights protected
ILLIBERAL DEMOCRACY
• PROCEDURAL DEMOCRACY
• A democracy without strong protections of civil rights
and liberties, where the process may be censored and a
low level of political competition and/or economic
freedom
• ELECTIONS are held – fraud or vetting of candidates –
results may not be reflective of people
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
1.) Who can participate?
•
Illiberal democracies - appear like other established
democracies but, procedurally, are not democratic.
•
•
•
•
•
Elections are held without regard to civil liberties/rights/human
rights or electoral competition.
Large-scale disenfranchisement, probably on ethnic/racial
grounds
Access to the media is often restricted or freedom of the press
is greatly curtailed.
State institutions like the judiciary, the military, or state-run
industries are under the direct control of government who,
then, uses it to control political opposition.
Small/weak civil society
DEMOCRATIZATION
• The transformation process by which a nondemocratic state changes to a government that
allows free and fair elections. This eventually leads
to a greater protection of civil rights and liberties
and greater political and economic competition
POLITICAL LIBERALIZATION
• The process of minimizing government
interference/supervision of individuals and/or society
• Increasing the rights enjoyed by citizens
• A necessary part of democratization
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
1.) Who can participate?
•
•
•
Authoritarianism - political
regime where a small group
of individuals exercises power
over the state without being
constitutionally responsible
to the public.
Built upon the restriction of
individual freedom.
Driven by the whims of those
in power.
•
•
•
Totalitarianism - highly
centralized regime that
possesses some form of
strong ideology that seeks to
transform and absorb aspects
of the state, society, and the
economy.
It seeks to use power to
transform the total fabric of a
nation, which distinguishes it
from authoritarianism.
Totalitarianism shatters
human will, and destroys the
ability of individuals to create
or aspire to freedom.
Regimes can be grouped into
three broad categories:
–Liberal/Substantive democratic regimes—democratic political systems solidly and stably
established for ample period of time with consistent adherence to core democratic
principles.
–Procedural/Illiberal democracies or Hybrid regimes—countries that have moved from
authoritarian government to a democratic one. While some democratic forms are present,
the regime has yet to demonstrate consistent adherence to core democratic principles.
–Authoritarian Regimes—system of rule in which power depends not on popular
legitimacy, but on the coercive force of political authorities.
• Authoritarian Characteristics:
• Elites who hold political power make decisions
• Some based on Communism
• Some based on Corporatism
–Gov’t officials interact with people/groups outside gov’t before they set policy
–Patron-Client Systems – Favors and services to their supporters
• Economy is tightly controlled by the political elite
• Citizens have little to no input on selection of leaders
• Restriction of civil liberties very common
CORPORATISM
• An authoritarian government system in which
groups are given a monopoly in representing
an interest. Creates limited public influence.
• Contrast with PLURALISM where MULTIPLE
groups compete
CO-OPTATION
• Individuals outside of the govt are brought
into a beneficial relationship, thereby tacitly
supporting an authoritarian govt
• Means to an end
Theocracy
• A political system in which religious leaders control
political decisions and religious law provides the
basis for policy decisions.
• Examples?
When classifying governments, you can ask five
questions to help you classify them:
1. Who can participate?
2. How is power distributed?
3. How are the legislative, executive, and
judicial branches structured?
4. What is the relationship between the
legislative and executive branch?
5. What type of electoral systems do they
have?
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
2.) How is power distributed?
Unitary System – concentrates all
policymaking powers in one central
government (geographic) place
Ex.) Britain, Iran, China
Confederal System – spreads the
power among many sub-units and
has a weak central government.
Ex.) United States (1781-1788)
Federal System – divides the power
between the central government &
the sub-units
Ex.) Russia, Mexico, Nigeria, U.S.
• The difference between the three has to do with how power is
distributed over a geographic area
Federal System
• A system of governance in which political
authority is shared between the national
government and regional or state governments
• Power CANNOT be removed from sub
governments
– Protected usually through codification in a
constitution
• EX: The United States, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia
(Asymmetric)
Federal Systems
Advantages
► Protects ethnic, linguistic, or
religious minorities.
► Serves as a check on
ambitious rulers and
protects markets and citizen
freedoms
► Allows for experimentation.
► Citizens may choose the
policy that best fits them at
the regional level.
Disadvantages
► Limited equality because
citizens get different
treatments and benefits
from different local
governments.
