2-BE-SAFE
2-WHEELER BEHAVIOUR AND SAFETY
Grant Agreement number: 218703
Funding Scheme: Collaborative project small scale
Start date of the contract: 01/01/2009
Project website address: www.2besafe.eu
Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive
Recommendations for Improving
Motorcycle and Scooter Rider Safety
Confidentiality level: public
Deliverable 21 of work package 5
Status: Final Report
Date: 21/10/2009
Author: INRETS
Project Coordinator:
Fabienne Janin
Europe Recherche Transport
C/o INRETS - Case 24
25, avenue F. Mitterrand
F-69675 Bron
[email protected]
Tel: 04.72.14.23.45
2-BE-SAFE
D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
Improving Motorcycle and Scooter Rider Safety
Authors
Name
Company
Michael A. Regan
Institut National de
Recherche sur les
Transports et leur
sécurité
(INRETS),
France
Gavan Lintern
Cognitive
Systems
Design, Australia
Robin Hutchinson
Monash
Accident
Centre
Australia
Christine Turetschek
Chaloupka & Risser
University
Research
(MUARC),
OHG (FACTUM),
Austria
Amendments
Date of Issue
Description
31/07/2009
Draft version
Applicable Documents
Description
<comments>
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
2-BE-SAFE
D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
Improving Motorcycle and Scooter Rider Safety
Acknowledgements
Description
The authors would like to acknowledge a number of organizations and individuals who contributed to
this study.
We thank the motorcycle riders who participated in the interviews conducted in Paris, France,
Vienna, Austria, and Melbourne, Australia.
We are grateful to the following individuals for their assistance in planning and running the
motorcycle rider interviews in Paris: Mr Stéphane Caro; Mr Stéphane Espié; Dr Régis Lobjois; and
Dr Fabrice Vienne.
We are grateful to colleagues from FACTUM OHG for their assistance in planning and running the
motorcycle rider interviews in Vienna; especially Matthias Beggiato, Dr. Christine Chaloupka-Risser,
Christine Frankowicz, Clemens Kaufmann, Herlinde Reisch and Dr. Ralf Risser.
We thank Mrs Nathalie Joly and Samantha Regan for their support in transcribing some videotaped
interviews recorded in Paris, Dagmar Schwarz for transcribing three of the Austrian interviews and
Liz Varvaris for her assistance in transcribing the motorcycle rider interviews in Melbourne.
We are grateful to Katharine Regan for proof reading and editing the document.
We are grateful to Dr Michael Lenne and Professor Rod McClure from the Monash University
Accident Research Centre, in Melbourne, Australia, for supporting the planning of, and obtaining
funding for, MUARC’s involvement in this study.
We are grateful to those who attended and supported in various ways the running of the Cognitive
Work Analysis workshops conducted in Paris and Lisbon. In particular, we thank Elaine Hardy and
Hugo Roebroeck from FEMA, and Dr José Carvalhais from FMH/UTL in Lisbon.
Finally, we thank Mr Stéphane Espié and Dr Francesco Tesauri for their overall support.
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
2-BE-SAFE
D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
Improving Motorcycle and Scooter Rider Safety
Table of contents
2-BE-SAFE .............................................................................................................................................. 1
2-WHEELER BEHAVIOUR AND SAFETY.............................................................................................. 1
1.
2.
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.1.
Project aims ........................................................................................................................ 3
1.2.
Motorcycle Rider Safety...................................................................................................... 3
1.3.
Cognitive Work Analysis in context..................................................................................... 3
1.4.
Introduction to Cognitive Work Analysis ............................................................................. 3
1.5.
Previous Research using Cognitive Work Analysis in the Road Transport Domain .......... 3
1.6.
Structure of remainder of this report ................................................................................... 3
METHOD ........................................................................................................................................ 3
2.1.
Study design overview ........................................................................................................ 3
2.2.
Interview Guide ................................................................................................................... 3
2.3.
Rider Interviews - France.................................................................................................... 3
2.3.1.
Selection and recruitment process ................................................................................ 3
2.3.2.
Participants .................................................................................................................... 3
2.3.3.
Materials ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.3.3.1.
Interview guide...................................................................................................... 3
2.3.3.2.
Questionnaires...................................................................................................... 3
2.3.3.3.
Apparatus.............................................................................................................. 3
2.3.4.
2.4.
Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 3
Rider Interviews - Austria.................................................................................................... 3
2.4.1.
Selection and recruitment process ................................................................................ 3
2.4.2.
Participants .................................................................................................................... 3
2.4.3.
Materials ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.4.3.1.
Interview guide...................................................................................................... 3
2.4.3.2.
Questionnaires...................................................................................................... 3
2.4.3.3.
Apparatus.............................................................................................................. 3
2.4.4.
2.5.
Rider Interviews - Australia ................................................................................................. 3
2.5.1.
Selection and recruitment process ................................................................................ 3
2.5.2.
Participants .................................................................................................................... 3
2.5.3.
Materials ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.6.
3.
Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 3
2.5.3.1.
Interview guide...................................................................................................... 3
2.5.3.2.
Questionnaires...................................................................................................... 3
2.5.3.3.
Apparatus.............................................................................................................. 3
2.5.3.4.
Procedure ............................................................................................................. 3
Lisbon Workshop ................................................................................................................ 3
Development of CWA data structure .............................................................................................. 3
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2-BE-SAFE
4.
D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
Improving Motorcycle and Scooter Rider Safety
3.1.
The data analysis process .................................................................................................. 3
3.2.
Work Domain Analysis........................................................................................................ 3
3.3.
Work Organisation Analysis................................................................................................ 3
3.4.
Social Transactions Analysis .............................................................................................. 3
Discussion and recommendations.................................................................................................. 3
4.1.
Key Themes from Work Task Dockets ............................................................................... 3
4.1.1.
Personal Safety Management (Appendix 7) .................................................................. 3
4.1.2.
Time Management (Appendix 8) ................................................................................... 3
4.1.3.
Commuting, Touring (Appendix 9)................................................................................. 3
4.1.4.
Road System Oversight (Appendix 10) ......................................................................... 3
4.1.5.
Social Interaction (Appendix 11).................................................................................... 3
4.1.6.
Personal Engagement (Appendix 12)............................................................................ 3
4.2.
Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 3
4.2.1.
Research........................................................................................................................ 3
4.2.2.
Legislation...................................................................................................................... 3
4.2.3.
Police Enforcement........................................................................................................ 3
4.2.4.
Licensing (including Licence Testing)............................................................................ 3
4.2.5.
Education and Training .................................................................................................. 3
4.2.6.
Vehicle Design (Motorcycle and Car) ............................................................................ 3
4.2.7.
Equipment and Technology Design............................................................................... 3
4.2.8.
Road and Maintenance Design ..................................................................................... 3
4.2.9.
Promotion/Advertising.................................................................................................... 3
5.
Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 3
6.
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 3
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D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
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List of tables
Table 1: Interview Structure..................................................................................................................... 3
Table 2: Rider Characteristics (Paris interviews) .................................................................................... 3
Table 3: Rider Characteristics (Austrian interviews) ............................................................................... 3
Table 4: Rider Characteristics (Australian interviews) ............................................................................ 3
Table 5: Summary of the Data Analysis Process ................................................................................... 3
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D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
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List of figures
Figure 1: Evolution of total fatalities and fatalities of motorcycle riders in the EU-14, 1995 - 2004
(Source: CARE)................................................................................................................................ 3
Figure 2: PTW rider deaths per billion km travelled in 2006. .................................................................. 3
Figure 3: overview of concepts at all five levels. ..................................................................................... 3
Figure 4: decompositions at the bottom three levels............................................................................... 3
Figure 5: Work Task Docket .................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 6: Transactions Docket................................................................................................................. 3
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D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
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List of appendices
Appendix 1: Interview Guide.................................................................................................................. 67
Appendix 2: Biographical Data Sheet.................................................................................................... 70
Appendix 3: Recruitment notice for rider interviews – France .............................................................. 71
Appendix 4: Participant consent form – Australia ................................................................................. 72
Appendix 5: Explanatory statement – Australia..................................................................................... 73
Appendix 6: Participant Consent Form - Australia ................................................................................ 75
Appendix 7: Work Task Docket – Personal Safety Management ........................................................ 76
Appendix 8: Work Task Docket – Time Management .......................................................................... 88
Appendix 9: Work Task Docket – Commuting, Touring ....................................................................... 90
Appendix 10: Work Task Docket – Road System Oversight................................................................. 92
Appendix 11: Work Task Docket – Social Interaction .......................................................................... 96
Appendix 12: Work Task Docket – Personal Engagement .................................................................. 99
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D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
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Glossary
Personal Safety Management, the rider takes responsibility for the management of their own safety:
- Passive Protection - the rider use of equipment that will serve to mitigate injury in the event of an
accident without further action on the part of the rider, an airbag inflates automatically on separation of
the rider from the motorcycle.
- Anticipation - the rider actively seeks to anticipate potential danger, a rider may look at the front
wheel of a car to anticipate whether the car driver is about to change lanes.
- Defensive Riding - the rider actively avoids potentially dangerous situations, a rider will use the
motorcycle rear view mirrors to check whether cars behind are maintaining an adequate safety
distance.
- Blind Spot - the rider is aware that the motorcycle rear view mirrors do not give full visual coverage
and uses a head turning strategy to compensate, riders will look over their shoulder to see if it is safe
to change lanes.
- Motorcycle Control & Maneuverability - the rider uses the motorcycle’s control and maneuverability
capabilities to avoid accidents, riders will often use the accelerative capability of the motorcycle or its
steering maneuverability to avoid accidents.
- Situation Awareness - the rider seeks to remain fully aware of his/her own situation in relation to
other road users, when in traffic, riders will maintain a constant observation scan on all other vehicles
nearby in order to remain fully aware of their situation.
Time Management, the rider remains cognizant of the time required to travel in relation to the required
time of arrival at destination:
- Negotiation through Traffic - the rider uses the capability of the motorcycle to save time by
negotiating through traffic, riders will split lanes (i.e.drive through lanes of traffic when traffic is
moving), lane filter (i.e. move through lanes of traffic when traffic is still, or almost still) or use the
safety shoulder to bypass congested traffic.
- Travel Time - the rider remains aware of time required for travel and is cognizant of the difference
between different modes of transport, , by use of the motorcycle, trip times for commuting to work can
be halved or better.
- Commuting & Touring - the motorcycle is used for commuting and for recreational touring.
- Work & Business - the motorcycle is used to commute to work or to travel between business
engagements, many riders use the motorcycle to commute to work on most days and some use it on
all days.
- Pleasure - when used for recreational touring, the motorcycle offers considerable pleasures not
offered by other modes of transport, the acceleration, maneuverability and openness of the motorcycle
to the elements are pleasures not available to the car driver.
- Constant Availability - a mode of transport, particularly when used to commute to work or for
business, needs to be available for use at the times demanded by the work business schedule, some
riders will not use the motorcycle in inclement weather and if commuting to work, will use other means
of transport.
Road System Oversight, government functions such as legislation, law enforcement, and road
maintenance and design:
- Behavioural Control - legislation and law enforcement, many riders believe that lane splitting should
be legal.
- Traffic Management - management of the flow of traffic, the proper design of road systems.
- Sales Tax - imposition and collection of sales taxes, on safety equipment.
Social Interaction, the interactions among motorcycle riders and the interactions between motorcycle
riders and other road users.
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D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
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- Warning - indications by riders to other road users, the use of brake lights to indicate they are
slowing down.
- Acknowledgement - indications of appreciation by riders to other road users, signalling by motion of a
leg.
- Knowledge Sharing - interactions that share knowledge among motorcycle riders and between
motorcycle riders and the general public about facets of motorcycle operation, putting leg out to say
“thank you”.
- Experiential Sharing - riding in pairs or groups to share the pleasures of motorcycle riding, riding with
friends on the weekend.
Personal Engagement, the experience of motorcycling is more intense than the experience of driving a
car:
- Experiential Salience - the non-enclosed character of a motorcycle enables the rider to engage more
directly with the surrounding environment, to experience the wind and the temperature.
- Self Image - how being a motorcycle rider affects self-perception, non-motorcycle riders perceive
motorcycle riders in a special way.
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D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
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Abstract
To design, or re-design, anything from a human factors and ergonomic perspective, it is critical to talk
to the users for whom the product or system is being designed. Doing so maximizes the likelihood that
the product will meet its design goals and will be “acceptable” to end users (ie useful, effective,
satisfying, socially acceptable and useable). Re-designing the road traffic system to make it safer for
motorcycle riders is no different. Motorcycle riders with many years of accumulated riding experience
are experts, just like pilots, air traffic controllers and other operators with complex jobs in complex
systems. They have valuable and vital knowledge, skills and experience that can be drawn on to
inform the design of countermeasures to prevent accidents and injury, to themselves and to others.
Knowing how to elicit expert knowledge from system users is a science in itself, and several
techniques have been developed for this purpose. One of them, Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA), has
been used in the aviation, military and process control domains, but has never been used to elicit from
motorcycle riders, knowledge and insights that can be used to improve their safety, and that of others
with whom they interact. This report describes how CWA was used to illicit from motorcycle riders
expert knowledge, and how that knowledge was used to derive some options for injury prevention
countermeasures for enhancing the safety of motorcycle and scooter riders.
A series of structured interviews with motorcycle and scooter riders was undertaken, using the
framework of CWA, to elicit rider knowledge. An interview guide was developed to structure the
interviews. Using the interview guide, 31 riders were interviewed, alone or in pairs, in a series of
videotaped interviews conducted in 3 countries – France (Paris), Austria (Vienna) and Australia
(Melbourne). The interviews were conducted in English, and each videotaped interview was
transcribed, fully or almost fully, in English. Information extracted from the transcripts provided the raw
data for the CWA.
This report introduces and describes CWA, describes the methods and procedures involved in
planning and conducting the rider interviews, describes the CWA data analysis process, and presents
the analysed data for the riders interviewed. The report concludes with a discussion of major themes
and options for countermeasures for enhancing rider safety that emerge from the analysis of the data.
The work described was undertaken in Work Package 5.5 (“Cognitive Work Analysis of Motorcycle
Riding”) of the DG-RTD Transport – funded 2-Wheeler Behaviour and Safety (“2-BE-SAFE”) project.
The overall aim of the 2-BE-SAFE project is to understand the behavioural and ergonomic factors that
contribute to crashes and incidents involving motorcycle and scooter riders and, using this information,
to formulate options for countermeasures to improve rider safety.
Key Words:
motorcycle; motor scooter; powered two wheeler; safety; rider; human factors; cognitive work analysis;
cognitive engineering.
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
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D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
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Executive summary
To design, or re-design, anything from a human factors and ergonomic perspective, it is critical to talk
to the users for whom the product or system is being designed. Doing so maximizes the likelihood that
the product will meet its design goals and will be “acceptable” to end users (ie useful, effective,
satisfying, socially acceptable and useable).
Re-designing the road traffic system to make it safer for motorcycle riders is no different. Motorcycle
riders with many years of accumulated riding experience are experts, just like pilots, air traffic
controllers and other operators with complex jobs in complex systems. They have valuable, and vital,
knowledge, skills and experience that can be drawn on to inform the design of countermeasures to
prevent accidents and injury, to themselves and to others. This point is often overlooked in the design
of countermeasures for road safety. Too often the focus is on the analysis of mass crash data, which
might explain what happens on the road, but not why. To prevent and mitigate the effects of crashes, it
is important to understand why they happen, and how they can be avoided. Motorcycle riders have,
through experience, developed expertise in understanding the risks that pose greatest risk to them,
how to detect, comprehend and assess these risks, and how to respond to them in order to prevent
and mitigate crashes. These insights provide an important database of knowledge which can be used
to augment other, more traditional, approaches which have been used in the past to attempt to
enhance motorcycle safety.
Knowing how to elicit expert knowledge from system users is a science in itself, and several
techniques have been developed for this purpose. One of them, Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) has
been used in the aviation, military and process control domains, but has never been used to elicit from
motorcycle riders knowledge and insights that can be used to improve their safety, and that of others
with whom they interact.
This report describes how CWA was used to elicit from motorcycle riders expert knowledge which was
subsequently used to derive options for injury prevention countermeasures for enhancing the safety of
motorcycle and scooter riders. The work described was undertaken in Work Package 5.5 (“Cognitive
Work Analysis of Motorcycle Riding”) of the DG-RTD Transport – funded 2-Wheeler Behaviour and
Safety (“2-BE-SAFE”) project. The aim of the 2-BE-SAFE project is to understand the behavioural and
ergonomic factors that contribute to crashes and incidents involving motorcycle and scooter riders
and, using this information, to formulate options for countermeasures to improve rider safety.
CWA is a multi-stage analytic framework, the goal of which is to identify the basic sources of regularity
or constraint, both contextual (technological, social, environmental) and human (intentional,
perceptual, cognitive, active) that shape human activity. Cognitive Work Analysis identifies the
following constraints (with emphasis adjusted to take into account of the motorcycle riding
perspective):
- The hierarchical structure of motorcycling in terms of the activity-independent constraints of the work
domain at several levels of abstraction and decomposition (Work Domain Analysis);
- The Partitioning and Organization of motorcycling activity in terms of motorcycling situations and
motorcycling tasks (Work Organization Analysis);
- The Cognitive States typically established in the execution of motorcycling tasks and the cognitive
processes used to transition through cognitive states (Work Task Analysis);
- The cognitive strategies, defined as the categories of cognitive processing, used to transform one
cognitive state into another (Strategies Analysis);
- The levels of human cognitive competency (skills, rules, knowledge) used in the execution of
motorcycling tasks (Cognitive Competencies Analysis); and
- The coordinative processes that support management and collaboration within the motorcycling
environment (Social Transactions Analysis).
The foundational assumption of Cognitive Work Analysis, as applied to this project, is that motorcycle
and scooter riders operate within a large number of constraints. They remain free to act flexibly within
those constraints and free, therefore, to act flexibly in response to unanticipated situations. The
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D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
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purpose of Cognitive Work Analysis is to identify and map out those constraints so that road safety
countermeasures may take explicit account of them.
The products of Cognitive Work Analysis are “knowledge representations” of the work domain, of
individual and collaborative activities undertaken in the work domain, and of processes involved in the
execution of those activities. These representations, described and developed within this project, are
developed from information gathered by use of cognitively oriented knowledge elicitation tools.
In the present study, a series of structured interviews with motorcycle and scooter riders was
undertaken, using the framework of CWA, to elicit rider knowledge. An interview guide was developed
to guide the interviews. Using the interview guide, 31 riders were interviewed, alone or in pairs, in a
series of videotaped interviews conducted in 3 countries – France (Paris), Austria (Vienna) and
Australia (Melbourne). The interviews were conducted in English, and each videotaped interview was
transcribed, fully or almost fully, in English. Information extracted from the transcripts provided the raw
data for the CWA.
This report introduces and describes CWA, describes the methods and procedures involved in
planning and conducting the rider interviews, describes the CWA data analysis process, and presents
the analysed data for the riders interviewed. The report concludes, in Section 4.2, with a discussion of
the major themes and options for countermeasures for enhancing rider safety that emerged from the
analysis of the data. The countermeasure options are presented under each of the following broad
headings: research; legislation: police enforcement; licensing (including licence testing); education and
training; vehicle design (motorcycle and car); equipment and technology design; road and
maintenance design; and promotion/advertising.
The options for countermeasure development presented in Section 4 were distilled from the rider
interviews. It is normal in the conduct of Cognitive Work Analysis to validate the data derived against
other sources of data and to explore the work domain from the perspectives of other stakeholders.
This will occur later in the 2-BE-SAFE project, in Work Package 6, in which the full range of
recommendations deriving from the research program will reviewed, scrutinised and prioritised. It is
also normal in road safety to develop recommendations for injury countermeasures based on
evidence-based data and strategies. Nevertheless, the mostly experienced motorcyclists interviewed
were experts in their “work” domain, and the options presented in this report, which remain to be
validated with reference to the extant road safety literature, are based on their expert opinion and
experiences as users of the road transport system. It is acknowledged that some of the options may
already exist as implemented injury countermeasures, and some may not be implementable.
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Project aims
The work described in this report was undertaken in Work Package 5.5 (Cognitive Work Analysis of
Motorcycle Riding) of the DG-RTD Transport –funded 2-Wheeler Behaviour and Safety (“2-BE-SAFE”)
project. The overall aim of the 2-BE-SAFE project is to understand the behavioural and ergonomic
factors that contribute to crashes and incidents involving motorcycle and scooter riders and, using this
information, to formulate options for countermeasures to improve rider safety.
To design, or re-design, anything from a human factors and ergonomic perspective, it is critical to talk
to the users for whom the product or system is being designed. Doing so maximizes the likelihood that
the product will meet its design goals and will be “acceptable” to end users (e.g. useful, effective,
satisfying, socially acceptable and useable) (e.g. Davis, 1989).
Re-designing the road traffic system to make it safer for motorcycle riders is no different. Motorcycle
riders with many years of accumulated riding experience are experts, just like car drivers, pilots, train
drivers and other operators who operate vehicles in complex systems. They have valuable, and vital,
knowledge, skills and experience that can be drawn on to inform the design of countermeasures to
prevent accidents and injury, to themselves and to others. This point is often overlooked in the design
of injury countermeasures for road safety. Too often the focus is on the analysis of mass crash data,
which is capable of explaining what happens on the roads, but not why. To prevent and mitigate the
effects of crashes, it is important to understand why they happen, and how they can be avoided.