Devolution
• A process of delegating some decision making
to local public bodies (decentralization)
• Different from federalism b/c can be revoked
• When it’s a unitary system:
– The UK is doing this with Scotland and Wales.
– This is also a sign of fragmentation
– Usually done to reverse or quell separatist
movements
– Could be described as moving from a unitary
system to a federal system
Sometimes, leaders of unitary systems
voluntarily choose to decentralize power
► Why?
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To pacify political rivals (intra- or interparty rivalry;
devolution in the United Kingdom as an example).
To prevent revolution.
Ethnic/regional/national cleavages.
To increase legitimacy.
To increase political participation.
Political efficiency (such as distribution of services
and tax collection).
To increase accountability of local leaders (e.g.,
China)
When this happens, there is still a distinct difference
between a federal system, however:
► Power can be taken away in a unitary system
(by the central government).
► Subnational government’s powers are not
constitutionally protected.
► In a unitary system decentralization is not
necessarily symmetrical.
► Local legislature/government can be
dissolved in unitary systems but not in
federal systems.
When classifying governments, you can ask five
questions to help you classify them:
1. Who can participate?
2. How is power distributed?
3. How are the legislative, executive, and
judicial branches structured?
4. What is the relationship between the
legislative and executive branch?
5. What type of electoral systems do they
have?
III. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
3) How are the legislative, executive, and judicial
branches structured?
PRESIDENTIAL
►Typically, a single
chief executive
who performs
ceremonial and
political roles.
►Elected separately
from the
legislature!!!!
►Terms of office are
fixed.
►Presidents
typically have veto
power.
PARLIAMENTARY
►Typically, a split chief executive
►Head of State performs ceremonial
functions; public rep of state
►Head of Government performs
political functions; leads operations
of government
►Elected by the legislature!!!!
►The influence of the executive
rests almost primarily with their
influence over the legislature.
►Terms of office are determined by
the maximum term for the
legislature.
►The veto power is used much less
frequently, if it exists at all.
III. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
• Executive– carries out the laws and policies of a state.
– Head of State
• Symbolizes and Represents the people (nationally & internationally)
• May not have any real policymaking power
– Head of Government
• Everyday tasks of running government
• Directs activities of other members of Executive Branch
– Head of State & Government
Cabinet
• Refers to the group of leaders (often called
“ministers” or “secretaries”) of all major
departments (sometimes called “ministries”) into
which the executive branch is divided
• In parliamentary systems the cabinet is the key organization that forms policy
proposals
• The CABINET and the PM are collectively called “the Government” in parliamentary
systems
• The cabinet in parliamentary systems is typically selected by the head of
government & can be dismissed when a government loses a vote of confidence
• In presidential systems, the cabinet is selected by and can be dismissed by the
president
Comparing Cabinets
PRESIDENTIAL
CABINETS
► The president
selects cabinet
members and,
sometimes, must
go through
legislative approval.
► Role is limited.
PARLIAMENTARY CABINETS
► The entire cabinet is subject to the
legislature and the prime minister (PM) is
just the “first among equals.”
► The PM must maintain the confidence of
the parliamentary majority so they must
consult the legislature when choosing a
cabinet.
► **There are distinct differences in how a
cabinet is formed depending on whether
there is a two-party or multi-party system
III. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
3) How are the legislative, executive, and judicial
branches structured?
• Bureaucracy – consist of agencies that implement
government policy.
• A hierarchically structured organization charged w/ carrying
out the policies determined by those w/ political authority
– In democracies provide continuity over time
– In authoritarian regimes, head of gov’t exercises
control; patronage system
– Characteristics
•
•
•
•
Non-Elected Positions
Impersonal, Efficient/Goal-Orientated Structures
Hierarchical Organization
Red tape/inefficiency
Bureaucracies
►The bureaucracy has almost exclusive control
over implementing laws and regulations.
►Executives and bureaucracies mutually
depend on each other. Executives need
bureaucracies to carry out their policies and
make decisions, while bureaucracies need
guidance, direction, and resources from the
executive.
 Examples of mutual cooperation: creating budgets
and reorganization of administrative capabilities.
Bureaucracies
►Bureaucracies are often called “quasilegislative” because they often have experts
clarify legislation.
►Bureaucracies can also perform “quasi-judicial”
functions because they ensure laws are followed.
They monitor and penalize citizens or
organizations that do not follow their laws.
 Laws are, typically, vague so implementing and
enforcing policies often depends on the
interpretations of the bureaucracy. They also have
some leeway as to how much they want to enforce
certain laws.
Bureaucracies
ADVANTAGES
►They promote
consistency,
competency, fair
treatment, and
protection from political
influences.
DISADVANTAGES
►They tend to be stodgy,
rule-bound, inflexible,
and insensitive to the
needs of citizens.
►Few incentives to be
innovative and efficient.
►Many citizens are tired
of bureaucracies due to
this lack of efficiency
and responsiveness.
Elite Recruitment
• Refers to the selection of people for political
activity and government offices
• In a democracy, competitive elections play a
major role in political recruitment
• In authoritarian systems, recruitment may be
dominated by a single party, as in China, or
unelected religious leaders, as in Iran
III. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
3) How are the legislative, executive, and
judicial branches structured?
• Legislature – branch of government charged
with making, amending, repealing laws
• STRUCTURES:
– Parliamentary government: head of gov. chosen by and serves as pleasure
of legislature
– Congressional government: head of gov. is separate from the legislature
– Unicameral – one house legislature
– Bicameral - two house legislature
• Advantages
– Allows representation for both region & population
– Counterbalance disproportionate power in any one region
– Provides for checks and balances.
– Guards against impulsive legislation
Legislatures
Functions of Legislatures
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

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Formulate, debate & vote on policies
Their decisions about these policies carry the force of law.
Control budget (often) – taxing and spending
Some appoint officials in the executive & judicial branches
 Ex.) U.S. Congress – active role in forming and enacting
legislation
 Ex.) National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of
China – primarily a rubberstamp for policy developed by
Communist Party
Legislatures vary in importance
U.S. Congress
House of Commons
in Britain
National People’s
Congress (China)
Extremely active
role in forming
public policy.
Public policy is
usually initiated by
the cabinet
members and this
house is usually a
deliberating body
that formally enacts
and amends
legislation.
Essentially, a tool of
party leaders. They
meet and listen to
statements by party
leaders and
“rubberstamp”
decisions made by
someone else.
III. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
3) How are the legislative, executive, and judicial
branches structured?
Role of the Judiciary
 Vary from country to country; authority to interpret laws
 Inquisitorial legal system: the court is responsible for
investigating cases and making judgments that legally resolve
them
 Adversarial legal system: the parties to a legal case present
(attorneys) their interpretation of the case to an impartial court
(judge or jury) for determination of facts
 Authoritarian Systems:
 Courts generally have little to no independence and their decisions are
controlled by the chief executive.
 Democratic Systems:
 Courts are independent of state control
 Constitutional Courts (aka Supreme Court) – serve to defend democratic
principles against infringement by both citizens and the government.
RULE OF LAW
• Constitutionalism; a governance system
operating predictably under a known and
transparent set of procedural rules/laws
• Common of LIBERAL democracries
CODE/CIVIL LAW
• A legal system that minimizes the importance
of judicial decisions
• Russia, China, Mexico, Iran
COMMON LAW
• Laws and legal systems based on and
developed through the application of judicial
systems
Judicial Review
• The power of the judiciary to rule on
whether laws and government policies
are consistent with the constitution or
existing laws
• Rarely seen in the AP6
III. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
4.) What is the relationship between the executive and
the legislature?
The relationship between the executive and the
legislature can be organized in three ways – a
Presidential system or a parliamentary system.
The third method – semi-presidential – is a
hybrid of the first two.
Presidential Systems in AP Comparative – Mexico and Nigeria
Parliamentary Systems in AP Comparative – The UK
Semi-Presidential Systems – Russia, China, Iran (sort of)
Presidential v. Parliamentary Systems
PRESIDENTIAL
►Branches separate,
independent, and coequal. Chosen
independently of
legislature, fixed term,
and broad powers not
controlled by legislative
branch.
►Checks and balances
►Not subject to a vote of
confidence.
PARLIAMENTARY
►Executive (Prime Minister,
Premier, President) is from
legislative branch.
►Leader from majority party and
chosen from legislative body.
►Subject to control of
legislature
►Subject to a vote of
confidence
►Majority of governments in
the world have parliamentary
governments.
Parliamentary System
• A system of governance in which the head of
government is chosen by and serves at the
pleasure of the legislature
• The legislature rules over all!