Motorcycle riders have, through years of accumulated experience, expertise in knowing what are the
risks that pose greatest risk to them, how to detect, comprehend and assess these risks, and how to
respond to them in order to prevent and mitigate the effects of crashes. These insights provide an
important database of knowledge which can be used to augment other, more traditional, approaches
which have been used to enhance their safety.
Knowing how to elicit expert knowledge from system users is a science in itself, and several
techniques have been developed for this purpose. One of them, Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA; L)
has been used in the aviation, military and process control domains, but has never been used to elicit
from motorcycle riders knowledge and insights that can be used to improve their safety and that of
others with whom they interact on the roads.
This report describes how CWA was used to elicit from motorcycle riders expert knowledge, and how
this knowledge was used to formulate options for injury prevention countermeasures for optimising the
safety of motorcycle and scooter riders.
The report is divided into several chapters. In this chapter we define what is meant by the term
“powered two wheelers” (PTWs) and describe briefly the nature and magnitude of the PTW crash
problem, focusing mainly on Europe. Cognitive Work Analysis is then described and explained, and
the chapter concludes with a brief overview of the limited use of CWA in previous road transport
research.
1.2. Motorcycle Rider Safety
The term “Powered Two Wheeler” (PTW) includes a wide range of vehicles with various shapes
(ETSC, 2008). In this report we will henceforth use the terms “motorcycle” and “scooters”, which are
the main vehicle types that fall within the broader category of PTWs, and which are the focus of this
study.
Riders of different types of vehicles are quite different with respect to their motives for, and attitudes
towards, riding. People use a motorcycle or a scooter both as a mode of transport and because of the
experience of riding itself. In the EU countries there has been an increase in new registrations of
PTWs between 2002 and 2007, with a peak in 2006 (ACEM, 2008). Road traffic safety efforts have
had a relatively greater impact on car safety than on motorcycle safety. Motorcycle riders account for
only 2% of the total kilometers driven, but represent 16% of fatalities on European roads (ETSC,
2007).
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D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
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120%
100%
118%
100%
100%
95%
105%
106%
108%
94%
93%
92%
119%
118%
122%
112%
89%
87%
84%
80%
76%
69%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1995
1996
1997
1998
Motorcycle fatalities
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Total fatalities (except motorcycles)
Figure 1: Evolution of total fatalities and fatalities of motorcycle riders in the EU-14, 1995 - 2004
(Source: CARE).
In the 25 European countries in 2006 about 6,200 riders lost their life. The risk of being involved in a
fatal accident is on average 18 times higher for a motorcycle rider than for a car driver. However, the
situation is quite different between various countries as illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: PTW rider deaths per billion km travelled in 2006.
* BE, PL and SL (2005); GR (2004); PT (2001), AUS (2002) and the NL (2000); (Source: Road
Safety Pin/Background tables).
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In 87% of collisions analysed in the European MAIDS study, human error was estimated to be a
contributory factor (ETSC, 2008; summary based on the MAIDS study). Cognitive Work Analysis is a
technique that can be help to identify and understand factors that underlie human error.
1.3. Cognitive Work Analysis in context
Cognitive Work Analysis is one of the several frameworks of Cognitive Systems Engineering, which is
a professional discipline that uses formal methods of cognitive analysis and cognitive design to
enhance the cognitive processing undertaken by individuals engaged in activities that are cognitively
challenging (, Lintern, 2009; Rasmussen, Pejtersen & Goodstein, 1994; Vincente, 1999). The aim is to
ensure that cognitive processing is effective, efficient and robust. Cognitive processing involves
activities that require complex cognitive skills such as identifying, judging, attending, perceiving,
remembering, reasoning, deciding, problem solving and planning.
Within the road safety environment, the analytic tools of Cognitive Systems Engineering can help us
identify the constraints and behaviours of road users that jeopardize their own safety and the safety of
others. These analytic tools can also help us identify how road users build their situation awareness
and make decisions in order to enhance their own safety and the safety of others. That information will
lead to the development of injury countermeasures that will moderate the risks facing road users.
1.4. Introduction to Cognitive Work Analysis
This study used the framework of Cognitive Work Analysis to identify cognitive challenges associated
with motorcycling in a complex, geographically distributed community.
Cognitive Work Analysis is a multi-stage analytic framework for identifying the human-relevant work
constraints in a socio-technical system (Lintern, 2009). In this case, the socio-technical system is the
road traffic system as viewed from the perspective of the motorcycle riding population.
Cognitive Work Analysis is a multi-stage analytic framework for identifying the human-relevant work
constraints in a socio-technical system (Vicente, 1999) in the form of:
The Hierarchical Structure of work in terms of the activity-independent constraints of the work domain
at several levels of abstraction and decomposition (Work Domain Analysis),
The Partitioning and Organization of work in terms of Work Situations and Work Problems (Work
Organization Analysis),
The Cognitive States typically established in the execution of work problems and the cognitive
processes used to transition through states (Work Task Analysis)
The cognitive strategies, defined as the categories of cognitive processes, used to transform one
cognitive state into another (Work Strategies Analysis)
The coordinative processes that support management and collaboration of work (Organizational
Coordination Analysis), and
Categories of human cognitive processing in terms of skill, rules and knowledge (Cognitive Processing
Analysis).
The foundational assumption of Cognitive Work Analysis is that workers in a complex system operate
within a large number of constraints. They remain free to act flexibly within those constraints and free,
therefore, to act flexibly in response to unanticipated situations. The purpose of Cognitive Work
Analysis is to identify and map out those constraints so that design efforts may take explicit account of
them.
Because it models intrinsic work constraints as a means of identifying the technological and
organizational requirements that must be satisfied for effective support of work, Cognitive Work
Analysis is a formative approach to analysis and design. Formative as used here means to form or
fashion from first principles. In Cognitive Work Analysis, formative implies a fashioning on the basis of
the characteristics of the problem, such as the functional requirements as identified through the
analyses. In particular, the formative approach avoids the problem encountered by analytic
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approaches that proceed directly to design recommendations from real life narratives or events. In that
those narratives or events constitute a trajectory through a constraint space, they inevitably fail to
describe the space completely. The constraint based approach of Cognitive Work Analysis has been
developed to resolve that problem.
The products of Cognitive Work Analysis are knowledge representations of the work domain, of
individual and collaborative activities undertaken in the work domain, and of processes involved in the
execution of those activities. These representations are developed from information gathered by use
of cognitively oriented knowledge elicitation tools. The goal of Cognitive Work Analysis is to identify
the basic sources of regularity or constraint, both contextual (technological, social, environmental) and
human (intentional, perceptual, cognitive, active) that shape human action in a workspace and to then
use that information to develop design solutions that support human activity.
Cognitive Work Analysis was selected for this project instead of Cognitive Task Analysis (the major
alternative Cognitive Systems Engineering framework) because it takes a comprehensive systems
perspective. In contrast, the framework of Cognitive Task Analysis is geared towards identifying points
of leverage for design and towards designing cognitive support interventions for either technological or
cognitive processes. This characterization should not be taken as a critique of either framework.
Each has its strengths. However, road safety requires consideration of a wide range of users. A focus
on points of leverage for one set of users can develop solutions that interfere with the activities and
goals of other users. In such a highly interactive and inter-dependent environment as road traffic, the
systems perspective encouraged by Cognitive Work Analysis provides important safeguards against
the development of restricted solutions that aid one user group while disadvantaging other user
groups.
Interview protocols and questionnaires are often developed without any consideration of a relevant
theoretical perspective. Given the complexity of the road safety environment, it was thought necessary
for this project to develop an interview protocol that took account of the multidimensional nature of the
road traffic environment and the interactivity between its diverse dimensions. The domain of road
safety is a complex socio-technical environment and is one in which cognitive performance plays a
significant role in driver behavior. We looked to an appropriate theoretical framework from cognitive
systems engineering – that is, Cognitive Work Analysis - to guide us towards a suitably structured
interview protocol.
1.5. Previous Research using Cognitive Work Analysis in the Road
Transport Domain
Few published studies known to the authors have used Cognitive Work Analysis to analyse driver
constraints within the road transport domain.
Stoner, Wiese & Lee (2003) used CWA to analyse the car driving domain. The aim was to determine
whether advanced driver assistance systems, such as collision warning and avoidance systems, were
displaying the right information to drivers, in the right manner. Stoner et al. developed an AbstractionDecomposition Space and from it derived information not normally considered in the design of driver
support systems, such as probabilistic obstacles and traffic flow stability.
Jansson, Olsson, & Erlandsson, M. (2006) used CWA in two studies of train driving. The first study
revealed what kinds of behaviour-shaping constraints the information environment imposed on train
drivers. In the second study, the information yielded by the first study was used to design a graphical
display interface to support the “feed-forward” decision strategy used by drivers who preferred an
active driving style.
Hilliard & Jamieson (2008) used Cognitive Work Analysis to design and prototype a complex graphical
display interface to support decision making by solar racing car strategy teams. The strategy team is a
mobile pit crew that remotely monitors performance of the solar car, monitors the status of the
competitiors, and uses various other data (, maps, weather reports) to determine and recommend to
the driver how fast to drive the car during the race in order to complete the race as safely, quickly and
efficiently as possible.
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Salmon, Regan, Lenne et al (2008) used CWA to identify the information that drivers in the Australian
State of Victoria require for safe, compliant and efficient driving - and also to identify driving tasks that
might require additional support from advanced driver assistance systems. They concluded that the
majority of the information requirements identified were adequately met by existing in-vehicle and
external-to-the-vehicle infrastructure (, road signage and markings), but that some of the information
requirements identified were not presented to the drivers via in-vehicle displays and interfaces.
Information required by drivers that is currently not presented at all was also identified. It was
concluded that “contemporary production vehicles do not entirely provide the required information
directly to drivers, and therefore that current vehicle interfaces do not fully support safe, compliant and
efficient driving.” (p. 445).
Although it is clear that CWA has been used previously within the road transport domain, no previous
study has used CWA to analyse the constraints that shape motorcycle and scooter rider behaviour and no previous study has used the outputs of CWA to inform the design of countermeasures beyond
those that relate to the provision and design of information to road users (, graphical display
interfaces). Hence, in this sense, the present study is unique.
As a general comment, it is surprising how little published qualitative literature exists relating to the
views and opinions of motorcycle riders. The authors are aware of only one qualitative study that has
attempted to elicit from riders, using a structured theoretical framework (drawing primarily on the
theories of planned behaviour, identity theory and social identity theory), the kind of information elicited
in the present study. That study, conducted in Queensland, Australia, by Watson, Tunnicliff, White et
al, (2007), involved the use of focus groups to elicit knowledge about rider opinions and behaviours
relating to safe and risky riding. The authors conducted eight focus groups with 43 riders and asked a
range of questions relating to rider attitudes (what is a safe rider? What is an unsafe rider?), subjective
norms (who do you discuss your riding with? Do you ever discuss safety issues?), perceived
behavioural control (Have you ever pushed your limits? Why?), group identity (e.g. Is there a sense of
being part of a group when you ride?), self identity (ie Do you feel differently about yourself when you
ride your bike?), moral norm (i.e. Is there anything you see other riders do which you think is just “the
wrong thing to do” and causal attribution (“Can you tell us about times when you almost lost it?).
Several themes emerged from analysis of the focus groups, which will be considered in the concluding
section of this report.
1.6. Structure of remainder of this report
The remaining sections of this report describe the methods and procedures employed to select, recruit
and interview motorcycle riders, explain the CWA data analysis process, and present the analysed
data obtained from the rider interviews. The report concludes with a discussion of major themes and
options for countermeasures for enhancing rider safety that emerge from the analysis of the data.
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2. METHOD
2.1. Study design overview
As noted previously, the products of Cognitive Work Analysis are knowledge representations of the
work domain, of individual and collaborative activities undertaken in the work domain, and of
processes involved in the execution of those activities. These representations are developed from
information gathered by use of cognitively oriented knowledge elicitation tools.
In the present study, an interview guide was developed to elicit relevant knowledge from motorcycle
and scooter riders. Using the interview guide, 31 riders were interviewed, alone or in pairs, in a series
of videotaped interviews conducted in 3 countries – France (Paris), Austria (Vienna) and Australia
(Melbourne). The interviews were conducted in English, and each videotaped interview was
transcribed, fully or almost fully, in English. Information extracted from the transcripts provided the
data for the Cognitive Work Analysis.
It was necessary for those conducting the interviews in Paris, Austria and Australia to be trained in
how to use CWA – to become familiar with the technique, to know how to run the interviews and to
know how to analyse data deriving from them. A short training program was developed for this
purpose, which was delivered at a workshop in Paris, France, on 25 March 2009. Follow-up training on
CWA was provided during a second workshop, conducted in Lisbon (see below).
On 27 May 2009, a second workshop was conducted in Lisbon, Portugal. Invited participants included
2-BE-SAFE work package leaders, a representative from the Federation of European Motorcyclists
Associations (FEMA), members of the WP5.5 project team and interested others from the 2-BE-SAFE
project consortium. The aims of the second workshop were to explain to participants the CWA method,
to present preliminary findings from the CWA, to seek feedback from participants on CWA and findings
deriving from it, and to discuss the implications of the preliminary findings for the development of
countermeasures to improve motorcycle safety. The outputs from the workshop were used to finalise
this report.
The following section of the report describes in more detail the methods and procedures employed in
this study.
2.2. Interview Guide
An interview guide was designed to gather information that would map into the six stages of Cognitive
Work Analysis (see Table 1).
The first stage, Work Domain Analysis, examines the hierarchical structure of work in terms of the
activity-independent constraints of the work domain at five levels of abstraction (purpose, values,
device-independent domain functions, device-dependent physical functions, and physical resources).
The second stage, Work Organization Analysis, identifies tasks and their organization.
The third stage, Work Task Analysis, identifies the cognitive states and cognitive processes involved in
the execution of a task.
The fourth stage, Work Strategies Analysis, identifies the cognitive strategies involved in the execution
of a task.
The fifth stage, Cognitive Competencies Analysis, examines the levels of cognitive competency (skills,
rules, knowledge) involved in the execution of a task.
The sixth and final stage, Social Transactions Analysis, examines communication patterns employed
within the system.
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Table 1: Interview Structure
Abstraction-Decomposition
Purpose
Values
Domain Functions
Physical Functions
Physical Objects
Tasks
Cognitive states and processes
Strategies
Levels of cognitive competency
Social communication and coordination (transactions)
The Interview Guide was designed to tap the knowledge and attitudes of motorcycle riders in all these
areas. In its first incarnation, the interview guide was framed in language that was distinctly scientific
and technical. The document was edited to re-frame these ideas in language that would be familiar to
the general population of motorcycle riders.
Once this translation had been completed, the guide was piloted in Australia. The pilot interview was
recorded on video and subsequently reviewed independently by two of the authors. They then reedited the interview guide to further adjust the language and to reorganize the questions to help the
flow of the interview. The interview guide was also reviewed for content.
The pilot interview was then re-run to ensure that the interview guide was satisfactory. This second
interview took slightly less than two hours to complete, which was thought to be the right amount of
time. Subsequent review of the video record revealed no major concerns. This recorded pilot interview
was subsequently used, during the above mentioned workshop in Paris, as a training tool for
interviewers - to familiarize them with the content of the Interview Guide and to provide them with
guidance on how to conduct the interviews. A copy of the final Interview Guide used in subsequent
interviews can be found in Appendix 1.
Interviewers were not required to follow the guidance rigidly. Rather, they were advised to ensure that
information was gathered on all topics at some time during the interview. This strategy allowed the
interviews to flow more naturally and was presumed to encourage interviewees to explore their ideas
in more depth.
2.3. Rider Interviews - France
This section of the report describes the methodology and procedures employed to select, recruit and
interview the riders in France. Follow-on sections describe the methodology and procedures employed
to select, recruit and interview the riders in Austria and Australia.
2.3.1. Selection and recruitment process
It was deemed that the rider sample interviewed in France should have the following general
characteristics:
- be able speak and understand English;
- contain a mix of females and males;
- be as diverse demographically as possible (city/country/young/old/inexperienced/experienced/etc);
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- be fully licensed motorcycle or scooter riders;
- contain riders who are also car drivers;
- contain riders who ride regularly, for pleasure, commuting or other purposes; and
- contain riders of diverse bike types and sizes.
It was mandatory that all riders speak and understand English, given that analysis of the data was
done almost exclusively by native English speakers. As is explained below, the French sample
displayed most of these characteristics, although there were relatively few females (only 1) and the
sample was relatively biased towards riders of large motorcycles.
Riders were recruited using a French Federation of Motorcyclists (FFMC) membership list. An email
was sent to the list, inviting interested people to contact by email the scientific leader of the 2-BESAFE consortium. The internet message (in French; see Appendix 3) said essentially that:
- INRETS, in the framework of the European project 2-BE-SAFE (7th Framework programme, 27
partners throughout Europe, Israel and Australia) is leading a study of the behaviours of motorcycle
and scooter riders.
- We are looking for volunteers to be questioned on their driving practices- to understand the
decisions they take according to the driving context.
- The method to be used, which has already been used to study airplane piloting, is called "Cognitive
Work Analysis". The specialists who will use this method come from Australia and the United States.
- Volunteers must be able to speak good English (but they will be helped by French-speaking
researchers at INRETS).
- So that the study "covers" varied practices (urban, country…), we wish for the participation of
motorcyclists coming from various geographic zones.
- Transportation expenses (second class) as well as hotel expenses (to a certain maximum) will be
provided where necessary.
- Motorcyclists interested in participating in this study are invited to contact M. Stéphane Espié,
specifying their riding experience (number of years, km traversed on average per year, trip type ….).
Interested volunteers responded by replying via return email to the Project Coordinator. The names
and contact details of interested riders were forwarded by the Project Coordinator to the senior author,
who was responsible for participant recruitment. A total of 96 riders expressed interest in participating
in the study. Of these, 22 were selected for interview, based on the selection criteria. Of these, 18
turned up in Paris for interview. Participants were not paid for their participation. However, travel costs
for those travelling from cities outside Paris were reimbursed.
2.3.2. Participants
A total of 18 motorcycle riders, 1 female and 17 males, were interviewed. All of the riders were also
car drivers. All were native French speakers, but all spoke excellent English.
Each rider attended one interview only. Riders attended the interviews either alone (3 interviews) or
with another rider (8 interviews). Hence, there were 11 interviews altogether.
Riders ranged in age from 23 to 58 years, with a mean age of 38.4 years (SD = 10.2 years).
Riders came from a broad range of occupations, as shown in Table 2. All riders had completed at least
6 years of secondary schooling (equivalent or greater than the French Baccalaureate).
All riders reported owning and riding one or more motorcycles. These ranged in engine capacity from
125 cc to 1300cc. As can be seen in Table 2, most of the riders rode large road bikes. Only 3 riders
rode small (125 cc) bikes, and all 3 of these riders also rode larger bikes.
Years of accumulated riding experience (since obtaining a full licence to ride) ranged from 0.5 to 40
years, with an average of 13.5 years. Six riders had less than 5 years of riding experience, and 3 of
these had 1 year or less of riding experience.
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Nine riders (50%) came from Paris. The rest came from various parts of France, as shown in Table 2.
In relation to Paris, they came mainly from the south (e.g. Avignon, Marseilles), southwest (e.g.
Bordeaux) and north (e.g. Rouen).
The riders in the group travelled on their motorcycles for between 3,100km and 30,000km per year,
and on average for 18,100 km per year.
Thirteen (72%) of the riders stated that they ride mainly for pleasure and 12 riders (67%) stated that
they ride mainly for work. One rider stated that he rides mainly for commuting, another stated that he
rides mainly for racing, and a third stated that he rides for “other” reasons (unspecified).
In terms of where riders ride, 1 rider stated that he rides only in the city, 2 stated that they ride only in
the country, and most of the remaining riders combined city riding with country riding and motorway
riding. Only 2 riders ever rode their motorcycles off-road.
In summary, the rider sample was quite mixed demographically, but biased in some respects: there
was only one female; the group was relatively old and experienced; the riders were relatively well
educated; and they rode relatively large motorcycles. The group was, however, well geographically
dispersed, and the riders were well mixed in terms of why they rode and where they rode.
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Table 2: Rider Characteristics (Paris interviews)
Rider
No.