• Prime Minister is NOT directly elected by people , but by the
legislature
• Because the prime minister and the cabinet are also leaders of
the majority party in the legislature, no separation of powers
exists between executive and legislative branches—instead they
are fused together
• Fusion of Power!
• Executive power is separated between Head of Government
(PM) and the Head of State (royalty, president)
Parliamentary System
• Characteristics:
– High Party Discipline
– Majority party almost always gets its
policies implemented
– Cabinet is VERY powerful—initiates
legislation and makes policy
– No fixed terms of office—PM must call for
election or as the result of a vote of no
confidence
Presidential System
• Characteristics:
– Separation of Power
– Power shared equally between legislature
and executive
– Lower party discipline
– Have fixed terms
– Since power is diffused, policymaking
process is slowed because one branch may
question decision made by other groups
What is the relationship between the
legislative and executive branch?
Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems
• Parliamentary:
– Advantages: efficiency in passing legislation, clearer
accountability to voters
– Disadvantages: instability, hasty decision-making
• Presidential:
– Adv: checks power of legislature; since directly elected, more of
a national mandate
– Disadv: difficulty removing unpopular president until next
election, gridlock!, creeping authoritarianism
• Semi Pres:
– Adv: shields pres from criticism (can blame on PM), can remove
unpopular PM and maintain stability from pres. fixed term,
additional checks and balances
– Disadv: confusion about accountability, confusing and inefficient
legislation
Separation of Power
• An organization of political institutions within
the state in which the executive, legislature,
and judiciary have autonomous powers and
no branch dominates the others
• Common pattern in presidential systems
Checks and Balances
• A governmental system of divided authority
in which coequal branches can restrain each
other’s actions
Impeachment
• The process provided legislatures in most
presidential systems that provides for the
removal of presidents before their term is up,
but typically only if they are guilty of serious
criminal or other wrong doing
Vote of Confidence
► May occur in a parliamentary system when the
majority party in the parliament disagrees with a
policy or action of the prime minister.


If the Prime Minister loses a vote of confidence, then he
must dissolve Parliament and hold new elections.
Votes of confidence are rare, party discipline is high in
parliamentary systems. No party wants to run the risk of
losing control of the legislature.
When classifying governments, you can ask five
questions to help you classify them:
1. Who can participate?
2. How is power distributed?
3. How are the legislative, executive, and
judicial branches structured?
4. What is the relationship between the
legislative and executive branch?
5. What type of electoral systems do they
have?
III. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
5.) What type of electoral systems do they have?
• A legal system for making democratic choices
• Create two-party, three-party, multiparty systems
• Rules by which elections are conducted
– Determine who can vote, how people vote, and
how the votes get counted
• Two Main Kinds of Systems
1. Competitive
1. Single Member District Plurality (SMDP) and (First-Pastthe-Post)
2. Proportional Representation (PR)
2. Authoritarian
III. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
5.) What type of electoral systems do they have?
► Types of Electoral Districts
►
Single Member Districts. AKA “winner take all”, “first
past the post”

Follow plurality election rules

Single Member systems tend to favor two-party
rule.
►
Proportional representation is where the nation is divided
into a few, large districts and competing parties offer a list
of candidates rather than a single candidate. The number
of representatives in the legislature is proportional to the
percentage of votes it gets

Most proportional systems have a minimum threshold for a party to
win seats – ie. 7% of the vote in Russia.
Plurality
• The number of votes cast for a candidate who
receives more than any other candidate but
does not receive an absolute majority
• “More than anyone else, but under 50%.”
Single Member District Plurality
• An electoral system in which candidates run for a single seat
from a specific geographic districts
• An electoral system in which voters chose an individual
running for office in a single legislative district (also called
“first past the post“)
• *Example: U.K. and United States
• The winner is the person who receives the MOST votes,
whether or NOT that is a majority
• Increase the likelihood of a two-party state
– Common in the United States, rarely used in continental Europe or in Latin America
– A variation on this is the majority runoff system (or double ballot)
First-Past-the-Post
• An electoral system in which winners are
determined by which candidate receives the
largest number of votes (regardless of
whether or not a majority is received)
• SAME as Single Member District Plurality!