1
Sessi
on
1
Gender
female
Age
(years)
43
Occupation
Highest
Education level
Motorcycle(s)
currently
ridden and
owned
Age at Full
Licence
Place of
Residence
(years)
Yearly
distance
travelled
Rides
mainly
for:
Rides
mainly:
Car
drive
r
also?
work
City/
Yes
(km)
Information
technology
Business
school
(EDHEC)
Honda CFB
600
0.5
Paris
12K
motorway
2
2
male
23
Informatic
developer
Licence
(University)
Kawasaki
ER6N
1.0
Montpellier
24K
pleasure
country
yes
3
2
male
33
Small
businessm
an
Diploma
Engineering
-BMW 100
RT
11.0
Pontoise
39K
Work/
City/
yes
pleasure
Country/
- Honda CR
1000 big one
motorway
- Triumph
Sprint ST
4
3
male
48
Teacher
Baccalaureate+3
-Ducati 750
(sport)
29.0
Bordeaux
26K
Work/
City/
pleasure
Country/
-Cagira 650
5
3
male
25
Telco
Engineer
Telecommunic
ations
Engineering
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
Kawasaki
Z750S
Yes
motorway
1.0
Bordeaux
10.4 K
Work/
City/
pleasure
country
Yes
20
2-BE-SAFE
6
7
4
5
D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for Improving Motorcycle and Scooter Rider Safety
male
male
49
39
metrelogue
accounts
manager
Baccalaureate
Master
Yamaha FJR
1300
15.0
-Moto Guzzi
California
23.0
Rouen
12K
Work
City/
yes
motorway
Paris
26K
-Kymeo 250
Work/
City/
Pleasur
e/Other
Country
yes
motorway
-Royal
Enfield and
side car
-Yamaha 660
ZSR (circuits)
8
5
male
48
IT manager
Diploma
Engineering
-Suzuki 1220
bandit
28.0
Paris
20.8K
commuti
ng
City/motor
way
yes
-Yamaha 125
SR
- Suzuki 250
GN
9
6
male
58
Engineer
Licence
(University)
BMW 1100
40.0
Paris
15.6K
Work
City
yes
10
7
male
51
Teacher
Not stated
BMW 1150
26.0
Caen
(west of
Paris)
10.4K
pleasure
City/
yes
Paris
8.3K
BMW 750
11
7
male
26
Marketing
Baccalaureate
+4
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
BMW K75 RT
4.0
country
work
city
yes
21
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12
13
14
8
8
9
D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for Improving Motorcycle and Scooter Rider Safety
male
Male
male
46
34
35
General
managerrecruitment
Master (MBA)
BMW
GT
1300
DDE
57/road
safety
service
Licence
(physics)
Honda
1100
X11
Sales
manager
Baccalaureate
-Triumph
1010 speed
triple
4.0
12.0
11.0
Paris
Metz
Paris
26K
3.1K
6.7K
Work/
City/
pleasure
country
Work/
City/
pleasure
Motorway/
Off-road
Pleasur
e/
City
yes
yes
yes
/country
racing
- Ducati 1000
Paul Smart
15
16
17
18
10
10
11
11
male
male
male
male
29
37
27
40
Computer
software
designer
Baccalaureate
+4
-Ducati
SS
900
-Suzuki
1000
DL
Avignon
14.3K
- Suzuki GN
125
Helicopter
program
manager
Diploma
Engineering
-Ducati 996S
Journalist
Baccalaureate
+4
-GSX –R
Baccalaureate
+5
- Fazer 600
Sales
manager
8.0
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
other
City/
yes
Country/
Motorway/
off-road
17.0
Marseille
7.8K
Pleasur
e
country
yes
6.0
Paris
30K
Work/
City/
yes
pleasure
country
Work/
City/
pleasure
motorway
-Husqvarna
610 TE
-XG 125
Triumph
Sprint 1050
Pleasur
e/
3.0
Paris
16.5K
yes
22
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2.3.3. Materials
2.3.3.1. Interview guide
An interview guide was designed and developed to gather information that would map into the six
stages of Cognitive Work Analysis. This was described in Section 2.2, and a copy of it can be found in
Appendix 1.
2.3.3.2. Questionnaires
A Biographical Data Sheet was developed to collect basic demographic data for each rider
interviewed. A copy of the questionnaire can be found at Appendix 2.
2.3.3.3. Apparatus
Each interview was recorded using a digital camera, mounted in a position that enabled the
experimenters to see the face(s) of all motorcycle rider(s) interviewed. After each session, the
videotapes were downloaded onto a personal computer, and then onto an external computer hard
drive.
2.3.4. Procedure
In France and Austria, unlike Australia, there was no requirement to obtain approval from a Human
Ethics Committee in order to conduct the interviews. The only requirement was to ensure that, in case
of injury to any rider within the premises in which riders were interviewed, the rider(s) in question were
insured.
Prior to the interviews, participating riders were sent an email confirming the session time and venue.
The interviews were held in two rooms located within the premises of INRETS in Paris. Both rooms
were used when two interviews were conducted simultaneously.
There were normally two interviewers, and 1 or 2 riders, present during each of the 11 interviews.
They sat around a table. One of the interviewers was French, in case a rider had problems explaining
anything in English. The interviewers included the international expert on CWA and 4 others who had
been trained prior to the workshop in how to conduct the interviews: the senior author, the last author
and 2 other researchers from INRETS. Either the international expert, or the first author, was present
during all interviews.
The session was structured according to the Interview Guide in Appendix 1, and proceeded as follows.
The interviewer welcomed the rider(s), explained the general purpose of the study, and reassured
them that their anonymity would be protected in reporting of the data.
Riders then completed a Participant Consent Form (see Appendix 4) and Biographical Data Sheet
(see Appendix 2).
After that, the interview commenced. The Interview Guide was used as the general basis for
structuring the flow of the conversation. Each interview lasted for between 1.5 and 2.5 hours,
approximately. Interviews involving 2 riders tended to last longer. Where two riders were involved, the
data were combined for analysis purposes.
After each interview, the interviews were downloaded from the digital video cameras onto a computer,
and then onto an external hard drive, ready for analysis.
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2.4. Rider Interviews - Austria
This section of the report describes the methodology and procedures employed to select, recruit and
interview the riders in Austria.
2.4.1. Selection and recruitment process
The criteria for selecting riders were the same as those used for selecting riders in the French and
Australian interviews.
The recruitment process for Austria was similar to that in France. An e-mail was sent to the chairmen
of six Vespa Clubs in Vienna and the surrounding areas. They were asked to forward a message to
their members with an advertisement, containing the following information:
- FACTUM, a private research institute, is looking for interviewees to participate in the 2-BE-SAFE
project
The interviews focus on the rider experiences of each participant in order to develop
recommendations for decision makers to improve the traffic safety for PTWs all over Europe
- One interview will last about 2.5 hours and will be carried out in the premises of FACTUM; dates can
be arranged individually
- Every participant will receive an expense allowance of 30 Euros
- Volunteers must be able to speak good English (they will be helped by the interviewer)
- Motorcyclists are invited to contact FACTUM via e-mail or telephone
Seven interested volunteers responded quickly to the request. In the end, three of them were invited to
an interview. FACTUM’s private network of motorcycle contacts was used to find interviewees who
rode motorcycles instead of scooters. Two such participants were chosen who met the desirable
criteria for selection. There were thus five participants in total.
2.4.2. Participants
Five riders, 1 female and 4 male, were interviewed. Each rider attended one interview only, which was
carried out on a one-on-one basis.
All of the five participants were car drivers and lived in Vienna or quite close by; they were not asked
explicitly about their place of residence. They were native German speakers, but all spoke excellent
English.
Riders ranged in age from 30 to 70 years, with a mean age of 48.8 years (SD = 16.22 years); one
participant did not state his/her age, so it was estimated based on the interview.
Two of the riders had a PhD degree, one had a Master degree, one had completed an apprenticeship
and one had passed secondary school.
All scooter riders reported owning between one and four vehicles. Both of the motorcyclists owned a
Honda African Twin.
Four of the participants obtained their full license at the age of 18, and the fifth at age 19 years. Thus,
all of the riders had at least 12 years of riding experience.
The interviewees averaged a total of 3,600 km per year of riding; the range was between 1,500 and
6,500 km of riding.
Two of the participants rode mainly for pleasure; one used the bike to commute for leisure activities
(e.g. visiting friends); another one used the bike solely for commuting; and one of the riders used his
bike for commuting and pleasure.
In terms of where riders ride, one rider stated that he rode only in the city, 2 stated that they rode only
in the country, and another two riders combined city riding with country riding.
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Although the sample was rather small, the group was quite mixed demographically. It was, however,
biased in some respects: there was only one female; the group did not have much riding experience;
and it was not well dispersed geographically.
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Table 3: Rider Characteristics (Austrian interviews)
Rider
No.
Session
Gender
Age
(years)
Occupation
Highest
Education
level
Motorcycle(s)
currently
ridden and
owned
Age at
Full
Licence
Place of
Residence
(years)
Yearly
distance
travelled
Rides
mainly
for:
Rides
mainly:
Car
driver
also?
(km)
1
15.4.
male
Not
stated;
over 60
Retired
Secondary
school
Vespa GS
19
Not stated
3K
Pleasure
In the
country
Yes
2
20.4.
male
70
Retired
Apprentices
hip
Vespa 125TS
18
Not stated
1.5K
Pleasure
In the city
Yes
18
Not stated
4K
Work/Co
mmuting
In the city
and in the
country
Yes
Liberty
Puch
Di Blasio
3
21.4.
male
38
Not stated
Master of
Science
Vespa ET 125
Vespa P 200E
Pleasure
4
28.4.
male
46
Assistant
professor
PhD
Honda Africa
Twin
1981 (18)
Not stated
6.5K
Work(Co
mmuting
In the city
and in the
country
Yes
5
06.5.
female
30
Consultant
PhD
Honda Africa
Twin
1997 (18)
Not stated
3K
Visits,
rides in
leisure
time
In the
country
Yes
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2.4.3. Materials
2.4.3.1. Interview guide
An interview guide was designed and developed to gather information that would map into the six
stages of Cognitive Work Analysis. This was described in Section 2.2, and a copy of it can be
found in Appendix 1.
2.4.3.2. Questionnaires
A short questionnaire was developed to collect basic demographic data for each rider
interviewed. A copy of the questionnaire can be found at Appendix 2.
2.4.3.3. Apparatus
Each interview was recorded using a digital camera, mounted in a position that enabled the
experimenters to see the face(s) of all motorcycle rider(s) interviewed. An audio tape recorder
was also used for back up purposes in order to provide a good quality audio recording.
2.4.4. Procedure
In Austria, as in France, there was no requirement to obtain approval from a Human Ethics
Committee in order to conduct the interviews.
The session time and venue was fixed either via email or via phone.
The three interviews with the scooter riders were held in a room located within the premises of
FACTUM in Vienna. The two remaining interviews were carried out at FACTUM and in the home
of one of the interviewees.
On all occasions there was only one interviewer and one interviewee sitting facing each other.
The interviewer, as noted previously, had already been trained during the CWA workshop in
France. The procedure was the same as that already described for the French interviews. Each
interview lasted for between 1.5 and 2.5 hours, approximately.
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2.5. Rider Interviews - Australia
This section of the report describes the methodology and procedures employed to select, recruit
and interview the riders in Australia.
2.5.1. Selection and recruitment process
It was deemed that the rider sample interviewed in Australia should have the following general
characteristics:
- contain a mix of females and males;
- be as diverse demographically as possible
- (city/country/young/old/inexperienced/experienced/etc);
- have fully licensed motorcycle or scooter riders;
- contain riders who are also car drivers;
- ride regularly, for pleasure, commuting or other purposes;
- ride a mixture of bike types and sizes.
Riders were recruited from an online forum for motorcycle riders. A message was posted on the
internet site describing the study and inviting interested riders to contact the research staff.
Interested volunteers responded by emailing the Australia Project Coordinator (Robin
Hutchinson). A total of 30 riders expressed interest in participating in the study. Of these, 8 were
selected for interview, based on the selection criteria. Participants were not paid for their
participation.
2.5.2. Participants
A total of 8 motorcycle riders, 2 females and 6 males, were interviewed. All of the riders were also
car drivers.
Each rider attended one interview only. Riders attended the interviews either alone (6 interviews)
or with another rider (1 interview). Hence, there were 7 interviews in total.
Riders ranged in age from 32 to 60 years, with a mean age of 43 years (SD = 10.6 years).
Riders came from a broad range of occupations, as shown in Table 4. All riders had completed
at least 6 years of secondary schooling, most had completed tertiary education.
All riders reported owning and riding one or more motorcycles. These ranged in engine capacity
from 150cc to 1100cc. As can be seen in Table 4, most of the riders rode small road bikes. Only 1
rider rode a bike over 1000cc. Two of the riders rode motor scooters, the remainder rode
motorcycles.
Years of accumulated riding experience (since obtaining a full licence to ride) ranged from 0.5 to
42 years, with an average of 11.4 years. Four riders had less than 5 years of riding experience.
The riders in the group travelled on their motorcycles for between 8,000km and 38,000 km per
year, and on average 16,500 km per year.
All riders except two said that they rode to commute. Sixty three percent of riders said that they
rode for pleasure in addition to other reasons for riding.
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In summary, the rider sample was demographically diverse. However it was biased with respect
to age - in that all riders were over 30 years old - and gender, in that only two females were
interviewed.
Overall, across all three countries, there were 31 riders who participated in 23 videotaped
sessions, each lasting up to around 2.5 hrs. Only five of the riders (3 in Austria and two in
Australia) rode motor scooters.
Twenty seven riders were males and 4 were females, and on average they travelled 12,733 km
per year. Riders ranged in age from 23 to 70 years, with a mean age of 43.4 years, and had on
average 18.4 years of riding experience. Ten riders had less than 5 years of riding experience
and, of these, five had 1 year or less of riding experience.
As a group, the riders were relatively well educated, came from a broad mix of occupations, had
varied motives for riding, and rode in a mix of urban and country areas.
Although, overall, the sample was biased towards experienced, well educated, middle aged, male
motorcycle riders, there was enough heterogeneity within the sample for it to be considered
suitable for analysis using Cognitive Work Analysis.
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Table 4: Rider Characteristics (Australian interviews)
Session
1
2
Gender
M
M
Age
(years)
60
60
Occupation
Highest
Education
level
Engineering
blacksmith
Trade diploma
Clerical
Leaving
Certificate
Motorcycle(s)
currently
ridden
and
owned
Age
at
Full
Licence
Honda
Blackbird
1100cc
18
Scarabeo 500
55
Place
of
Residence
Yearly
distance
travelled
Rides
mainly
for:
Rides
mainly:
Car
drive
r
also?
pleasure
city
yes
(km)
(years)
Melbourne
20000
country
motorways
Melbourne
15000
Commutin
g
pleasure
2
3
F
M
57
49
Ballet teacher
HSC
Warehouse
manager
Year 12
Aprilia Sportcity
200cc
57
Suzuki c50
48
Melbourne
10000
commuting
city
yes
country
motorways
city
yes
city
yes
pleasure
Melbourne
20000
commuting
motorways
4
M
32
Transport
supervisor
Bachelor
Degree
Aprillia 1000R
25
Melbourne
11000
pleasure
country
yes
5
M
32
Barrister
Grad Dip
TGB
150cc
303RS
31
Melbourne
8000
commuting
city
yes
Honda
ABS
CB400
motorways
yes
7
F
34
Computer
Programmer
Masters
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34
Melbourne
38,000
commuting
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2.5.3. Materials
2.5.3.1. Interview guide
An interview guide was used to gather information that would map into the six stages of Cognitive
Work Analysis. This was described in Section 2.2, and a copy of it can be found in Appendix 1. It was
the same as that used in the French and Austrian rider interviews.
2.5.3.2. Questionnaires
A short questionnaire was developed to collect basic demographic data for each rider interviewed. A
copy of the questionnaire can be found at Appendix 2. It was the same as that used in the French and
Austrian rider interviews.
2.5.3.3. Apparatus
Each interview was recorded using a digital video camera, mounted in a position that enabled the
experimenters to see the face(s) of all motorcycle rider(s) interviewed. After each session, the
videotapes were downloaded onto a personal computer.
2.5.3.4. Procedure
Ethics approval was sought and obtained from the Monash University Human Ethics Committee in
order to conduct the interviews. This was compulsory.
Prior to the interviews, participating riders were sent an email confirming the session time and venue.
The interviews were held in a meeting room on the premises of the Monash University Accident
Research Centre (MUARC) in Melbourne, Australia.
Each interview was conducted by a single interviewer. All except one interview were conducted oneon-one with the interviewee. In one interview two riders were interviewed together.
The session was structured according to the Interview Guide in Appendix 1, and proceeded as follows.
The interviewer welcomed the rider(s), explained the general purpose of the study, and reassured
them that their anonymity would be protected when reporting the data. Participants were given a copy
of the Explanatory Statement (See Appendix 5), which was an ethical requirement for the Australian
interviews.
Riders then completed a Participant Consent Form (see Appendix 6) and Biographical Data Sheet
(see Appendix 2).
After that, the interview proper commenced, using the Interview Guide as the general basis for
structuring the flow of the conversation. Each interview lasted for between 1.5 and 3 hours.
The interviews were downloaded from the digital video cameras on to a computer for transcription and
analysis.
2.6. Lisbon Workshop
In accordance with the Description of Work for WP5.5, the WP5.5 Leader and the international expert
ran, on 27 May 2009, a second workshop in Lisbon, Portugal. It was held at the premises of the
Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa (Faculty of Human Kinetics of the
Technical University of Lisbon).
Invited participants included 2-BE-SAFE work package leaders, a representative from FEMA,
members of the WP5.5 project team and interested others from the 2-BE-SAFE project consortium.
The second workshop had several aims:
- to explain to participants the CWA method;
- to present the preliminary findings from the CWA;
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- to seek feedback from participants on the CWA process and the preliminary findings deriving from it;
- to discuss the implications of the preliminary findings for the development of countermeasures to
improve motorcycle safety; and
- to discuss the manner in which it was proposed to classify and group the above-mentioned
recommendations.
The response to the workshop was very positive, with participants expressing confidence that the
process had yielded, and would yield, useful outputs. Very little feedback, however, was extracted
from participants. The following issues were raised during the discussions:
- It was agreed that the outputs of the CWA would be useful inputs to 2-BE-SAFE work packages 3
(Risk Awareness: Socio-cultural analysis of PTW riders), 5 (specifically 5.2: Experimental studies in
PTW visual conspicuity), and 6 (Transversal analysis and guidelines); and
- It was suggested “promotion/advertising” should be considered as one of the countermeasure
options informed by the CWA outputs
The present report was structured to accommodate these suggestions.
The following sections of the report describe the process by which the rider interviews were analysed,
using Cognitive Work Analysis.
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3. Development of CWA data structure
3.1. The data analysis process
The information from the video records was entered into a text document. There was some variation
regarding how this was done. Some of the video records were transcribed verbatim while others were
summarized in terms of their relevant ideas. Time stamps were recorded for the earlier transcripts
analysed so that ideas could be traced back to the relevant segment of the video record. This became
less necessary as the analysis progressed. Relatively few of the interviews followed exactly the
sequence in the interview guidance. The ideas in the interview narrative were sorted to gather all
similar ideas together and then re-sorted into the following categories: Values; Domain Functions;
Tasks; Operating The Motorcycle; Tactics; Strategies; Transactions; Interactions Between Users;
Experience; and Suggestions For Changes In Laws.
Given the scope and timeframe for the project, emphasis was placed on the structural constraints as
identified in the first stage, the tasks as identified in the second stage and the transactions as
identified in the sixth stage of the CWA. Table 5 offers a summary of the data analysis process.
Table 5: Summary of the Data Analysis Process
•
•
•
•
•
Text Summary of interview (not necessarily verbatim)
For each record, sort information into relevant categories
Develop representations:
o Abstraction-Decomposition Spaces
o Work Task Dockets
o Transaction Dockets
Assemble all representations into a master representation
Notes:
o This is not about averaging
o Entries are concepts, not quotes
o An Abstraction-Decomposition Space has an internal structure
Abstraction-Decomposition Spaces, work task dockets and transactions dockets were initially
developed for two motorcycle riders from Paris who had each been judged as articulate but had also
emphasized different aspects of motorcycle riding. These two sets of representations were combined
into a single set. The remaining interviews were reviewed for additional concepts for the AbstractionDecomposition Space, and for further task descriptions for the transactions docket.
In reviewing these products of cognitive work analysis, it should be remembered that this effort is not
about averaging or tallying the ideas or views of motorcycle riders but rather about identifying
motorcyclist concepts and attitudes. Additionally, it should be remembered that the content of these
products represents motorcyclist beliefs rather than truths or facts. The judgment of whether a
particular entry has useful implications for motorcycle safety requires further analysis by traffic safety
professionals. The best that can be said of these data is that they reflect the experiences of
motorcyclists.
Finally, readers of this report should recognize that the entries within the representational products are
extensive edits of the original statements made by the motorcycle riders. The actual language within
the interview records was typically disorganized, colloquial and divergent. For any analytic framework
of cognitive systems engineering, it is necessary to summarize and re-frame source ideas into
language forms that map more directly into the type of technical and professional language that can
support redesign; in this case, recommendations for injury prevention countermeasures.
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3.2. Work Domain Analysis
As noted above, the representational product of Work Domain Analysis is an AbstractionDecomposition Space, which is a matrix developed over five levels (Domain Purpose at the top,
through Domain Values (second level), Domain Functions (third level), technical functions and
contextual effects (fourth level) and physical resources and constraints (fifth level)).
An Abstraction-Decomposition Space has an internal structure in which entries at any particular level
are connected via “means-ends relations” (indicated by links; see Figures 3 and 4 below) to entries in
the levels both above and below. This results in an unbroken chain from top to bottom or bottom to
top through the intermediate levels. In particular, the internal structure of an AbstractionDecomposition Space does not permit this chain to bypass levels and does not permit it to start or end
anywhere other than at the top and bottom levels. There can be no broken chains and neither can
there be chains that end at intermediate levels. No organic source of information about a work domain
identifies the required concepts at all levels. It is normal and necessary, therefore, for analysts to use
their own knowledge of the domain to fill in the gaps. Additionally, those information sources rarely
identify the means-ends links explicitly. The analysts must typically infer those from the nature of the
functional concepts.
The Abstraction-Decomposition Space shown here (Figures 3 & 4) was based, in the first instance, on
detailed analysis of two interviews. Concepts identified by those two riders were entered at the
appropriate levels.
Subsequently, the Abstraction-Decomposition Space was elaborated and
extended from analysis of the remaining interview records. Figure 3 shows an overview of concepts at
all five levels. Figure 4 shows decompositions at the bottom three levels.
Figure 3: overview of concepts at all five levels.
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Figure 4: decompositions at the bottom three levels
Work Domain Analysis seeks to develop a comprehensive account of the functional structure of the
work domain by identifying and locating all important concepts. It does not, however, tabulate the
number of times a particular concept is invoked by interviewees. It is the responsibility of the analyst
to decide whether and where a concept fits within the structure and how to fill in the missing pieces.
At the top level, the domain purpose, "Personal transportation and recreation in a complex,
geographically distributed community," is based on an interpretation of what interviewees offered as
the reasons for riding a motorcycle.
At the bottom level, the physical resources and constraints identified are “safety apparel”, “motorcycle
and its subsystems”, “roads and highways”, “regulatory and road maintenance entities”, “groups and
their facilities”, “other road users”, “support systems”, “atmosphere”, and “environment”.
The decompositions of these physical resources and constraints, as shown in Figure 4, clarify the
conceptual content that each of these rather cryptic labels covers. For example, “safety apparel”
refers to those items that motorcyclists wear to protect themselves in case of accident, the common
ones being a “helmet“,“boots“,“gloves“,“leather jacket“ and “leather pants“. Some riders also wore a
“back protector“ and one wore an “airbag“ that would inflate if he were thrown from his motorcycle.
As shown in figure 4 by the means-ends links to the fourth level, these physical resources support
“impact and penetration mitigation“. Some riders also found some of this apparel to be of use for
protecting themselves against the effects of inclement weather. The technical function of “impact and
penetration mitigation“ (fourth level) supports the domain sub-function of “passive protection“ within
the domain function of “safety management“ (third level). By reference to Figure 3, it can be seen that
the domain function of safety management supports the domain priority of safety (second level) which,
in turn, supports realization of the domain purpose (first level).
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The practical application of the abstraction decomposition space emerges from the theory that has led
to this representational form. The theory is based on the assumption that behaviour in a functionally
complex and diverse environment will be shaped by constraints at the five levels of abstraction
discussed above. In the motorcycling domain, riders will first and foremost seek to achieve goals that
are commensurate with the domain purpose. In doing so, they will use the physical resources
available to them, either those they have deliberately assembled such as the motorcycle itself and
their safety equipment, or those that exist independently of their own efforts such as roadways, road
furniture, other road users and weather. These Physical Resources offer functional capabilities that
riders can use in pursuit of their goals. Some of those functional capabilities are specified in the
design or development of specific resources, for example, the braking system of the motorcycle, while
others are discovered opportunities, for example the spaces between cars that permit lane splitting.
Yet others are the inevitable effects of natural systems, some of which are undesirable, for example
the effects of inclement weather, while others are desirable, for example the pleasurable accelerative
forces generated when riding along winding country roads.
The second level of the Abstraction-Decomposition Space, the domain values, identifies an important
constellation of constraints that is often ignored in systems design. Within the motorcycling domain,
these values offer insight into the behaviour of riders. Legislators may, for example, decide that lane
splitting is dangerous and they may therefore write laws that prohibit it. Nevertheless, riders will tend
to ignore this law because lane splitting helps them realize the important values of efficiency,
convenience and timeliness. It may be possible by inspection of the Abstraction-Decomposition Space
to identify alternative ways for riders to satisfy these values either through innovative use of existing
resources or by provision of resources not currently available. This is the sort of analysis we will
describe later in this report when we refer to the Abstraction-Decomposition Space to propose road
safety counter measures.
3.3. Work Organisation Analysis
As noted above, the representational product of Work Organization Analysis is a Work Task Docket,
which is a matrix that shows the relationship of work tasks to the domain functions identified in the
Abstraction-Decomposition Space and the distribution of those work tasks across work situations.
Work Tasks are defined in the broad sense as outcomes people are trying to achieve rather than in
the narrow sense as a sequence of discrete activities aimed at achieving a particular goal. Work
Situations are the contexts within which tasks are undertaken. They are distinguished primarily on the
basis of operators considering their activities in relation to different frameworks. For example, work
situations for a process control plant will include start up, normal operation, emergency operation and
shutdown. Classification on the basis of different work situations becomes useful when those different
situations have operators thinking about their work in distinctively different ways. For this project, we
identified the work situations of Operational Control (, speed control, lane following, gear changing,
braking), Tactical Control (thinking about best practice for overtaking, giving way to other vehicles,
obeying traffic rules, etc), Strategic Control (thinking about how to satisfy values through planning,
choice of mode of transport, choice of route, etc) and learning by long-term experience.
The Work Task Docket shown here (Figure 5) was based on detailed analysis of the same two
interviews that were used initially to develop the Abstraction-Decomposition Space shown in Figures 3
and 4, and is described in the paragraphs below. Work Task Dockets were subsequently developed
for each the remaining interviews conducted in Paris, Vienna and Melbourne. It was not possible to
incorporate into Figure 5 the additional data generated from these interviews. Instead, a series of 24
tables was generated, each of which corresponds to one of the cells in the Work Task Docket shown
in Figure 5. These tables (which as appear as Appendices 7 to 30) combine the data from all of the
remaining interviews, and are described and discussed in the final part of this report.
For the moment, we shall continue to describe the contents of the Work Task Docket in Figure 5.
The first column of this figure lists the domain functions from the Abstraction-Decomposition Space of
a Figure 3. The second column lists work tasks associated with these same domain functions but
linked specifically to the decompositions of those functions as shown in figure 4. Note that an
Abstraction-Decomposition Space is an activity-independent representation while Work Tasks are
activities. Although the labels for the Work Tasks are taken directly from Figure 4, they should be
interpreted as pointing to the rider activities that use the physical resources identified at the bottom
level of the Abstraction-Decomposition Space to realize the physical functions at the fourth level and
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then the domain functions at the third level in service of satisfying the domain values at the second
level. These activities are identified in the Work Situation columns three to six.
In practical application, the Work Task Docket is examined to assess how the functional resources that
have been mapped out in the Abstraction-Decomposition Space are used. For example, to continue
with the lane splitting illustration, we see that motorcyclists do not split lanes in all environments. A
different technique is typically used within the city. Additionally, it is not the only strategy used for
saving time. Use of the safety lane also serves the same goal. Riders typically take care when splitting
lanes by adjusting their speed to be within a perceived safe range in relation to the average traffic
speed. Finally, it appears to be a skill that is learned. One novice driver noted that she had become
better at assessing distances between cars over time and that had enhanced her confidence in
splitting lanes.
Taken at face value, these ideas suggest that lane splitting is not as dangerous as we might think or
that there are convenient means to reduce the dangers. Rather than banning lane splitting entirely, it
may be better to legislate the conditions under which it is permitted. Additionally, novice riders might
be placed under more constraints than experienced riders and motorcycle riding lessons in
preparation for licensing might teach the fundamentals of lane splitting. This is the sort of analysis we
will describe later in this report when we refer to the Work Task Docket to propose road safety counter
measures.
3.4. Social Transactions Analysis
As noted above, the representational product of Social Transactions Analysis is a Transactions
Docket, which is a modification of the Work Task Docket, as shown in Figure 6. The column headings
of the Transactions Docket are identical to those of the Work Task Docket and the first two columns
are also identical. The entries in columns three to six no longer identify activities associated with
domain functions and their decompositions but rather identify knowledge required for execution of the
activities identified in the Work Task Docket and the sources of the information for that knowledge.
For example, the activities in support of maintaining the domain sub-function of situation awareness
use visual observation of road surfaces (for example, to identify slippery spots that may affect stability)
and of automobiles (for example, visual observation of an automobile's front wheel to assess whether
that automobile is about to change lanes). Knowledge that guides activities may be developed from
experience as is the case with normal and emergency braking. At a summary level, transactions are
characterized in terms of demands (what the particular activity requires in terms of information or
knowledge for successful execution) and mode (the manner in which the rider brings that information
and knowledge to bear on the activity).
The Transactions Docket shown here (Figure 6) was based, in the first instance, on detailed analysis
of the same two interviews that were used to develop the Abstraction Decomposition Space shown in
Figures 3 and 4 and the Work Task Docket of Figure 5. For reasons explained below, it was deemed
unnecessary to develop Transactions Dockets for each of the remaining interviews.
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Figure 5: Work Task Docket
Domain Functions
Tasks
Operational
Tactical
Controlling the vehicle (, Thinking about best
speed, road following,
practice (, overtaking,
changing gears)
giving way to other
vehicles, obeying traffic
rules)
Personal Safety
Management
Passive Protection
Anticipation
Defensive Riding
Blind Spot
Motorcycle Control &
Maneuverability
Situation Awareness
Strategic
Experience
Thinking about how to
satisfy values (,
planning journey,
selecting mode of
transport, choosing a
route)
Lessons learned
Recognize vulnerability, Takes responsibility for
be concerned with self- own safety. Is
concerned regards little
protection.
protection on the bike.
Maintain safety
Own a complete set of
distances from other
vehicles, be concerned safety equipment.
that vehicles behind do
Remain focused when
not always do the
riding. Do not complain
same.
to other drivers when
When in traffic, drives in they do something
Careful with braking,
the middle of the lane to wrong.
prefer to use gears to
prevent cars from taking
slow.
Avoid use of alcohol
up space.
when riding. Remain
Do not look at
Undisciplined behavior calm & alert at all times,
speedometer much; it
manage fatigue
of other road users,
detracts from visual
observe them closely.
observation, use engine
Assess their level of
noise to judge speed.
distraction; watch for
drivers on telephone
Maintain speed
consistent with other
Careful with braking,
traffic.
ABS helps, need good
Stand up on motorcycle strategy
to be visible to car
Focus attention on
drivers.
Constantly observe
other road users to
anticipate their actions,
looking ahead & behind.
Watch for features on
the road, especially
white lines and fuel &
oils spills, that are
slippery, especially
when wet.
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
Better at anticipating
erratic behavior of other
road users
Learn who is
dangerous, attend to
what other road users
will do
Learned to move back
from a car & to the side
of the lane so will have
somewhere to go
No longer refers to map
while riding
Young riders feel
invincible; this feeling
loses strength with age
and experience
Crash experiences can
be big life lessons
A relatively new rider
Still not sufficiently
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Racing experience can
reduce temptation to
speed.
riding, do not engage in
distracting activities
sensitive to some of the
possibilities
Works at being
predictable to others, be
concerned about
collisions from behind
when braking or
stopped
Still needs to think
about activating the
brake light when
slowing down
Be more cautious in
challenging conditions,
attend to environmental
conditions that affect
riding stability
Safety gear
inconvenient and can
be uncomfortable but
necessary
Regular maintenance to
maintain safety
Time Management
Negotiation through
Traffic
Travel Time
On the highway, will
split lanes and drive on
the safety shoulder to
save time although that
it is illegal.
Break rules more often
on a motorcycle than in
a car, do not need to
wait for the broken line
to pass.
Do not split lanes in the Maintain own speed
city but rather drive in
within 20 Km/H of traffic
the center of the road to when lane splitting
pass cars.
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
Schedule properly to
avoid need to speed,
manage time, do not
hurry or become
stressed.
Become more
comfortable with
splitting lanes.
Become better at
assessing distances
between cars which
enhances confidence in
splitting lanes.
Now control speed more
effectively from the
sound of the engine and
has better control on the
bike.
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Commuting, Touring
D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for Improving Motorcycle and Scooter Rider Safety
Work, Business
Pleasure
Constant Availability
Drive at moderate
speed to enhance
enjoyment
Waterproof equipment
to ride in the rain but
not in snow or ice.
When snow possible,
checks forecast to
ensure s/he does not
When riding for fun,
get stuck at the
okay to get lost
destination. Memorize
route or prepares it
Careful with use of
map, no longer refers to carefully so that s/he
it while riding because can read it easily.
that is dangerous
Small, country roads,
curves & scenery are
enjoyable.
Public transport is
depressing and takes
too long. The car also
takes too long and it is
too far to walk.
Better at navigating and
route planning.
Off-road racing has
improved handling skills
Comfort; Avoid bad
weather
Off-road racing satisfies
need for experiencing
speed & power
Road System Oversight Behavioural Control
Traffic Management
Taxes
Lights that distinguish
motorcycles from cars,
especially from the
back, would be useful.
Legalize use of safety
shoulder and lane
splitting
Become more flexible
about the rules with
experience.
Off-road activities could
be good thing for all
riders to experience
speed, etc., off-road
circuits have security
safeguards
Safety barriers a danger
Mandate more
(ambulances, everyone
to riders who fall.
complete set of
rides in the same
protective gear, reduce
direction)
Influence legislation
tax on safety equipment
through action of clubs
& give insurance credit
for it
Motorcycle brake light
to illuminate
automatically when
slowing down.
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
Improve road
maintenance & design,
change road surfaces
that become slippery
when wet.
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Warning
Acknowledgement
Knowledge Sharing
Experiential Sharing
Signal with leg to thank
for courtesies
Rides with others on
weekends
Uses horn to warn
drivers to open a space
or if they are not paying
attention, uses brake
lights to show that s/he
is slowing down.
Gather with other riders,
discuss issues (club
Project good image to
meetings, roadside
other road users
convocations)
(protective clothing
looks threatening which
is an issue)
Experiential Salience
Self Image
Open the helmet visor
when riding in the
country to enjoy the
experience more.
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
Riding can be
dangerous; know that
from friends who have
crashed
Outreach club days to
educate non-riding
community
Acknowledge other
riders as they pass.
Personal Engagement
Riders have a code,
there is a community
spirit.
Slow down, enjoy the
experience when riding
for pleasure.
The biker image is
attractive.
Enjoy weekend trips.
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Figure 6: Transactions Docket
Domain Functions
Tasks
Operational
Tactical
Controlling the vehicle (, Thinking about best
practice (, overtaking,
speed, road following,
giving way to other
changing gears)
vehicles, obeying traffic
rules)
Personal Safety
Management
Passive Protection
Anticipation
Defensive Riding
Blind Spot
Motorcycle Control &
Maneuverability
Situation Awareness
Situation Awareness,
Visual, Nasal & Aural,
assess potential
dangers, Observe other
road users to anticipate
their actions (front
wheel, rear view mirror).
Use engine noise to
judge own speed
(observing
speedometer detracts
from visual
observation). Watch for
road surface elements
that jeopardize bike
stability. Maintain
awareness of general
traffic speed. Check
mirror for danger from
rear while stationary &
for safety distance
behind while moving.
Lane Splitting, Know
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
Strategic
Thinking about how to
satisfy values (,
planning journey,
selecting mode of
transport, choosing a
route)
Experience
Lessons learned
Anticipation
Mitigate Time Stress,
Plan to ensure plenty of
Is now better and
time to get to where he
anticipating the erratic
needs to go.
behavior of other road
users but is still not as
Adapt flexibly to
situation rather than set sensitive as she would
like to be to some of the
a schedule, use
possibilities
phones to connect to
the Web to find a hotel,
Signaling Intent, Being
For scheduled
Visible, Still need to
commitment, manage
think about activating
Attention Management, time & then phone if
the brake light when
late
Avoid use of phone,
slowing down
iPod, motorcycle to
Maintain Alertness,
motorcycle
Dangers of engineered
Remains focused, does
communication system,
road surface features,
not complain to other
Experience, recognize
Has experienced
drivers when they do
the difficulty of
incidents. Was not hurt
something wrong,
concurrently managing
because he was
Avoid effects of alcohol
a conversation and
wearing safety
by not drinking or by
attending to the
equipment.
use of taxi
environment
Emergency Stop, On
Maintain Motorcycle,
Speed Management,
motorway, he focused
Risk Management,
Recognize own
vulnerability. Check
distance front & (with
mirror) behind. Identify
challenging conditions.
Watch for undisciplined
behavior of other road
users. Reduce risk by
positioning relative to
cars
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regulations, use
caution, experience
Signaling Intent, Being
Visible & Predictable,
Brake lights warn
drivers behind, Brake
normally, Stand up on
bike.
Anticipate trip demands Visual Inspection,
Contact Maintenance
Managing Wind Gusts,
Shop
Be aware of places that
pose danger & pay
attention
Hit from behind at a
light, now checks, has
escaped from that two
or three times, just
because he has had a
bad feeling.
Braking (Normal,
Emergency),
Experience, training,
knowledge
Time Management
Negotiation through
Traffic
Travel Time
Ease of Passage
through Traffic, Look for
opportunities to split
lanes or drive on the
safety shoulder. Use
horn to warn cars if they
do not give her space.
on the red light and
refocused on the space
between cars and that
is where he stopped,
but past the line of the
rear of the cars.
Ease of Passage
through Traffic, Knows
traffic regulations but
will violate selected
regulations.
Judgment
Better at judging gaps
between cars for lane
splitting, Better at
controlling speed sound
of the engine.
Control
Better control of the
bike. Still need to think
about activating the
brake light when
slowing down.
Commuting, Touring
Work, Business
Pleasure
Constant Availability
Pleasurable
Experiences, Visual &
Olfactory observation
Judgment, Visual
Observation &
Attention, Experience
Pleasurable
Experiences, Visual,
aural & olfactory
sensations of public
transport are
depressing.
Navigation
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
Weather Assessment,
Planning, Better at
Checks weather to
navigating and route
ensure she does not get planning.
stuck at the destination
(unspecified source).
Planning, Prepares &
memorizes route
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Moderate Skill,
Experience
High-Level Skill,
Practice & competition,
off-road circuit
Road System Oversight Behavioral Control
Traffic Management
Taxes
Social Interaction
Warning
Acknowledgement
Knowledge Sharing
Experiential Sharing
Navigation system
(unspecified resources).
Touring Information
Map (but stop to consult
it, do not consult while Unspecified
driving)
Distinguish motorcycles Legislation,
from cars, Lights.
Accommodate needs
and vulnerabilities of
Warnings, Motorcycle
motorcycles.
brake light, on
automatically when
Road Laws, Safety
slowing down.
Equipment, Taxes,
Legislative lobbying
Acknowledgement,
Hand & leg signaling
Community Spirit,
Unspecified means of
community solidarity,
possibly via gratifying or
challenging but implicit
shared experiences
restricted to a relatively
small segment of the
population.
Experiential Sharing,
Rides with spouse or
friends weekends, Club
meetings, roadside
convocations
Knowledge Sharing,
Outreach club days
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Personal Engagement
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Experiential Salience
Self Image
Pleasurable
Experiences, Open the
helmet visor when
riding in the country to
enjoy the experience
more.
Pleasurable
Experiences, Slow
down, enjoy the
experience when riding
a pleasure.
Pleasurable
Experiences, Plan
ahead, avoid stress
Self Image, Display the
biker image (means
unspecified).
Time Management, For
putting on & removing
gear, Decide whether
length of trips warrants
use of air bag
Comfort Management,
Decide when air bag is
too hot, do not use on
short trips
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In practical application, the Transactions Docket is examined to assess how riders gather the
information or knowledge that is essential for execution of the activities tabled in the Work Task
Docket. For example, to continue with the lane splitting illustration, we see that riders know the traffic
regulations and are prepared to violate them to hear about each. They look for opportunities to split
lanes and may warn car drivers to give them space to do so.
Unsurprisingly, it is evident that legislation does not have the desired effect on behaviour. These
observations suggest that there is little to be gained from educational programs that focus on road
laws related to lane splitting. Given that our rider sample was concerned about safety management,
an educational program that focused on the dangers of lane splitting is likely to be more effective if,
indeed, lane splitting is a dangerous activity. There is, however, a suggestion in these data that it is
not and if that is true, an educational program based on the false presumption that it is, would likely
fail.
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4. Discussion and recommendations
The aim of the research reported here was to use Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) to identify factors
that impose constraints on motorcycle rider behaviour within the road transport system and to use this
information to develop options for injury countermeasures to enhance motorcycle and scooter rider
safety, including options for research.
Within the framework of CWA, an interview guide was developed to elicit relevant knowledge from
motorcycle and scooter riders. Using the interview guide, 31 riders were interviewed, alone or in pairs,
in a series of videotaped interviews conducted in 3 countries – France (Paris), Austria (Vienna) and
Australia (Melbourne). The interviews were conducted in English, and the information extracted from
the transcripts was analyzed using the framework of CWA.
In the final chapter of this report, the key themes deriving from the Work Task Dockets are discussed,
some options for injury countermeasures are presented, and some final conclusions are drawn.
4.1. Key Themes from Work Task Dockets
As noted previously, Work Task Dockets were derived for all the interviews conducted in Paris, Vienna
and Melbourne. It was not possible to incorporate into the Work Task Docket shown in Figure 5 all of
the data generated from these interviews. Instead, a series of 24 tables was generated, each of which
corresponds to one of the cells in the Work Task Docket in Figure 5.