Electoral Systems
• Plurality systems encourage large, broad-based parties
because…
• no matter how many people run in a district, the person with
the largest # of votes wins
• this encourages parties to become larger, spreading their
“umbrellas” to embrace more voters
• Parties without big groups of voters supporting them have little
hope of winning
Two (Double) Ballot System
• An electoral system where two rounds of
voting may take places to ensure a majority
winner
• Several candidates may be on first ballot, if no
majority is chose, second ballot is run-off of
top two vote getters
• Also called the majority runoff system
Proportional Representation (PR)
• An electoral system in which voters select parties rather than
individual candidates and parties are represented in
legislatures in proportion to the shares of votes they win
• Representatives are elected based on the proportion of
the electorate that voted for them
• Encourages a multi-party system
• Closed-list PR system: voters don’t know people
chosen by party
• Open-list PR System: voters chose from list of
candidates given by parties
Proportional Representation (PR)
• How Proportional Representation system works:
– A country is divided into a few large sections
– The competing parties offer lists of candidates
– The number of legislative representatives a party wins
depends on the overall proportion of the votes it receives
– Sometimes parties must meet a minimum threshold of votes
in order to receive any seats at all (3%, 5%)
• KEY POINT: PR system leads to multiparty
legislatures
• (Exception: Russia’s raising of threshold to 7%
has resulted in less representation of regional
parties)
Minimum Winning Threshold
• The minimum percentage of votes a party
must receive in order to be seated in a
legislature
– Sometimes parties must meet a minimum
threshold of votes in order to receive any
seats at all (5% or 7%)
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION
• An electoral system in which political parties
compete in multi-member districts
• Voters choose b/t parties and the seats are
awarded proportionally
FIRST PAST THE POST
• Single member district
• Winner take all
• Candidate with the largest share of the vote
wins the seat
Types of Elections
• Election of public officials
• Referendum
– Votes on policy issues
– Examples?
– Plebiscite
• A non-binding vote to gauge public opinion on an issue
• Initiative
– Vote on a policy initiated by the people
Multiparty System
• A party system with several important
political parties, none of which generally
gains a majority of the seats in the
national
• Mexico, Nigeria
Two-Party System
• A party system in which two main
parties compete for majority control of
the government
• Small parties may exist but play no
significant role in national electoral
outcomes
• UK
One-Party Dominant System
• A party system in which one large party
directs the political system, but small
parties exist and may compete in
elections
• Russia (& Mexico in the past under the
PRI)
One-Party System
• A party system in which one political
party controls the government and
voters have no option to choose an
opposition party (China)
Supranational Organizations
► Supranational Organizations are those who have been
given some sovereignty because nations have shifted
their powers upwards to them. This shift took place
after WWII.
► *Even though these organizations are important, the
state is still the most important political system in the
world!*
• EXAMPLES:
• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
• European Union
• OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries)
• United Nations
IV. CITIZENS, SOCIETY & THE STATE
• Civil society:
• Formal and informal organizations that are NOT part
of the state but operate in public
• The web of membership in social and political groups
that some analysts believe is needed to sustain
democracy
• A society in which people are involved in social and
political interactions free of state control or regulation
• Social, charitable, religious, community – advance own
cause
Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs)
• Global civil society
• Examples: Doctors Without Borders,
Amnesty International, Red Cross
POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
• The process by which individuals acquire their
political attitudes and behaviors
• Family, school, media
POLITICAL CULTURE
• History, culture, values, beliefs, traditions that
influence political behavior
• Defines the public’s expectations toward the
political process and its role within the
process
• Limited government in the UK ensure fairness
w/o a written constitution
• Shia Islam trumps modern desires for
liberalized government
• Nigerians believe government inherently
corrupt so they deserve to reap benefits
POLITICAL IDEOLOGY
• A set of political values about what the goals
of government should be
LIBERALISM
• An ideology that favors a limited state role in
society and the economy and places a high value on
individual freedom
– SUPPORTS
•
•
•
•
limited government
individual freedom
social toleration
the redistribution of resources
LIBERTARIAN
• Prefers little government interference in the
economy or personal freedoms
CONSERVATISM
• A political attitude that questions the need for
change and supports the current order
RADICALISM
• Favors dramatic and revolutionary change
REACTIONARY
• Someone who seeks to restore the
institutions of a real or imagined earlier
political or societal order
CLEAVAGES
• Factors that separate groups
• May be based on ethnicity, religion, social
class, region, etc
• The wider and deeper the cleavages, the less
unified the society
CROSS CUTTING CLEAVAGE
• Divisions that cut across differences
• When the groups that are divided share a
common interest on one or more issues
• Crosscutting cleavages bring groups together in
a society that might not otherwise have much in
common
– The PRI in Mexico united rural peasants and urban
dwellers for much of the 20th century
– Religion in some societies – like Iran and Mexico – can
be a crosscutting cleavage
COINCIDING (CUMULATIVE)
CLEAVAGES
• Divisions that strengthen feelings of
difference and discrepancy
• Cleavages which reinforce each other (pit the
same people against each other on many
different issues
• Coinciding cleavages create tension in a
political system
– Religion in Nigeria
– Class in most countries
POST MATERIALIST
• The theory that younger voters tend to favor issues
such as the environment and feminism
• Propelled by the idea that in advanced societies
basic needs are met so citizens can concentrate on
higher goals
V. POLITICAL & ECONOMIC CHANGE
• ECONOMIC VARIABLES
– There is an intimate relationship between politics
and economics, such that there is an entire field
of study—political economy—that examines the
links.