These tables appear as Appendices 7 to 12 in this report and combine the data from all of the
remaining interviews. For example, the four tables in Appendix 7 (“Personal Safety Management”)
correspond to the four cells in the upper row of the Work Task Docket in Figure 5. The four tables in
Appendix 12 (“Personal Engagement”) correspond to the four cells in the bottom row of the Work Task
Docket in Figure 5. It is from these 24 tables that options for injury prevention countermeasures were
derived. These are presented in the final section of this report.
The tables in Appendices 7 to 12 are rich in information. It is possible, however, to distil from them, for
each of the Domain Values, some key themes which emerged during the interviews. These are
presented below.
4.1.1. Personal Safety Management (Appendix 7)
Personal safety management is the Domain Function relating to riders’ responsibility for the
management of their own safety. It supports the following sub-functions: passive protection,
anticipation, defensive riding, blind spots, motorcycle control and manoeuvrability, and situation
awareness (see the glossary for definitions of these sub-functions). Several key themes emerged from
the Work Task Dockets.
Safety, and particularly the vulnerability of motorcycle riders, was generally a big issue for riders.
Consequently, it generated a lot of discussion. Everyone was concerned with safety and took explicit
responsibility for their own safety. The following are the key themes emerging from the Work Task
Dockets.
Experienced riders are well aware of those things which signal danger, and have strategies for
anticipating, avoiding and responding to danger. These vary according to the source of the danger and
the situation. Even when they come off their bike, experienced riders have strategies for mitigating
risk.
The strategies used by experienced riders to keep safe, although generally similar, do vary slightly
from rider to rider. Particularly for riders who had no training when they started riding, there is a sense
of having “no markers” against which to compare how they should be doing things. Perhaps this
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implies a need for best practice performance standards against which riders can be assessed for
training and testing purposes. Even some experienced riders commented that they are unsure how
they would react to a situation requiring an emergency manoeuvre, because they had never been in a
situation where they had to do so.
Almost all riders interviewed were also car drivers, and all agreed that controlling a motorcycle is more
difficult than controlling a car. Riders have different strategies for controlling the vehicle depending on
the task and the situation.
All riders agreed that riding a motorcycle or scooter requires more physical and mental effort than
driving a car, and is more tiring.
Riders are engaged in enhancing their situation awareness almost continuously as they ride, and have
strategies for doing so. They are particularly concerned with anticipating the behaviour of other road
users, and looking out for road features that could cause them to fall or injure them if struck.
Riders recognize that they are “invisible” to other road users. Hence, they are very concerned about
the situation awareness of other road users. Riders try to be predictable to other road users so that the
situation awareness of those road users in relation to them is enhanced. They are always looking for a
safe place to be, with a good escape route.
Interestingly, whilst riders believe they are invisible to other ride users, they believe that they are
visible to other riders.
Riders are very concerned when road users, because of distraction, drowsiness or some other
adverse state (e.g. a dirty or misted windscreen), behave less predictably and are even less likely to
notice them. Distracted road users are of particular concern to them, and most riders are well aware
that their own preoccupation with distracting activities can damage their own situation awareness.
Riders use all of their senses (sight, hearing, smell, feel) to “collect” and correlate information from
their environment about what is going on around them. They speak of reacting to danger without even
consciously realizing they have sensed it.
Riders feel that they are constantly learning new things as they ride, and recognize the need to
maintain and improve their riding skills in order to remain safe. They recognize, however, that some of
these skills cannot be honed safely within the normal traffic environment.
Riders who ride scooters as well as much larger motorcycles feel that they have better control of larger
machines by virtue of the greater power and better braking ability of larger machines in avoiding
problems.
Most riders believe that road users don’t understand each other and the reasons why they behave the
way they do. They feel that it is important that other road users understand where they are coming
from as riders, and why they behave as they do.
Riders believe it is important to learn from their mistakes. It is not uncommon for riders to take time out
after an incident or near-miss to self-reflect on what they could have done to avoid it.
Riders seem well aware of the importance of being fit to ride. As riders, they are more concerned than
are car drivers about the consequences of being drowsy, fatigued, distracted and inebriated before or
during a journey.
Riders tend to plan their journeys more carefully than car drivers, taking into account a far wider range
of factors.
Many riders break road rules (e.g. lane-split, use bus lanes, exceed speed limits) in certain situations
because they perceive that, in doing so, it enhances their safety.
Riders seem to appreciate the need to be well-calibrated in order to ride safely. To go safely around a
corner, for example, they understand that this requires knowledge of the demands of the corner, of
their own limits, and of the limits of the bike.
Many riders feel there is little financial incentive for them to buy good protective equipment. There is
mixed appreciation of the potential benefits of advanced rider assistance systems (e.g. ABS, linked
brakes) in enhancing their safety.
Riders seem more aware than as car drivers of the need to service and maintain their machines so
they are fit to be ridden.
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Most riders ride differently with passengers, generally more carefully, although not all demonstrate an
awareness of the need to provide protective gear for the passengers they carry. Some riders reported,
when younger, feeling pressured by pillion passengers to engage in risky behaviours.
Car drivers are often oblivious to things they do which threaten the safety of motorcycle and scooter
riders.
There is unanimous agreement among riders that car drivers who are also riders are better drivers
than those who are not also riders, and that these car drivers interact better with riders and other road
users.
Most experienced riders were able to articulate what they had learned through experience. Table 6,
below, summarises this information. It is likely that many of these hallmarks of expertise are amenable
to education and training.
Table 6: Self-reported qualities of experienced motorcycle and scooter riders
•
they control their bike better
•
they are better car drivers than drivers who don’t ride motorcycles
•
they learn from their mistakes, and those of others
•
they let speedsters pass them
•
they know who around them is dangerous
•
they keep out of peoples’ way
•
they are more aware of their speed and speed limits
•
they know not to rush
•
they stay calm
•
they are wary of the others’ fitness to drive when others are distracted
•
they are more cautious
•
they are better at making themselves more predictable to others
•
they are better at collecting information using all of their senses
•
they know their own limits better
•
they are aware of their own fitness to ride if tired,
•
they can apply their skills in different and novel situations
•
they know their bike, it’s limits, and what they can do with it
•
they are better at adapting their speed to riding conditions
•
they are better at anticipating the actions of others
•
they are better at making themselves more visible to others
•
they know what is dangerous and what is not – and relative dangers
•
they know better how to avoid danger
•
they know better how to respond to danger
•
they know what to do when they come off their bike
•
they know what to do if a crash with an obstacle is unavoidable
•
they know their escape routes, at all times
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•
they are better at remembering what they have learnt, and using it
•
they stay as far away as possible from other vehicles
•
they know better the consequences of what they do
•
they pay more attention to traffic than to vehicle control
•
they pay more attention to riding
•
they behave more decisively
•
they ride regularly to maintain their skills
•
they realise that the trickiest situations are the ones that cannot be
predicted
•
they ride only in a fit state in which they can concentrate; and
•
they can sense, even without realising it, when something is wrong
4.1.2. Time Management (Appendix 8)
Time management is the Domain Function relating to the rider remaining cognizant of the time
required to travel in relation to required time of arrival at the destination. It is supported by the subfunctions negotiation through traffic and travel time (see the glossary for definitions of these subfunctions). Several key themes emerged from the Work Task Dockets.
Almost all of the riders stressed the value of time savings and occasionally gave the impression that
what was important for them in using their motorcycle was not actually the savings in time but rather
the avoidance of having to sit and wait for long and frustrating periods of time in stalled traffic. The
following are the key themes emerging from the Work Task Dockets.
Most of the riders interviewed split lanes (drive through lanes of traffic when traffic is moving;
especially when in a hurry or feeling angry/aggressive), lane filter (move through lanes of traffic when
traffic is still, or almost still), and use bus lanes and safety shoulders to save time. In France, Austria
and Australia, these are illegal activities. Riders do it not just to save time, but also for safety reasons.
Most agree that it is safer to be in front of traffic than within it, and being in front makes them visible;
and there are situations where, if they can’t lane split, they will be more likely to get hit because they
can’t get out of the way. To lane split, riders believe they need to exceed the speed limit.
Many riders commented that on a motorcycle it is particularly difficult to monitor vehicle speed and the
road at the same time, as this requires them to divert their eyes from the road to see the speedometer
whilst engaged almost continuously in enhancing their situation awareness and trying to maintain the
situation awareness of others. It was noted that it is easier to speed when riding big bikes and smaller
bikes with high power-to-weight ratios.
Many riders admitted that they break traffic rules more often on a motorcycle than in a car. Overtaking
on unbroken lines and exceeding the speed limit are the rules reportedly broken most often.
Many riders reportedly plan their trip purposively in order to avoid the need to speed, manage time,
and avoid being in hurry or becoming stressed.
4.1.3. Commuting, Touring (Appendix 9)
Commuting and Touring is the Domain Function relating to the use of the motorcycle for commuting
and recreational touring. It is supported by the sub-functions work/business, pleasure and constant
availability (see the glossary for definitions of these sub-functions). Several key themes emerged from
the Work Task Dockets.
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Most of the riders used their motorcycle mainly to commute to work, a few mainly for recreational
touring. However, even those who used their motorcycle mainly for work cited pleasure as an
additional reason for using it to commute.
There are various reasons why riders choose to ride rather than take alternative transport options: a
motorcycle will reliably get you to where you want to go on time; public transport is perceived to be too
expensive, too crowded, inconvenient, depressing, time-consuming or doesn’t take you where you
want to go; parking is available, cheaper, or free; and it’s easier to find a way out of traffic congestion
on a bike than in a car.
Possible downsides of using a motorcycle for commuting and touring are the high insurance cost for
motorcycles and the inconvenience of having to put protective clothing on and off when it has to be
worn over a suit and tie. Several riders acknowledged that riding can be tiring, and that depending on
the ride, they may arrive at their destination feeling quite tired.
Riders use, to varying degrees, a range of strategies to plan and undertake their trips for commuting
and touring purposes: they plan refuelling and rest stops; some use satellite navigation to find their
way while others memorise the route and consult maps along the way; they park their bikes carefully;
they use technology to identify areas with congested routes and bad weather; they avoid routes with
gravel roads and road works; and they carry spare fuel if necessary.
Riders will often take unfamiliar routes, on the spur of the moment, to enhance their enjoyment of
riding. They are far less likely to do so in a car.
Several riders commented that off-road activities had improved their handling skills.
4.1.4. Road System Oversight (Appendix 10)
Road System Oversight is the Domain Function that relates to government functions, such as
legislation, police enforcement and road maintenance and design which act as constraints for riders. It
is supported by the sub-functions behavioural control, traffic management, and taxes (see the glossary
for definitions of these sub-functions). The following key themes emerged from the Work Task
Dockets.
Several riders commented that, when they drive a car, they think a lot about road laws; but when on a
bike, they think more about safety.
A few riders commented that it is easier to break traffic rules on a motorcycle, because it is more
manoeuvrable. Some riders felt that speeding-related laws, in particular, are designed for cars, not
motorcycles.
Almost all riders believed that lane-splitting and lane filtering should be legalised, and that laws
relating to the use of service lanes should be the same for bicycles and motorcycles.
Riders identified a wide range of road infrastructure and road surface-related risks that threaten, or
have potential to threaten, their safety. These are summarised later in the report.
Several items of vehicle equipment were identified as being beneficial in enhancing rider safety, which
are identified later in the report.
Many riders believe that rider training courses (basic and advanced), and protective gear are too
expensive, and should be subsidized in some way, perhaps through reduced insurance premiums and
tax rebates.
A strong theme throughout the interviews was the belief that off-road training is beneficial for
developing and maintaining riding skills, particularly vehicle handling skills. It was noted that in some
countries ( Australia) riders are not covered by insurance when they do an advanced rider training
course, which discourages participation.
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4.1.5. Social Interaction (Appendix 11)
Social Interaction is the Domain Function that relates to interactions among motorcycles, and to
interactions between motorcycle riders and other road users. Social interaction supports the following
sub-functions: warning, acknowledgement, knowledge sharing, and experiential sharing (see glossary
for definitions of these sub-functions). Several key themes emerged from the Work Task Dockets.
Riders communicate in various ways with other road users. Most believe that to maintain situation
awareness it is important to maintain eye contact with other road users, particularly with car drivers.
Various warning signals are used by riders: warning lights at night or in the rain so that others can see
them coming; the horn to warn drivers to open a space; the brake light to show that s/he is slowing
down; a flashing headlight to signal that there is a Police speed radar close by. Several riders noted
that existing horns for motorcycles are not loud enough to be effective. Many riders noted their
concern that drivers rarely use turn signals, especially at roundabouts (which could cut them off).
Riders share knowledge in different ways: they use the “rude finger” when their safety is compromised;
they flash their headlights if they want to pass someone in front who doesn’t realize they want to pass;
they knock on side of a car if the driver of that car has been discourteous; and they use head nods to
signal right of way.
To provide acknowledgement, riders use fewer signals: the thumbs up or leg out to show appreciation;
and the hand to acknowledge other riders as they pass.
Riders also communicate in other ways with road users: some occasionally use helmet-to-helmet
communication devices; some reportedly render assistance to riders in need; riders occasionally chat
with other riders at traffic lights; they use their leg to signal riders behind to overtake; and riders
reportedly point with their hands to hazards ahead for the benefit of following riders.
As noted elsewhere in the report, riders share safety-related and other traffic experiences. One rider
mentioned, for example, that he had been told by a friend a technique for avoiding a collision without
falling, which he used successfully to avoid a crash.
All in our sample spoke of the freedom of riding and many spoke of motorcyclists as a community.
They watch out for each other. There is a code and community spirit. Riders speak to and interact with
other riders they often do not know, in a way that seems somewhat unusual to other road users.
Organised rides, club meetings and roadside convocations are common. In countries where there is a
bike culture, some riders believe there is more awareness of bikes on the road, and less aggression
towards motorcyclists.
There is a perception by some scooter riders that motorcycle riders “look down” on them. There
appears to be less communication between scooter and motorcycle riders than between riders of the
same vehicle types.
The peripherique in Paris appears to represent the closet thing yet to best practice communication
between riders and other road users. As one Parisian rider said: “the safest heavy traffic” is in Paris,
on the peripherique, because car drivers “take care of the bikers because they have the habit to deal
with them”. Several riders also felt that truck drivers, by virtue of their own difficulties in maintaining
situational awareness because of blind spots and other factors, are more aware of the presence of
motorcycle riders than they are of car drivers.
4.1.6. Personal Engagement (Appendix 12)
Personal engagement is the Domain Function that relates to the experience of motorcycling as being
more intense than the experience of riding a car. Personal engagement supports the following subfunctions: experiential salience and self image (see glossary for definitions of these sub-functions).
Several key themes emerged from the Work Task Dockets.
Riders spoke of the enjoyment associated with not being cocooned inside a car and being able to
have all of their senses stimulated when riding their motorcycles. They identified many things salient to
them about riding: freedom; the power of the bike; the adrenalin rush on windy roads; a heightened
sense of awareness; sounds and smells; the feel of the wind; the relatively unobstructed vision; the
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forces transmitted through the bike; the serenity of riding and the feeling of being alone; a sense of
focus, free of distractions; the connection to the vehicle, akin to riding a horse; the feeling they get
when they ride the bike well; and the challenge of “overcoming the things that are thrown at you”.
Very few riders noted things that can suppress the salience of riding. Those things mentioned were
windy weather, the noise of the bike, assistance from advanced rider assistance systems that “kill” the
pleasure of riding and prevent you from discovering the limits of the bike, getting wet, falling off, hitting
something, and the Traffic Police
There is a perception, at least in France and Austria, that the smaller a scooter is, the more aggressive
is the rider. Motorcycle riders seem more prone to communicating with other riders than with scooter
riders. One motorcycle rider in Europe said he would render assistance to another motorcycle rider,
but not to a scooter rider.
Riders generally find the biker image attractive, although several noted that the public does not
generally share this view.
4.2. Recommendations
The aim of this project was to distil from the representational outputs of the CWA some options for
injury countermeasures, including research options.
For the sake of simplicity, and to package the countermeasure options in a manner familiar to
governments, road safety authorities and designers, the options have been assembled under the
following general categories: research; legislation; Police enforcement; licensing (including license
testing); training; education; vehicle design (motorcycle and car); technology design (, satellite
navigation); road design; and promotion/advertising.
Converting the outputs of the CWA into countermeasure options was a fairly straightforward process:
the authors reviewed all of the Work Task Docket entries in the tables in Appendices 7 to 12 and
extracted from them information that was judged to be relevant to each of the countermeasure
categories described above. Given that the aim of the project was to derive countermeasure options to
enhance rider safety, most of the recommendations derive from the Work Task Dockets relating to the
domain value Personal Safety Management.
The following options for countermeasure development were distilled from the interviews with the
riders. To this point, the project has focused entirely on user opinions and has not taken into account
the wider system focus that would be derived from tapping the opinions of other stakeholders in the
system and also from assessing more comprehensively the functional structure of the system. This
wider system focus is one of the hallmarks of Cognitive Work Analysis and it is essential, in such a
complex and diverse socio-technical system as road traffic, to gather data that provides that wider
system view. It is normal in the conduct of Cognitive Work Analysis to validate the data that has been
collected from one source against other sources of data and to explore the work domain from the
perspectives of other stakeholders. This could not be done within this study; it will occur later in the 2BE-SAFE project, in Work Package 6, in which the full range of recommendations deriving from the
research program will reviewed, scrutinised and prioritised.
Additionally, the counter measures that emerge from this more complete analysis will be cross
checked against recommendations for injury countermeasures derived from the more standard
evidence-based strategies (Johnston, 2006). It is to be expected that there will be considerable
overlap but that the comprehensive systems perspective taken by Cognitive Work Analysis will
generate additional recommendations for countermeasures that do not emerge from the evidencebased strategy approach.
It should be noted that the views and opinions reported here are taken from a small and generally
unrepresentative sample of this road user group. Nevertheless, the experienced motorcyclists
interviewed were experts in their “work” domain, and the options presented here, which remain to be
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validated with reference to the extant road safety literature, are based on their expert opinion and
experiences as regular users of the road transport system. It is acknowledged that some of the options
may already exist as implemented countermeasures.
Finally, we stated early in the report that of the two major cognitive systems engineering frameworks
available to us, we chose Cognitive Work Analysis in preference to cognitive task analysis because it
offers a more comprehensive systems perspective. Nevertheless, cognitive task analysis has
considerable strength in its data collection and design methods and we would normally prefer to
integrate the two frameworks. Unfortunately, the resources available for this project did not permit that,
but there would be considerable benefit in following up this study with one that pursued some of the
more interesting insights with the methods of cognitive task analysis.
4.2.1. Research
Topic
Recommendation
Situation
Awareness
Research to improve the ability of vehicle drivers to notice motorcycle riders.
Situation
Awareness
Research to enhance the ability of riders to make themselves more predictable to
other road users and to evaluate the effectiveness of existing strategies used by
riders to do so reported in this study.
Situation
Awareness
Research on how to sensitize the driving population at large to issues of fitness to
drive (e.g. distraction) as it impacts on the situational awareness of other road
users.
Situation
Awareness
Research to enhance the ability of motorcycle riders to anticipate the actions of
other road users.
Situation
Awareness
Research to better understand riders’ perceived difficulty in monitoring speed while
riding and how to improve their ability to do so.
Conspicuity
Research to improve the design of motorcycle headlamp and tail lamp
configurations, so that motorcycles are more noticeable to other road users.
Rider Culture
Research to gauge public perception of motorcycle riders and how the perception
of motorcycle riders can be improved from the perspective of other road users in
order to improve safe interaction between riders and other road users.
Rider Culture
Research to better understand “bike culture”. What is it? How does it operate? Can
the power of the bike culture be harnessed to optimize rider safety?
Training
Research to identify training needs for riders converting from scooters and small
motorcycles to large motorcycles.
Training
Research to determine how riders can increase their own chances of survival
when they come off a bike or when they have no choice but to collide with a fixed
or moving obstacle.
Training
Research to:
a) quantify the effectiveness of basic and advanced rider training;
b) determine whether there are any negative outcomes associated with
advanced rider training over-estimation of skill, increased exposure to
risk.
c) Identify training needs that are not addressed in current ab initio and
advanced rider training course.
Training
Research on the existing strategies used by drivers on the “peripherique” in Paris
to optimize interactions with motorcycle riders.
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Training
Research to establish the potential benefits, and possible disbenefits, if any, of offroad experience in improving rider behaviour, performance and safety.
Vehicle
Design
Research on how assistance from advanced rider assistance systems can be
designed in a way that is acceptable to riders - so that it makes the rider safer
without “killing the pleasure” of riding.
Vehicle
Design
Research to optimize the ergonomic design and placement of displays and
controls accessible to motorcycle riders who must keep both hands on the
handlebars.
Data Analysis
Research to confirm whether car drivers who ride motorcycles are safer than those
who do not, and have less crashes with motorcycle riders. This could have benefits
for the education and training of riders and car drivers.
4.2.2. Legislation
Topic
Recommendation
Protective
equipment
Provide incentives for riders to wear protective equipment
equipment from 20% to 5.5%.
reduce VAT on
Lane use
Consider legalising lane splitting, lane filtering and use by motorcycle riders of
safety shoulders.
Rider
Training
Consider providing access to training courses, run by the Police, which are
perceived by riders as being very good.
Rider training
Make rider training more affordable, perhaps by providing insurance discounts for
those who elect to be trained. Currently, it is expensive, at least in France.
Speeding
Attaching a front number plate to motorcycles is likely to be effective in reducing
motorcycle speed if this means that riders are detected by speed cameras.
Rider
Training
Riders should not have riding lessons without wearing a helmet and other
protective equipment. Some riding schools do not care about this.
Off-road
riding
facilities
Consider providing designated places for riders to practice manoeuvres that
cannot be safely practiced on roads.
Off-road
riding
facilities
Consider building off-road racing facilities, which may reduce the temptation by
some riders to speed on normal roads.
4.2.3. Police Enforcement
Topic
Recommendation
Traffic laws
for drivers
Consider more stringent Police enforcement of those regulations pertaining to
other road users that have safety-critical implications for rider safety e.g. following
motorcycles too closely; failing to indicate.
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4.2.4. Licensing (including Licence Testing)
Topic
Licence for
scooters
Recommendation
Mandate more training for drivers who get a scooter licence.
4.2.5. Education and Training
Topic
Recommendation
Car drivers:
Driver
awareness of
rider
constraints
Make car drivers more aware of the challenges faced by motorcycle riders in
interacting with other road users – drivers could be taken for a ride as a
passenger on a motorcycle, to experience car drivers not seeing them, etc
Driver
awareness of
their role in
crashes
Make drivers aware that they are more responsible than riders for crashes with
riders, and why.
Driver
awareness of
riders
Train car drivers in how to safely interact with motorcycle riders, in order to reduce
risks to motorcycle riders e.g. where to look for them; keeping them out of blind
spots; listening for them; more frequent use of own turn signals; adopting longer
following distances; opening doors carefully; looking to both sides before changing
lanes; positioning car where it won’t endanger the motorcycle rider; etc
Driver
awareness of
risks they
create for
motorcyclists
Make drivers aware of risks they create for motorcyclists to which they are
oblivious opening driver doors on narrow streets; failing to use turn signals; using
mobile phones; failing to look to their sides.
Driver
awareness of
rider
constraints
Make drivers aware of the reasons why motorcycle riders do the things they do,
Why they lane split; why they move in front of cars at red lights. etc.
Driver
awareness of
riders
Make car drivers aware of signals used by riders to communicate with them so that
they understand them and do not mistake them for aggressive behaviours.
Driver
awareness of
riders
Make drivers more aware of motorcycle riders increase their level of skill level in
knowing when and where to look out for and identify motorcycle riders.
Driver
awareness of
motorcycle
capabilities
Make drivers aware of the agility and dynamic capabilities of motorcycles, so they
are better able to anticipate their movements in traffic.
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Motorcycle and Scooter Riders:
Rider
awareness of
capabilities of
motorcycles
and scooters
Make riders aware of how easy it is to break traffic rules, because of the power
and maneuverability of the bike.
M/C security
Give riders advice on protecting the security of the bike to ensure their safety e.g.
best way to park the bike; damage or theft to helmets left on bike; etc.
Knowledge
sharing
Support venues at which riders are able to share stories and practical experiences
that make them safer.
Skill
maintenance
Provide refresher training for riders who take up riding again after a long period of
abstinence, especially those who resume on much larger motorcycles.
Skill training
Provide training that allows riders to apply their training in a broad range of
situations and contexts. Simulation may be an appropriate training medium for this
purpose.
Learning
limits of bike
Develop training programs that accelerate the rate at which riders become aware
of the limits of their bike, and how it behaves, and improve the natural “coupling”
between rider and bike.
Fitness to
ride
Make riders aware of critical fitness to drive issues and their effect on riding
performance – physical strength, and how to develop it; drowsiness; distraction;
alcohol; fatigue; ageing.
M/C
maintenance
Make riders aware of things most critical to maintain on bike on a regular basis.
M/C
adjustment
Provide riders with training in how to adjust levers and controls to optimize physical
efficiency for the individual.
Self-reflection
Provide riders with strategies for self-reflecting and learning from accidents and
incidents.
Crash
training
Train riders in what to do when an obstacle cannot be physically avoided “grab
tight on handle bars – to catapult yourself over the object rather than hitting it.”
Social
interaction
Develop strategies for riding with other riders to optimise safety e.g. riding tandem
to “keep lane dominated”.
Pre-Crash
training
Train riders in what to do when they come off the bike. how to steer their body to
avoid obstacles.
Decision
making
Train riders in how to prioritise attention. on highways there is less traffic, so they
can give more attention to other things like the road surface.
Vehicle
control
Make riders aware of factors that increase stopping distances e.g. at road works,
in the wet, around potholes, when there are lots of line markings.
Rider
awareness of
capabilities of
others
Make riders aware of limitations of other vehicles and drivers and how this may
compromise their safety e.g. cars behind them cannot brake as quickly as them;
blind spots; trucks turning wide around corners etc.
Conversion
training
Provide conversion training for riders who transfer from scooters to large bikes
which behave differently, and have more advanced safety systems.
Fitness to
ride
Make riders aware of the relatively greater physical and mental effort required to
ride a motorcycle than to drive a car, and provide strategies for minimising physical
and mental effort e.g. optimal riding postures
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Refresher
training
Provide riders with follow-up training to hone critical skills that are rarely used e.g.
emergency braking; emergency manoeuvring. Perhaps in a simulator environment.
Situation
Awareness
Train riders in how to enhance their situational awareness of the traffic
environment
•
Checking mirrors.
•
Being aware of what the car in front is doing.
•
Head checks.
•
Being aware of what other vehicles are doing.
•
Looking at brake lights of vehicles ahead.
•
Monitoring speed.
•
Looking way ahead of vehicle in front.
•
Knowing proximity to vehicle ahead when waiting for gaps in traffic.
•
Staying upright on bike around corners to optimize vision.
•
Picking safe places to be in traffic.
•
Knowing escape routes.
•
Use of multiple sensory modalities (vision, hearing, smell etc) to anticipate
danger.
•
Knowing cues and signals that can be used to anticipate the behaviours of
other road users e.g. turning wheels; drivers’ eyes looking at them/others
in side mirror; driver on mobile phone; where the driver is looking;
indicators; how car is moving; car not behaving normally; etc
•
Knowing cues and signals that can be used to anticipate situations and
events that might compromise rider safety e.g. trees ahead blowing hard in
the wind
•
Knowing cues and signals that can be used to anticipate road surface
treatments that might compromise safety e.g. the smell of a diesel spill in
the wind; the “bluey” look of diesel on wet road; the smell of freshly cut
grass nearby
Situation
Awareness
Train riders in how to be predictable to other road users so that the situational
awareness of other road users in relation to them is enhanced. e.g. by standing up
on the motorcycle; riding with headlamps on; activating the brake light when
slowing down; making sure indicators are off after turning; using hazard lights
when lane splitting; passing drivers on the left rather than on the right side; riding
in the wheel track of car in front so bike headlight can be seen in driver’s side
mirror; moving around a lot in rider’s lane; etc
Situation
Awareness
Consider training riders in how to split lanes, given that most riders do it e.g.
appropriate speeds at which to do so relative to ambient traffic; assessing
distances between cars; looking where you want to go through the traffic, and
going through it etc
Situation
Awareness
Make riders aware of situations which compromise their ability to anticipate the
behaviour of car drivers (e.g. drivers on mobile phones, Police radar areas, etc.) and how to respond in these situations (e.g. triple safety distances)
Situation
awareness
Train riders in how to change their riding style in heavy traffic to be better prepared
to anticipate and respond to the behaviour of other road users.
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Make riders aware of key risks which may compromise their safety, and how to
manage them –
Invisibility:
•
can’t be seen by others (especially by trucks)
Behaviour of others:
•
cars stopping in front unexpectedly (e.g. around Police cameras)
•
cars entering lane unexpectedly
•
vehicles behind, especially impatient ones
•
cars ahead slowing suddenly in bends
•
wind from large vehicles passing quickly
•
vehicles passing too close
•
foreign drivers unfamiliar with traffic conditions
•
vehicles cutting corners
•
vehicles suddenly turning left or right in front
•
vehicles not using indicators
•
vehicles not stopping at intersections, especially in very early morning
•
doors opening from parked cars
•
burning cigarette butts thrown out of cars
•
others driving in unfit state e.g. distracted, fatigued, inebriated, especially
at night
•
unaware pedestrians (e.g. when distracted)
Road surface features:
•
tram tracks
•
oil on road after light rain;
•
slippery surface paints;
•
smooth pavements;
•
raked gravel surfaces;
•
vertical height differences at the junction of road lanes;
•
metal plates on bridges that act as dilation buffers;
•
road signs placed too close to the road edge;
•
oil and fuel spills;
•
wet bark;
•
wet leaves;
•
pot holes;
•
holes with oil
•
metal pothole covers
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•
duct covers
•
reflective “cats eyes” on the road
•
dirt and mud on country roads
•
infrastructure close to roadside
•
waste and loads fallen from trucks, especially on country roads
Weather conditions:
•
heavy rain
•
being cold, which is distracting
•
snow
•
ice
•
fog
•
riding into the sun
•
strong wind
•
light dirty rain
•
oily spray from vehicles ahead
•
dust in eyes
Rider state:
•
inebriated (alcohol)
•
drugged
•
fatigued
•
distracted
•
cornering too quickly
•
Times of day
•
darkness
•
days of week when most dangerous to ride
Other:
•
animals on country roads (e.g. deer)
•
insects in helmet
Situation
Awareness
Make riders aware of cues and signals than can be used to optimise vehicle
control e.g. engine sound to adapt speed; upward feel of pedals when leaning too
hard; etc
Situation
Awareness
Make riders aware of vehicle and occupant types that pose danger because they
are perceived to drive erratically certain vehicle makes, taxis, foreign licence
plates, van drivers, pizza delivery scooters, drivers wearing berets, etc.
Vehicle
control in
emergencies
Train riders in how to respond in emergency situations in response to
unpredictable events, in real contexts; and in vehicle positioning to facilitate
emergency manoeuvres ( move back from a car and to the side of the lane so will
have somewhere to go).
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Vehicle
control
Train drivers to control the motorcycle: in vehicle control: gear selection; choice of
appropriate responses in emergency situations; counter steering to negotiate
curves; strategies for negotiating curves ( cues that rider is leaning too far);
strategies for negotiating different curves (left, right, tight, long, blind); braking in
normal situations, with and without brakes; braking in emergency situations;
braking with and without advanced braking systems; adapting speed to different
situations; maintaining stability ( when riding on slippery surfaces); weight
distribution; riding at low speed; riding with passengers of different ages and sizes;
riding with boxes, panniers, side-cars etc
Workload
Provide riders with strategies for reducing visual workload using engine sound to
adapt speed in order to reduce speedometer monitoring and enhance visual
observation of potential threats.
Carrying
passengers
Make riders aware of what advice to give passengers when they carry them. wear
protective safety gear; sit close to rider; keep knees close to bike; go with, not
against, the rider; etc
Navigation
Train riders in how to safely navigate, to minimise distraction and rider workload.
Conversion
training
Train riders in how to operate new safety equipment (e.g. ABS brakes). Tailor the
training to address riders’ concerns and possible misbeliefs and false conceptions
about new safety technologies.
Trip Planning
Train riders in safe trip planning e.g. to reduce navigation load; to reduce the need
to speed; to be found more easily in case of an accident (e.g. in the dark); rest
stops; fuel stops; sun glare; weather; road works; etc
Social
interaction
Make riders aware of standard signals that are used to communicate with other
riders (e.g. to thank other road users for courtesies) and the advantages in using
them.
General
expertise
Accelerate, where possible, development of other expert knowledge, skills and
attitudes, identified in Table 6, so that riders: are better car drivers than drivers
who don’t ride motorcycles; learn from their mistakes, and those of others; let
speedsters pass them; know not to rush; stay calm and don’t over-react to
surprises; are more wary of the others’ fitness to drive; are better at collecting
information using all of their senses; know better their own limits; are more aware
of their own fitness to ride; can apply their skills in different and novel situations;
are better at adapting their speed to riding conditions; know what are the relative
dangers; know their escape routes; are better at remembering what they have
learnt, and using it; know better the consequences of what they do; and behave
more decisively; ride regularly to maintain their skills.
4.2.6. Vehicle Design (Motorcycle and Car)
Topic
Recommendation
Motorcycle:
Throttle lock
design
Improve the design of throttle locks which hold the throttle on – they may take time
to disengage in an emergency (NB. This is an Australian recommendation; in
Europe, throttle locks are not allowed according to EU-type approval).
Shock
absorbers
Develop rear shock absorbers that are more adjustable for riding conditions and
individual differences.
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Head and tail
lamp design
Change the design of motorcycle headlamp and tail lamp configurations in order to
improve conspicuity of the PTW.
Horn design
Improve horn design for motorcycles, to make them more audible to car drivers.
Perhaps make them sound like car horns?
Handle grips
control
design
Improve ergonomic design and placement of controls co-located on handle grips
that must be used whilst both hands are on the grips.
Speedometer
design
Improve speedometer design to make it easier for riders to monitor their speed.
Centre of
gravity
Bring the centre of gravity down lower, to keep the bike balanced at a low speed.
Brake design
Improve brake design – an advanced braking system with ABS, for example, is well
regarded by many riders.
Brake light
design
Design motorcycle brake lights that illuminate automatically when bike slowing
down. “(Note. In Europe, however, a brake light which illuminates automatically
when the bike is slowing down is not legal and does not conform with ECERegulation R-53 and the Vienna Convention.)”
Other vehicles:
Vehicle fuel
tank location
Build fuel tank overflow for trucks and cars in Europe on left side of vehicle so that,
if leans at roundabouts on exit from fuel stations, excess gasoline does not escape
onto the road.
4.2.7. Equipment and Technology Design
Topic
Protective
clothing
Recommendation
Design user-friendly protective clothing that is compatible with the requirement for
workers to wear it over business clothes (e.g. suit and tie).
4.2.8. Road and Maintenance Design
Topic
Recommendation
Education
Support outreach days - take road designers and others on the back of a bike to
show them road and infrastructure problems, and explain why.
Road design
On Paris peripherique (ring road), consider having a small narrow coloured lane, like
a coloured bicycle lane, between 3rd and 4th lanes. It is something visual that would
allow bikes to split lanes more safely and act as a constant reminder to car drivers
that there are bikes around.
Road design
Redesign road surfaces that are slippery and become slippery when wet.
Education
Make motorcycle riders part of road design, road audit and road maintenance teams.
Education
Convince politicians of the need to support road design improvements,
recommended by motorcycle riders, which are already acknowledged as necessary
by traffic engineers.
Maintenance
Ensure that roads are “clean” after maintenance work is completed e.g. brush away
or roll away layers of excess gravel after roads have been re-surfaced.
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Education
Make roads designers and traffic engineers aware of the motorcycle rider design
requirements and needs.
Road design
Address “black spots” which are reportedly dangerous for riders e.g. slippery white
surface paints; smooth pavements (e.g. “les paves”, in Paris); raked gravel surfaces;
vertical height differences at the junction of road lanes; metal plates on bridges that
act as dilation buffers; road signs placed too close to the road edge; etc
Infrastructure
design
Improve the design and positioning (on curves) of wire rope barriers. Place barriers
on the exterior of curves, and place an additional barrier at ground level.
Infrastructure
design
Advertising billboards, especially at night, reportedly distract riders. The design and
placement of these could be reviewed.
4.2.9. Promotion/Advertising
Topic
Recommendation/Key Message
Driver
awareness of
their role in
crashes
Make car drivers aware that they are more responsible than riders for crashes
between cars and riders.
Driver
awareness of
rider
constraints
Make car drivers more aware of the challenges faced by motorcycle riders. Make
them aware, in particular, of how invisible riders are to them.
Driver
interaction
with riders
Make car drivers aware of strategies they can use to safely interact with motorcycle
riders, in order to reduce risks to motorcycle riders.
Public
perception of
riders
Improve the public perception of motorcycle riders, which is poor in some countries.
A bad image affects the way that drivers interact with riders in the road.
Rider
awareness of
new
technology
Improve rider awareness of bike features that have demonstrated road safety
benefits – e.g. ABS, linked brakes, sticky tyres etc Break down the misconceptions.
Driver
awareness of
rider
vulnerability
Make drivers more aware of the vulnerability of motorcycle riders.
Rider
awareness of
protective
equipment
Promote good protective equipment for different riding conditions.
Learning
from past
experience
Some motorcyclists viewed their crash experiences and those of others as life
lessons that resulted in them being more safety conscious. Subtle approaches in
conveying this message to riders may be effective.
Driver
awareness of
risks they
create for
motorcyclists
Make car drivers aware of risks they pose to riders to which they are oblivious
talking on mobile phones; failing to use indicators; failing to look both sides when
changing lanes etc
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5. Conclusions
This report has described how Cognitive Work Analysis was used, for the first time, to elicit from
motorcycle and scooter riders expert knowledge about their riding behaviours, and the constraints that
operate to shape those behaviours. The technique was successful in yielding a rich, inter-linked
database of information from which some general conclusions can be drawn.
Riding a motorcycle is a very complex task, arguably more complex than driving a car. From the
perspective of a car driver, it is a bit like driving most of the time in the blind spot of a truck - trying to
continuously anticipate every move of the truck driver while at the same time doing everything possible
to be seen. The riding task is made all the more difficult by the requirement to control an unstable
vehicle on road surfaces that vary from moment to moment in their degree of traction. It is a task that
requires focused attention, in a fit driving state. The amount of education and training required to
legally engage in such a complex activity is extraordinarily low compared to that required to perform
complex activities in other domains such as aviation. Indeed, no rider training, or almost no training, is
required to ride scooters in some countries. It is not at all surprising that riders as a road user group
are relatively over-involved in crashes, in Europe, Australia and elsewhere.
The knowledge derived from the riders interviewed in this study was used to formulate some options
for enhancing the safety of motorcycle and scooter riders. The options are based not on crash or
incident data, but on the expert knowledge of experienced motorcycle riders operating in a variety of
domains. While some directly reflect the opinion of riders, others involve the translation and
categorization of their expert knowledge into recommendations by the authors. In other domains, such
as aviation, in which operators perform complex tasks in high risk environments, it is common to
formulate options for risk and harm minimization that derive, at least in part, from expert opinion.
Striking in road safety, however, is the general lack of communication with end users in designing the
road transport system. This theme came through very strongly in the interviews conducted here. The
recommendations presented in this report have been made without reference to the extant literature
on motorcycle safety, as this was not a requirement of the project. As such, some options for
countermeasures may not be justifiable on moral or scientific grounds. It is possible, for example, that
advanced rider training, like advanced driver training, may for some riders have unintended side
effects, such as encouraging them to become overconfident in their ability and exposing themselves
more to risky situations to test their limits. The recommendations made here will be scrutinised from
this perspective later in the life of the 2-BE-SAFE project.
There is little that can be said about the relationship between the present work and previous research
on this topic, as no research known to the authors has previously used CWA to elicit expert knowledge
from motorcycle riders. As noted earlier in this report, the limited work using CWA that has been done
in the road transport domain relates to car driving, and specifically to the derivation of design
recommendations for advanced driver assistance systems. There is surprisingly little published
literature that reports qualitative research designed to elicit in a structured way the views and expertise
of motorcycle riders, and the authors are aware of only one qualitative study that has attempted to
elicit from riders, using a structured theoretical framework (drawing primarily on the theories of
planned behaviour, identity theory and social identity theory), the kind of information elicited in the
present study. That study, conducted in Queensland Australia by Watson, Tunnicliff, White et al,
(2007), and described earlier in this report, involved the use of focus groups to elicit knowledge about
rider opinions and behaviours relating to safe and risky riding. The themes that emerged from analysis
of their focus groups were strikingly similar, and mostly identical, to those that emerged in the present
study, despite considerable differences in the subject samples and methodologies used. However, the
range of issues revealed in the present study was understandably broader, given that CWA seeks to
develop a comprehensive account of the functional structure of the entire work domain (in this case,
the riding domain) by identifying and locating all important concepts. In addition, the means-end links
in the Abstraction-Decomposition Space provide analytical links between the various constraints,
providing a more structured understanding of the constraints that operate to shape rider behaviour.
Although the sample of riders interviewed in this study was, on the whole, biased towards
experienced, well-educated, middle aged, male motorcycle riders, there was enough heterogeneity
within the sample to derive a database of knowledge from which to derive some countermeasure
options. The sample had some properties which were useful in understanding how riders perform their
activities from multiple perspectives: for example, almost all of the riders were also car drivers; several
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were scooter riders as well motorcycle riders; and many had multiple motives for riding. The sample
was, nevertheless, small and biased, particularly with respect to gender, level of experience, and age.
Hence it is difficult, and probably unwise, to attempt to draw out any differences between particular
sub-samples. There was no attempt to screen the riders on personality, attitudinal and other personal
dimensions. However, on the basis of their responses to the questions posed during the interviews, it
seems that the riders interviewed were mainly responsible riders, with a generally strong safety
culture. In this respect, the sample was also biased.
Further research using CWA, with a more equally stratified sample of riders, is needed to enable
comparisons to be made between rider sub-groups. In the meantime, the data from this study will
provide input to several other work packages within the 2-BE-SAFE research program, and provide a
good starting point for the development of a stratified survey tool that could be used to elicit expert
knowledge from riders on a much wider, and more representative, scale.