• Political economy: The relationship between political activity
and economic performance.
– The most fundamental comparative measure is economic
size; this is expressed using gross domestic product
(GDP).
• Gross domestic product (GDP): The total value of all goods and
services produced by a state in a given year.
PURCHASING POWER PARITY
• PPP
• An estimate of buying power using the US as
a benchmark
MARKET ECONOMY
• An economy that relies on the interaction of
supply and demand to allocate resources and
set prices
NEOLIBERAL ECONOMICS
• Focuses on introducing free market reforms
and has few restrictions on economic and
property rights
• Economic liberalization
MARXISM
• A political/economic system based on public
ownership of the means of production
• Goal: classless country and the “withering
away of the state”
V. POLITICAL & ECONOMIC CHANGE
Communism
Socialism
 Values equality over freedom
 Believe that the inevitable
outcome of competition for
scarce resources is that a small
group will come to control the
government and the economy.
(i.e. “the rich”)
 Advocate a takeover of all
resources and abolishing
private property to ensure true
equality
 Values equality of
communism BUT promote
private ownership of
property and free market
principles.
 The state should have a
strong role to play in
regulating the economy and
providing benefits to the
public sector.
V. POLITICAL & ECONOMIC CHANGE
Mixed/Hybrid Economies
• In reality, most economies are mixed. The state plays an
important role in most economies, yet many decisions are
made by private individuals and businesses.
– Import Substitution Industrialization
• A method used by developing nations to spur economic development
– Characterized by government subsidies and tax breaks, tariffs to protect
domestic businesses
– Neo-liberal Market reforms/neoliberalism/economic liberalization
• The introduction of market mechanisms into an economy. Often this is
done through the removal of price controls, the elimination of subsidies,
and reduction/elimination of protective tariffs.
Import Substitution
Industrialization
–Employs high tariffs to protect
locally produced goods from
foreign competition, govt
ownership of key industries, govt
subsidies to domestic industries
STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT
• Structural adjustment programs require
countries to increase taxes and cut spending
(austerity measures) to improve budgets.
AUSTERITY
• Measures taken by
governments in an
attempt to reduce their
growing budget deficits
• Gov’ts spent money to
stimulate economies,
went into debt on
borrowed money
• Why gov’ts do it?
– To fix budget deficit problems
– Pressure by international
organizations
– Membership in supranational
– organizations that require
monetary coordination
– Changes in government or party
platform
• How does the public respond?
– Unfavorably b/c leads to increase
in taxes, lowered quantity and
quality of gov services
DEPENDENCY THEORY
• The idea that colonial rule left a legacy of
political and economic dependence making it
difficult for former colonies to improve their
economies and democratize.
WELFARE STATE
• The creation and maintenance of social
welfare programs; a school of thought that
the state should assume primary
responsibility for the welfare of citizens
COMMAND ECONOMY
• An economy in which the allocation of
resources is centrally made with little regard
for supply and demand
Command vs. Mixed vs. Market
Economies
More Centralization
Less Centralization
COMMAND
ECONOMY
• Right to own
property is greatly
restricted
• All industry is
owned by the govt
• Competition and
profit are
prohibited
MIXED
ECONOMY
• Elements of
command and
market
economies
are
present/mixed
MARKET
ECONOMY
• Right to own property
is
accepted/guaranteed
• Most industry is
owned by private
individuals.
• Competition and
profit are not
controlled by the govt
RENTIER STATE
• A country that obtains lucrative income by
exporting a raw material or leasing out a
natural resource to foreign countries
• Income from rents of foreign companies