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6. REFERENCES
ACEM (2008). Yearbook 2008. Facts and figures on PTWs in Europe. Brussels: ACEM
http://www.acem.eu/media/d_ACEM_yb_08_75492.pdf
Davis, F.D (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information
technology. MIS Quarterly, 13, 185 -204.
ETSC (2008). Vulnerable Riders. Safety implications of motorcycling in the European Union. Brussels:
ETSC
http://www.etsc.eu/documents/ETSC_Vulnerable_riders.pdf
ETSC (2007). Reducing motorcyclist death in Europe. Flash 7. Road Safety Performance Index.
Brussels:ETSC
http://www.etsc.eu/documents/copy_of_copy_of_copy_of_PIN%20Flash%207%20Reducing%20motor
cyclist%20deaths%20in%20Europe.pdf
Hilliard, A. & Jamieson, G. A (2008). Winning solar races with interface design. Ergonomics in design,
Vol 16 (2), pp 6-11.
House of Representatives, Standing Committee on Transport and Regional Services (2004). National
Road
Safety
–
Eyes
on
the
road
ahead.
Australia.
http://www.aph.gov.au/House/committee/trs/roadsafety/report/chap2.pdf
Jansson, A. Olsson, E. & Erlandsson, M. (2006). Bridging the gap between analysis and design:
improving existing driver interfaces with tools from the framework of cognitive work analysis. Cogn
Tech Work, 8, pp 41–49
Johnston, I. (2006). Highway Safety. In Fwa, T.F. (Ed), The Handbook of Highway Engineering. (pp 41 to 4-39). London: CRC Press.
Lintern, Gavan (2009). The Foundations and Pragmatics of Cognitive Work Analysis: A Systematic
Approach to Design of Large-Scale Information Systems. Retrieved April 5, 2009.
http://www.cognitivesystemsdesign.net/Downloads/Foundations
&
Pragmatics
of
CWA
(Lintern2009).pdf
NRSO (2007). Strategic Plan for the Road Safety of Motorcycles and Mopeds. Executive Summary.
http://www.dgt.es/was6/portal/contenidos/documentos/seguridad_vial/planes_seg_vial/sectoriales/plan
_sectorial006.pdf
Rasmussen, J., Pejtersen, A. M. & Goodstein, L. P. (1994). Cognitive systems engineering. New York:
Wiley.
Stoner, H.A., Wiese, E.E. and Lee, J.D. (2003) ‘Applying ecological interface design to the driving
domain: the results of an abstraction hierarchy analysis’, Proceedings of the Human Factorsand
Ergonomics Society 47th Annual Meeting, Santa Monica, CA, pp.444–448.
Vincente, K. M. (1999). Cognitive Work Analysis: Toward safe, productive and healthy computerbased work. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. NJ: USA.
Watson, B, Tunnicliff, D, White, K., Schonfeld, C., & Wishart, D. (2007). Psychological and social
factors influencing motorcycle rider intentions and behaviour. Australian Transport Safety Bureau.
Report No. RSRG 2007-04. Canberra, Australia: ATSB.
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APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW GUIDE
Cognitive Work Analysis of Motorcycle Riding
Interview topics
Introduction:
- Explain the purpose of the study (essentially looking at possibilities for improving safety)
- We will treat anything you say today in confidence, which means that we will not attach anything you
say to your name, although we will be summarizing what several people say and reporting that. Your
name will not appear in the report and the only reason we ask for your name is that we may want to
get back to you to ask for clarification on something.
- We would like you to be candid even regarding something you may be embarrassed about. We are
trying to understand in a systematic way the dangers and challenges motorcycle riders face.
- We will video record this primarily to ensure we get everything you say and can check back on the
video when there is uncertainty. The disks will be erased after the study is completed.
Consent Form:
- Ask participant to complete form
Biographical Data Form:
- Ask participant to complete form
Patterns of Use:
- How many years have you spent riding, how many years driving?
- What do you use a motorcycle for (shopping, travel to work, etc.)?
Attractions, Advantages, Negatives:
- What started you off in M/C riding?
- What do you like about M/C riding?
- Why ride a motorcycle versus public transport, automobile, cycling, walking?
- What is the downside of riding a motorcycle (open to weather, fatigue, constant noise)?
Strategies:
- What are you paying attention to when you ride?
- How do you operate a motorcycle to:
o
improve your safety
o
reduce cost
o
avoid or bypass or get through congestion
o
be more efficient,
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o
get somewhere faster
o
enjoy the experience more (follow up on the values as stated by this
individual)?
o
What are you doing when you ride a motorcycle (looking around, assessing
traffic, looking for hazards, etc)?
o
Are there specific situations where you behave differently (Highway, heavy
traffic on a highway, dense traffic in a city, bad weather, slippery roads, etc)?
For those who also drive a car:
- When you are driving a car, do you think you drive differently from car drivers who don't drive
motorcycles? How? Why?
- When you ride your motorcycle, do you think you drive differently from motorcycle riders who don't
drive cars? How? Why?
- In what ways do you think riding a motorcycle is different from driving a car? (get them to think about
the different components of riding: 1. controlling the bike e.g. gears, brakes; 2. navigating; 3.
monitoring speed; 4. following/staying on the road; 5. observing traffic rules; 6. avoiding collisions)
Dangers & Manoeuvring:
- Identify some tricky situations that you are most concerned about while riding. How do you handle
these situations?
- Have you ever had an accident while riding? Describe the accident. Is there anything you could have
done to avoid it?
- How do you brake normally? Take me through the process.
- How about emergency braking?
- Tell me about your normal riding style.
- How about emergency or critical manoeuvring?
Scenarios:
Handling/solo
- Describe how you choose a line through a corner. How do you steer, lean etc?
- Do you know people who consume alcohol before riding? Does it change the way they ride? Are
they better riders after drinking? Do they compensate for it?
- Can you identify things that you do on the motorcycle that you consider risky? Why is it risky? Can
you avoid doing it?
- What risks do other riders take?
- You find yourself heading at high speed towards an object on the road. What do you do? Has it
happened to you before and what was the outcome?
Other vehicles:
- Describe what you do when a car suddenly moves into your lane?
- Describe what you do when a car suddenly pulls out in front of you from a side street.
- Do you split lanes? Why? Describe how you do it? How do you make the judgments that you need
to make? Do you take more risks now than when you were learning? When should it be legal/illegal?
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- How would you adjust your riding along a busy, narrow road lined with parked cars? What do you
look for?
Weather/ Environmental Conditions:
- What do you think are the most challenging conditions to ride in? Consider weather, time of day,
road surface, traffic conditions.
- Describe what it like when you ride when it is raining/glary/windy/night? What do you do differently?
- It what situations would you choose not to ride? Why?
Safety considerations:
- What safety equipment do you wear- does it ever vary? Why?
- What would you change on your bike to make it safer?
- What have you learned as a motorcyclist?
- How are you a better rider now than when you started? What have you learned?
- Are there things you now do without thinking that you once had to think about?
- Have you worked out special ways of navigating, planning, etc.
- Do you have to think things through at any time? How about in the past when you were just starting
as a novice rider?
Social Interactions:
- When you are riding, do you communicate with other motorcyclists, other road users, other people,
other systems, how?
Levels of control:
Strategic (tasks such as planning the journey, selecting the mode of transport, and choosing a route) to understand trip planning, integration of travel constraints, safety/freedom trade off.
- When you take a trip on your bike, how do you plan your trip to ensure that you arrive safely at your
destination? What are the things that make it difficult for you to plan your trip to arrive safely?
Tactical (tasks such as overtaking, giving way to other vehicles, and obeying traffic rules) - to
understand how the rider perceives and responds to the current situation. Understand how tactics are
applied to regular riding and to situations that threaten safety.
- When you are riding your bike, what tactics do you use to help you arrive safely at your destination?
What are the things that make it difficult, or impossible, for you to use these tactics?
Operational (controlling the vehicle to keep it on the road; vehicle control). Tasks include controlling
speed, following the road, changing gears etc) - to understand how the rider thinks about the subtasks of riding
- When you are riding your bike, how do you control it in order to keep the bike on the road? What are
the things that make it difficult, or impossible, for you to keep the bike on the road?
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APPENDIX 2: BIOGRAPHICAL DATA SHEET
Motorcycle Safety Research Study
Name: __________________________________________________
Age (years):___________
Gender (circle):
Male
Female
Contact email: _______________________________
Contact telephone:_______________________________
Occupation:_______________________________
Education (highest level):__________________________________________________
Motorcycle/Scooter Type:
Ride:_____________________________ Own:
Yes/No
Ride:_______________________________Own:
Yes/No
Age at full license:___________
Kilometers/Yr (Estimated Av): ___________
Car driver also?
No
Yes
(Kilometers/Yr - Estimated Av):
Ride mainly for (circle): Work/Commuting
Ride mainly where? (circle): In the city
Pleasure
In the country
On motorways
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APPENDIX 3: RECRUITMENT NOTICE FOR RIDER INTERVIEWS FRANCE
« L'INRETS, dans le cadre du projet européen 2BESAFE (projet 7ème PCRD impliquant 27
partenaires - Europe, Israël et Australie) relatif à l'étude des comportements de conduite des
conducteurs de deux roues motorisés, cherche pour le 10 mars 2008 des motards volontaires pour
être interrogés sur leurs pratiques de conduite. Il s'agit d'identifier les mécanismes de prise de
décisions en fonction du contexte de la conduite. La méthode utilisée, déjà utilisée pour l'étude de la
tâche de pilotage des avions, est appelée « cognitive work analysis ». Les spécialistes de cette
méthode venant d'Australie et des États-Unis, les motards doivent être capables de parler un
minimum l'anglais (ils seront aidés par des chercheurs INRETS francophones). Afin que l'étude «
couvre » des pratiques variées (urbain, campagne, ... mais aussi spécificités « régionales »), nous
souhaitons la participation de motards issus de zones géographiques diverses. Les frais de transports
pourront être pris en charge (seconde classe) ainsi que les frais d'hôtellerie (montant plafonné).Les
motards intéressés pour participer à cette étude sont priés de bien vouloir contacter Stéphane Espié
([email protected]) en précisant leur expérience en termes de pratique moto (nombre d'années, km
parcourus en moyenne par an, type de trajets...). »
Merci.
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APPENDIX 4: PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM - FRANCE
PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM
2-BE-SAFE Project
Thank you for considering participation in the Motor Cycle Safety study, which is part of Work Package
5.5 of the 2-BE-SAFE project. The purpose of this study is to identify possibilities for improving the
safety of motorcycle riders.
Before you make a final decision about participation, please read the following information about how
your input will be used and how your rights as a participant will be protected.
Participation in the study is completely voluntary. You may stop participating at any point without
penalty.
You do not have to answer all the questions.
Your answers will be kept confidential and your identity will be protected.
Your participation will take approximately 3.0 hours. During this time you will be asked to reflect on
your experiences as a motorcycle rider and to contribute ideas about the dangers involved in riding
motorcycles and how safety might be improved.
This project conforms to the research approval procedure of the French National Institute for Transport
and Safety Research (INRETS) and has been approved by its Director of Institutional Research. The
Research Approval Committee believes that the research procedures will safeguard your privacy,
welfare, civil liberties and rights.
If you are still interested in participating and assisting with this study, please complete the consent
form below.
You may contact Dr Michael Regan at telephone 04 72 14 23 21 if you have questions, comments or
concerns now or in the future about your participation in this study. Thank you very much for your time
and consideration.
Signed:___________________________________
(Researcher)
I, _____________________________, agree to participate in the study of Motor Cycle Safety
Conducted by Dr Michael Regan of INRETS.
I understand that:
My answers will be used for educational research.
My participation is voluntary.
I may cease my participation at any time without penalty.
I do not have to answer all the questions.
My institutional affiliation and identity will be kept confidential.
I have read the information above and any questions I asked have been answered to my satisfaction. I
Agree to participate in this activity, realizing that I may withdraw without prejudice at any time.
Signed: ____________________________________
(Participant)
Date:
____________________________________
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APPENDIX 5: EXPLANATORY STATEMENT - AUSTRALIA
May 2009
Explanatory Statement for Participation in Research
“Motorcycle Safety Study”
Thank you for considering participation in the Motor Cycle Safety study, which is part of the European
Commission funded 2-BE-SAFE project. MUARC is working with the French National Institute for
Transport and Safety Research on this component, which is a study is to identify possibilities for
improving the safety of motorcycle riders. Motorcycles have a significantly higher fatality rate per unit
of distance travelled compared to cars. According to the Australian Transport Safety Bureau there are
30 times more motorcycle riders killed than drivers of other vehicles. Despite these statistics the
development of countermeasures to reduce motorcycle related fatalities is very limited. This research
project will use interviews to develop an in-depth understanding of the factors involved in motorcycle
riding that are responsible for the increased risk of fatality which will thus enable the development of
targeted countermeasures. This project will have a practical outcome that will help reduce motorcycle
fatalities world wide.
You have been invited to participate in this research study because you hold a valid Australian
motorcycle licence and you have indicated that you would like to be involved in the study.
Your participation will involve undertaking a video recorded interview and will take approximately 3
hours. You will be given the opportunity to have regular breaks through out the interview and you may
request additional breaks at your discretion.
During the interview you will be asked a series of questions regarding your everyday experiences as a
motorcycle rider. The interview will be video recorded, however no personal identifying information will
be stored with your footage. Your de-identified data and/or video footage will be analysed by
Australian and French Project members. Your data will be accessible only by research staff and no
findings will be published that could identify you.
Your participation in this study is voluntary and you may withdraw your consent to participate at
anytime without penalty or prejudice.
Information will be stored for 5 years in a secure facility and will be destroyed after this time.
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If you would like any further information or a summary of the aggregate results please contact Robin
Hutchinson.
If you would like to get in touch with the research
team about any aspect of this study, please contact:
Mr Robin Hutchinson
Tel: 9905 1858
Email: [email protected]
Accident Research Centre
Monash University VIC 3800 AUSTRALIA
Building 70, Clayton Campus, Wellington Road,
Clayton
Telephone +61 3 9905 4371
Fax: +61 3 9905 4363
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.monash.edu.au/muarc
If you have a complaint concerning the manner
in
which
this
research
[CF09/1013:
2009000521]is being conducted, please
contact:
Human Ethics Officer
Standing Committee on Ethics in Research
Involving Humans (SCERH)
Building 3e Room 111
Research Office
Monash University VIC 3800
Tel: +61 3 9905 2052
Fax: +61 3 9905 1420
Email: [email protected]
ABN 12 377 614 012 CRICOS provider number
00008C
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APPENDIX 6: PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM - AUSTRALIA
May 2009
Consent Form for Participants
Motor Cycle Safety Study
I agree to take part in the Monash University research project specified above. The project has been
explained to me, and I have read the Explanatory Statement, which I will keep for my records. I
understand that by agreeing to participate, I am willing:
- To be involved in an interview
- For the interview to be video- recorded
- I understand that my participation is voluntary, that I can choose not to participate in the project, and
that I can withdraw my consent at any stage of the project, prior to its completion, without being
penalized or disadvantaged in any way.
- I understand that while my interview will be video recorded, my identity will not be stored with my
data or be associated with any results published.
- I understand that while unlikely, it is possible that my data may need to be supplied to a third party if
subpoenaed and therefore I will take responsibility for the information that I choose to disclose.
- I understand that any information I provide will be kept in a secure storage and accessible only to
the research team. I also understand that the data will be destroyed after a 5 year period unless I
consent to it being used in future research.
- I understand that the interview may take up to 3 hours. I understand that in addition to scheduled
breaks I may request additional breaks at anytime.
- I understand that a de-identified transcript of my interview and/or the raw video footage will be
analysed by members of the research team located in Australia and France.
- I understand that while my data will be de-identified and all efforts will be made to maintain
confidentiality, there is a potential for law enforcement authorities to request my information and I will
therefore be mindful of this when answering questions,
Participant’s name:
Signature:
Date:
Accident Research Centre
Monash University VIC 3800 AUSTRALIA
Building 70, Clayton Campus, Wellington Road, Clayton
Telephone +61 3 9905 4371
Facsimile +61 3 9905 4363
Email [email protected]
Web www.monash.edu.au/muarc
ABN 12 377 614 012 CRICOS provider number 00008C
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APPENDIX 7: WORK TASK DOCKET – PERSONAL SAFETY
MANAGEMENT
PERSONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT – OPERATIONAL
Country
Comment
Austria
Drivers often turn in front of him, because they underestimate the power of his
scooter, especially women and older drivers.
Austria
Tries not to be surprised by anything in a way that could unbalance him.
Australia
On scooter, is especially wary of wind generated by passing trucks.
Australia
Counter steers when going through roundabouts if he needs to steer around surface
hazards (e.g. fuel spills)
Australia
Difficult to use throttle in the cold when hands and throttle are cold.
Australia
Believes other road users underestimate speed and acceleration capabilities of
scooters.
Australia
Does not accelerate suddenly or brake sharply to ensure that situation awareness of
others is not degraded.
France
When on his bike, is very focused on the balance and alignment of the bike. “…you
only have 2 wheels, so if one slips, it’s very dangerous”
France
Identifies the cars that “…don’t have normal behaviour” “If I see the eyes in the
revision mirror of the person in front of me, and if they’re looking at me, I know that
they are going to do something that I’m not prepared for.”
France
When riding, he pays attention to cars that are way ahead of him, so that he can
see whether they’re driving well or not, “…so that I know whether I need to be extra
careful around them”
France
Bikes are hard to handle at low speeds. Drivers should know that.
France
Feels that he needs training at least once a year to hone critical skills that he rarely
uses e.g. emergency braking.
France
Believes that the physical effort and greater attention required to ride a motorcycle
makes it about 3 times as tiring as driving a car.
France
Believes that car drivers underestimate the agility of motorcycle riders.
France
Has better control of his big bike than his scooter - uses greater power and better
braking ability of big bike to avoid critical situations.
France
Transferring from BMW bike (with advanced braking systems) to bike with
conventional braking systems is challenging. Interoperability is an issue.
France
Has no problem adhering to speed limits in car. Finds it difficult on bike.
France
Feels that riding requires more attention/concentration than car driving. In a car,
“you just have to follow other cars”.
France
Not easy to operate bike controls (e.g. indicators) because he has to keep both
hands on the handle grips.
Australia
Keep arms and shoulders relaxed. “You feel tired faster if you are tense.”
Australia
“Cruisers” have a different weight distribution, “so you need to use more rear brake
than front brake.”
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Australia
Is aware that he can fall in to the trap of following too close to other vehicles on the
bike when waiting for gaps.
Australia
Watches for oil slicks, white painted lines, holes in the road that could contain oil,
and tram tracks.
Australia
Australia
Australia
Rides closer to vehicles ahead on his scooter because he is confident of his own
abilities and his bikes abilities. “I think it is harder in a car. My bike can stop within a
foot.”
Finds it easier to follow vehicles on a scooter than in a car. “The distance is easier
to judge without the presence of a bonnet”.
Leans more on curves when the road is dry, but when it is wet, does not lean.
Australia
Feels for cues that he is leaning too far – “trailers” that push up foot peg; amount of
road scrape on toe, elbow or knee;
France
Constantly observe other road users to anticipate their actions, looking ahead &
behind.
France
France
France
France
France
Watch for features on the road that are slippery, especially when wet.
Careful with braking, prefer to use gears to slow for normal braking.
Do not look at speedometer much; it detracts from visual observation, use engine
noise to judge speed.
Maintain speed consistent with other traffic.
Stand up on motorcycle to be visible to car drivers.
France
Racing experience can reduce temptation to speed
France
When lane splitting, will only pass when he can see the driver.
France
Is extra cautious when lane splitting if driver is using a mobile phone.
France
Is constantly on alert for moving objects, weather (e.g. wind, ice) and road features
(e.g. white painted surfaces)
France
Watches for gasoline on the road, especially at roundabouts
France
Uses sense of smell to anticipate danger e.g. smells for gasoline on the road.
France
Watches out for signs of irregular wind and wind gusts (e.g. from trees), especially
when tracking past trucks. Anticipates the wind.
France
Is ready to act when in potentially risky situations: puts hand and foot on brakes;
drops a gear or two, to be ready to accelerate.
France
In heavy traffic: sits as straight as possible to be able to see as far away as
possible; is ready to brake anytime; looks for signs that driver will do something
(e.g. front wheels turning); reduces speed differential between bike and other traffic.
France
Watches out for left doors of cars parked on right side of the road – they might open
unexpectedly. Cue: is there a driver in the car?
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PERSONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT – TACTICAL
Country
Comment
Austria
Is worried that fogged up windows in cars in winter make it even harder for drivers
to see him.
Austria
As a driver, who is also a rider, feels he is more conscious of bicycle riders and
pedestrians.
Austria
Believes scooters are less dangerous than larger bikes – “they have less power to
take you over your limits”.
Austria
Believes that drivers don’t give right of way to motor scooters, especially in the
countryside.
Austria
Thinks sporty cars are more dangerous, “because they overtake you more”.
Austria
Wants to overtake unpredictable “foreigners” quickly, so he can stop paying so
much attention to them.
Austria
Is wary of bicycle riders running red lights.
Australia
Is wary of workers driving home from shift work or drivers who are not fully awake
“until the first burst of sunlight”.
France
Is wary of snow type: “...if the snow is very compact, it is not possible to drive. When
the snow is dry, it’s very hard to drive because you must keep control of the front
wheel.”
France
“At the beginning of winter when it’s wet and there are leaves on the ground, it’s
very dangerous and when you have to brake with so many things on the ground, it’s
hard to brake”
France
Rides differently with passengers. “When I’m with my younger child, it’s not possible
to drive how I’m used to – I can’t drive too fast. She’s 4 years old and I won’t drive
past 40km because it’s too dangerous otherwise... when my wife is behind me, I
ride slower and more carefully.”
France
Is more cautious when riding on Saturday nights, “...sometimes there are people
drunk and driving and I need to pay attention.”
France
Is aware that other road users often don’t respect traffic rules in very early morning
when traffic is sparse (e.g. 5-00am) – e.g. run red lights; fail to stop at stop signs.
“You need to be ready to brake when people behave like this.”
Austria
Rides differently and more cautiously in the dark e.g. rides more in the middle of the
road in curves; on straight roads rides more on the left; when there is oncoming
traffic, rides more on the right.
Austria
Pays attention to the sequence of curves.
Austria
Rides more cautiously if he smells like freshly cut grass – a mowing machine might
be close by.
Austria
Is more careful in urban traffic if side boxes are on the bike. Less likely to lane split.
Austria
Brakes earlier when he is carrying a passenger.
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France
Is aware that a car behind him cannot stop as quickly as he can on a bike. If he
can’t, he’ll ride over him.
France
Stays upright on bike when riding around corners to optimise vision.
France
Believes car drivers who rides bikes are better at noticing bikes. “When we hear
them, we know where to look for them. We know the blind spots, where we won’t
see them.” He steers the car where he knows it won’t bother the motorcycle rider.
Uses indicators as much as on bikes.
France
Tries not to “scare” car drivers by not behaving erratically.
France
Is always looking for “a safe place to be”.
France
Acknowledges that car drivers on their way to work on the Paris peripherique are
unique in France. They are more predictable, they drive at lower speeds, they
support riders to lane split and filter, and they use their indicators (although not on
weekends and after holidays, when in holiday mode).
France
Recognises that right curves are more dangerous – it’s harder to escape on them if
in danger.
France
Thinks driving a car makes you more aware, as a motorcyclist, about how difficult it
is for you to be seen as a motorcycle rider.
France
Thinks driving at night time is more dangerous. Slows down, and tries to avoid it.
France
Uses hazard lights when lane splitting, to make himself more noticeable.
France
Tries always to pass on the left of cars, because drivers never look at their right
mirror – they are not so aware of riders on the right hand side.
France
Looking out for Police, nature, and aeroplanes are distracting.
France
Monitors speedometer a lot to avoid speeding fines. Feels it is not safe, but doesn’t
want to lose his licence.
Australia
Thinks it’s easier to avoid collisions on a bike than in a car. Can maneuver on the
bike and move into a narrow gap in an emergency. Can use the brake and the
engine to slow down and make a decision which way to go. Thinks’s it’s harder to
brake and manouvre in the car.
Australia
On country roads, doesn’t rely on peripheral vision as much. (Australian rider)
Australia
Recognises need for longer stopping distances at road works, in the wet, around
potholes, and when there are lots of line markings.
Australia
Is alert for dangers on busy narrow roads. Looks for many things: car doors
opening; pedestrians coming out with their shopping; cars pulling out with/without
indicators; cars braking suddenly because they have found a park; drivers sitting in
cars; front wheels on the car to see if they move to indicate that the driver might pull
out; exits and entrances where conflicts could occur.
Leaves enough space between him and the cars so that, if someone opens a car
door, he is not hit by them. Stays closer to the middle of the lane to be more visible.
Creates extra space with cars in front.
Australia
Looks out for faster riders and lets them pass, so that they don’t do anything unsafe,
like overtaking other riders on corners.
Australia
Uses different strategies for taking corners depending on whether it is a left corner,
right corner, blind corner, or long corner. Also has strategy if he is in the middle of a
corner and realizes he is going too fast. (Australian rider)
Australia
Thinks that when counter steering, “you need to overcome your instinct to look at
the obstacle. Need to look where you want to go.”
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Australia
Must have an escape route or room to move, at all times. “You need to position
yourself to maximize the chance of being seen by drivers. Stay out of blind spots.”
Australia
Prioritizes attention. More attention is required for observation and hazard
perception when many things are around. On highway there is less traffic, so can
give more attention to other things like the road surface.
Australia
Tries to avoid car spray which is full of oil and grime- can impair his vision.
Australia
Says it would be good if there was a course to teach him what to do if he came off
the bike.
Australia
When possible, rides tandem to “keep lane dominated”.
Australia
Is wary of pedestrians. “They just walk out onto the road. Especially if they are
texting.”
Australia
When driving a car, is more aware of his surroundings/conditions. Head checks
more before changing lanes. Looks around more. Sets up mirrors to make sure
blind spots are covered. Looks at them more. Is more decisive, and doesn’t let
others thwart what he is going to do. Reads traffic better. Looks out more for riders
and bicyclists. Is less distracted than drivers who don’t ride.
Rides more in centre of road in windy conditions, with head forward to hide more
behind windshield. Finds it distracting when head gets “blown around” in the wind.
Australia
Australia
Accelerates hard to get out of the traffic. Feels that cars are out to get him.
Australia
Always tries to stay out of other drivers’ blind spots. Tries to stay in front of or
behind cars, but never to their side.
Australia
Looks for the way people are driving. Looks out for taxis and van drivers, as they
drive erratically.
Australia
Looks out for distracted drivers – mobile phone users, drivers with kids, drivers
reading, drivers applying make up. He stays away from them.
Australia
Believes that the safest place for a bike is just ahead of traffic, and travelling 10 km
faster than the traffic.
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
On gravelly roads, he rides in car wheel ruts where there is less gravel.
Rides in the wheel track of the car in front so that his headlight can be seen in
driver’s side mirror. This position also gives him options to move to the side of the
car if he can’t stop in time.
Tries to stay in the middle lane when cornering – so that when he leans, his head
stays in his own lane.
Is aware that car drivers misjudge his speed.
Australia
Looks where he wants to go through the traffic when lane splitting, and goes
through it. “If you look at the cars on either side, you’ll hit one.”
Australia
“If you hit something, grab tight on the handle bars – to catapult yourself over the
object rather than hitting it.”
Australia
Believes he is invisible, and rides like everyone is out to get him. “I ride defensively
and aggressively, and never hesitate.”
Australia
Believes cars should not be passing bikes. Keeps away from cars. Believes safest
place for a bike is just ahead of the traffic and travelling 10km/hr faster. Stays 10
km/hr over the limit. Doesn’t sit in the traffic, as he thinks he’ll get run off the road.
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Australia
France
D21: Using Cognitive Work Analysis to Derive Recommendations for
Improving Motorcycle and Scooter Rider Safety
When cornering at high speed, needs to look for everything – a car that might be
coming the other way, bikes overtaking from behind, the road surface.
Has a strategy to avoid coming off the bike in a turn if there is an obstacle on the
road ahead – changes his lean to change his line in the corner, lifts the bike up a
bit, and slows down a bit.
Recognize vulnerability, and is concerned with self-protection.
France
Maintains safety distances from other vehicles, in front and behind. Is concerned
that vehicles behind do not always do the same.
France
When in traffic, drives in the middle of the lane to prevent cars from taking up his
space.
France
Attends to the undisciplined behavior of other road users, and observes them
closely.
France
Focuses attention on riding, and does not engage in distracting activities
France
Works at being predictable to others, and is concerned about collisions from behind
when braking or stopped.
France
Is more cautious in challenging conditions, and attends to environmental conditions
that affect riding stability.
France
Safety gear is inconvenient and can be uncomfortable - but it’s necessary.
France
Regularly maintains his bike to ensure its safety.
France
Is wary of drivers on mobile phones – “they don’t have predictable reactions. Their
trajectory might vary, or they might miss a road sign and turn right or left at the last
moment with no signal light.”
France
Is aware that drivers may throw cigarettes out of cars, that might land on him.
France
Is disturbed by drivers that intentionally block his way when trying to lane split, or
who brake suddenly in front of him.
France
Anticipates driver actions by knowing when a driver is looking at him in his rear
vision mirror.
France
Is extremely cautious in areas with Police speed radars: is on alert for cars that
suddenly see the radar and brake suddenly, even if under the speed limit. Triples
safety distance to be on safe side.
France
Is prepared for insect strikes, especially from bees. Stays calm when it happens.
France
In irregular winds, leans before passing trucks so that the bike doesn’t get moved
around so much.
France
Is more cautious around certain types of cars and occupants which are perceived to
pose greater danger e.g. Citroens, the Monospace (a family car), taxis, licence
plates not from or nearby Paris; foreign number plates; country number plates;
drivers wearing berets.
France
Can anticipate better on a motorcycle than in a car – can see more because he sits
higher, and there is no roof to impede his sensory awareness of potential threats to
safety.
France
In emergencies, chooses a response that suits the circumstances e.g. dropped the
bike and slid rather than braking heavily in order to avoid a collision with a vehicle in
front when there were cars on either side of his motorcycle.
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PERSONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT – STRATEGIC
Country
Comment
Australia
Never stops at the end of traffic queues at traffic lights. Is worried that the person
behind him will not see him and run into him.
Australia
Avoids riding when it is extremely wet or windy.
France
Avoids snow. “When the snow is falling on the ground, it’s hard to see and you get
snow on your visor and then can’t see anything, so it’s difficult to ride”.
Austria
When it is dark, takes a route that is used frequently by other road users so he can
be found more easily in case of an accident.
France
Believes that different road users don’t understand each other and the constraints
under which they operate. Says they need to learn more about each other, through
training and education.
France
Recommends training/education for pillion passengers e.g. sit close to rider; how to
sit; keep knees close to bike; go with, not against, the rider; etc
France
When he makes a mistake, he thinks about it for a while – but doesn’t in a car.
Thinks it’s maybe because riding is more dangerous. “You think about it, because
maybe it happened to someone else, or you read about it. You always learn from
your mistakes”
France
Will not take a long journey on bike if he is sleepy from night before. Will plan for a
quiet night before a long journey. In a car, he is more likely to drive when tired and
less likely to stop for rests.
France
For safety, he buys a good bike – with ABS, linked brakes, and good tyres.
France
Thinks that small scooters are dangerous. They don’t have much power, and riders
don’t look around as much - and don’t have much training. “Pizza delivery scooters
are the worst.”
France
Feels that the risks he takes, on his bike, are his own – that when he takes a risk on
the bike he is not endangering other riders or drivers.
Australia
Tries to keep his mind free of distractions. It “…makes it hard if I am distracted by
work or family and it is a good time not to be riding.”
Australia
There is currently no incentive for people to wear safety equipment.
Australia
Makes sure that levers and controls are adjusted for him to ensure physical
efficiency.
Australia
Plans journey. If tired or has had a big night, doesn’t ride. Checks to see if bike is fit
to be ridden. Ensures there are petrol stops within the range of fuel tanks. Plans
regular breaks. Starts early so sun is not a problem and so he knows he will arrive
on time. Plans for road works and weather. Let’s someone know where he is going
and the time he expects to be back.
Is looking to buy ‘sticky’ tires, which give him better grip on turns and in the wet.
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
Is aware that the road is greasy for the first half hour after it rains.
Won’t get on the bike unless he’s relaxed – and never when angry.
Only carries a pillion passenger if the passenger has their own protective gear.
Australia
Is aware that add-on storage capacity (boxes, saddle bags etc) can change the way
the bike handles.
Australia
Feels safer on a bike compared to a car – feels like there is less chance of an
accident because he can get out of the way of trouble.
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Australia
Avoids gravel roads when on a bike with high speed road tyres. “Knobbies” are
better tyres for gravel.
Australia
Thinks that, when young, he had less accidents when he was drunk. It took the fear
out of crashing, so he was less cautious and could “flow through a corner better”.
Australia
Australia
Australia
France
France
France
France
France
Regularly ensures that front and back wheels are properly aligned.
Says that, on a motorcycle, the faster you ride the safer you are. Believes that
keeping to the speed limit increases his chances of having an accident.
Wears an open face helmet so it does not restrict his peripheral vision.
Takes responsibility for his own safety. Is concerned about the little protection he
has on his bike.
Owns a complete set of safety equipment.
Remains focused when riding.
Does not complain to other drivers when they do something wrong.
Avoids use of alcohol when riding.
France
Remains calm & alert at all times, and manages fatigue.
France
Hates to drive in the city – says it’s too dangerous.
France
Feels safer riding his big bike. Has 10 times the power, and brakes better. Can
better avoid obstacles.
France
Drives differently when carrying pillion passengers. E.g. turns “quietly”, on same
trajectory as the curve, in the middle of the lane.
France
Uses counter steering to negotiate curves at speeds around and above 70 km/hr.
France
Days that navigation is “in the head”. Studies a map closely before a journey.
Memorises the route. Relies a lot on “feeling” to navigate. Puts map reader on tank.
Uses sun position for orientation. Pulls over to look at the map.
France
Does more frequent maintenance checks (e.g. tyre pressure) for bike than for car?
France
When lane splitting, looks at front wheel of cars rather than at driver or car body.
France
When driving a car, always stays on the left or right of the lane to simplify the arrival
and passage of riders who split lanes.
France
His strategy of braking varies according to whether braking is normal or emergency,
and whether the motorcycle has normal brakes or advanced barking systems (e.g.
ABS). Varies also with the situation.
France
Regards ABS as a “joker” – ie as a backup system to prevent falling. Tries to forget
that he has it (young inexperienced rider).
France
Believes you must know your own limits, and the limits of the machine, in order to
have “good reflexes”.
France
Prefers to use the bus lane than to split lanes. Considers it safer (inexperienced
rider). Considers bus lane less safe than splitting lanes because of unexpected
pedestrians, left car doors opening, etc.
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PERSONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT – EXPERIENCE
Country
Comment
Australia
Stays away from cars that are behaving aggressively towards each other. They are
unpredictable and can compromise his safety.
Australia
With experience, he experiments more now rather than worrying so much about
controlling the bike.
Australia
Is better at changing gears.
Australia
Has learnt to ride better by observing how other riders ride.
Australia
Is better at leaving more space ahead of him.
Australia
Is better at knowing which lanes are better to filter through.
Australia
Is better at lane positioning, and keeping out of people’s way.
Australia
Is more aware of aggressive drivers who shoot down entrance ramps. Avoids them
as they cause a crush of vehicles down the ramp.
Australia
Is more aware of what is coming up behind him.
Australia
Knows that ABS works better when the clutch is pulled in.
Australia
Thinks that fatigue is more noticeable on a bike than in a car: gear changes become
less smooth, things are done a bit faster than they should, and there is a “loose”
focus. Believes that, in a car, he can go a lot further before the inability to control the
car becomes significant.
Australia
Can feel speed better through the vibrations, noise and response of his bike. In a
car, he only has the engine to tell him.
Australia
Didn’t focus on speed signs and his own speed when he first started riding as it
distracted him from what was going around him. He does now.
Australia
Even after 15 years of riding, he has never needed to perform an emergency
maneuver. So he doesn’t really know how he would react.
Australia
Says he had no training. As a consequence, after 15 years of riding, he has “no
markers to compare how he should be doing things”.
Australia
Used to ride around with a group of guys who pressured him into to doing things
“you shouldn’t do”. Now he rides alone.
Australia
A rider returning after 10 years of no riding:
Was more careful what to look out for and to avoid.
Not as confident in the wet as he used to be.
France
If he sees a biker going very fast on the highway, he’ll let him go ahead of him –
“…if he wants to die then that’s up to him.”
France
Has learnt not to rush – “…it doesn’t matter if I’m late, I can’t stress too much when
on the road or I may have an accident.”
France
After an accident that wasn’t his fault, makes sure that he pays attention to other
cars when passing a green light, just to make sure no one is running a red light.
France
Is wary of fitness to drive of other road users. “The worst is when it’s rainy and it’s
night time and everyone is getting tired on the road – that is the most dangerous
situation for riding.”
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France
“I am getting older so I need to pay more attention and be more alert when on the
road. When I was young, it was not so much of a problem.”
Austria
Taught himself how to counter steer after reading an article about it.
Austria
A series of minor incidents on the bike has made him ride more carefully.
Austria
When younger, he used to split lanes. Now he lane filters only. Does not ride on the
sidewalk anymore.
France
Is better at “collecting information” ie using all of his senses to gather information
needed to ride safely.
France
Has learnt more about his limits. Takes more care, and may not ride when feeling
tired or bad.
France
Thinks you should be able to use your own bike at training school so you can learn
more about your limits and the limits of your own bike.
France
Initial training is not enough. You learn skills – but without applying them in different
contexts.
France
Is better at controlling the bike. There is a closer coupling between him and the bike.
Like rider and horse.
France
Is better at adapting his speed to the traffic.
France
He has learnt through experience how his bike behaves.
France
Believes it is more difficult for motorcyclists now. 20 years ago, everyone drove
more erratically and faster. Everyone had to watch out for everyone.
Australia
After a close call, he pulls over and thinks through what just happened. “I selfevaluate after something goes wrong. I think about what I could have done and look
for what I should not do again.”
Australia
Is aware of the physical strength needed to ride a big bike. “It took a month for the
muscles that I need to ride to kick in. – my core muscles. Once I started using them
the bike was much more maneuverable.”
Australia
Reads traffic better, anticipates better what other vehicles will do. Reads the road
surface better. Can anticipate better the “geography” of the road.
Australia
Takes the same risks, but his skill level at dealing with them is significantly better. “I
am much more certain about the actions that I need to take. Can be more decisive
now than in the same situation when I was a learner.”
Australia
When cornering, needs to know what the controls do and what to do in a situation.
Sometimes needs to react in a way that is counter to intuition. If you are tense on
the bike it won’t want to turn. If you are relaxed, the bike will go through the corner.
Australia
Believes that “…if you have good observation skills you don’t need to rely on fast
reactions to save yourself.”
Australia
Tries to move around a lot in his lane “…so that I own my lane”. Alternates between
wheel tracks so that other cars don’t try to move into his lane.
Australia
Tries to ride in the wheel track of the car ahead to avoid the rubbish on the road.
Australia
Believes there should be designated places to practice maneuvers. People want to
practice but there is not where to do it.
Can take one hand off handlebars if necessary - for example, to adjust helmet.
Australia
Australia
Australia
Rides as if invisible to others.
Paddock riding prepared him for handling gravel and potholes.
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Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
France
France
France
France
France
France
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Avoids highways – they make him sleepy. Finds routes with twists and turns.
The weight of the bike was the hardest thing for him about taking up riding again
after a 12 year brake. His new bike was double the weight. It was like being a
learner again.
Believes experience makes you a better rider. Need to ride regularly to know how to
ride. Stopped riding for 12 years. It took him about 19,000km of riding to feel
confident again.
When he comes off his bike, he goes “spread eagle” so he gets gravel rash only on
front and back. Holds head off ground. Steers body along ground to avoid posts or
going under fences. If he rolls into a ball, his elbows and knees stick out and may
get smashed.
Uses front brake now in the rain because bike has linked front and back brakes.
When avoiding a collision on a bike, is restricted to the road. In a car, he can leave
the road.
Drives a car differently from people who drive but don’t ride. He is more aware of
what is going on around him: he looks at multiple cars in front; he turns after using
his turn indicator; he can see motorcycles coming up 20 cars back; he drives like he
rides, but slower.
Is better at anticipating the erratic behavior of other road users.
Has learnt who is dangerous, and attends to what other road users will do.
Learnt to move back from a car & to the side of the lane so he will have somewhere
to go.
No longer refers to map while riding.
Says he felt invincible when young, but that this feeling loses strength with age and
experience.
Feels that crash experiences can be big life lessons.
Relatively new riders:
•
Now aware of visual cues used by more experienced riders that signify
danger e.g. front wheels of car turning in his direction.
•
Still needs to think about activating the brake light when slowing down, and
turning off indicator lights after turning.
•
Has been given different advice by rider trainers and friends about
cornering – took the advice of his friend.
•
Better at cornering - is his main improvement after 6 months.
•
Doesn’t see any dramatic change in riding skills of friends after 1 or 2
drinks.
•
Still enters turns too fast.
•
Watches mirrors a lot, but recently “read that the majority of accidents are
between the 10 and 2 o’clock positions”.
•
Smokes cannabis – but when he does, is very cautious – slows down,
avoids lane splitting, is alert for Police, watches mirrors more. Would rather
have fun and take a small risk.
•
Only lane splits when traffic speed is around 20-25 km/hr.
•
Uses front brake exclusively (without using gears to brake) when braking
normally.
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•
Amenable to M/C airbags and inflatable jackets.
•
Estimates own speed by the speed of the surrounding traffic.
France
Listens to engine sound to adapt speed. Avoids ear plugs which mask engine
sound.
France
Is better able to adapt speed to the situation.
France
Has learnt to “focus on senses”; has a bigger field of view than in a car, so can see
better; sits higher than in a car, so can see further; can hear and smell danger. Has
more information to process, and can process it earlier than in a car in order to react
sooner.
France
Is better at remembering what has been learned when encountering a risky situation
e.g. if curve tight, tighten knees, get elbows closer, lean as much as possible.
France
Believes that the less time he spends near a car, the less danger it represents,
especially in heavy traffic.
France
When driving a car, he can “…anticipate a wider range of options...” as a result of
having ridden a bike e.g. can get out of trouble in a car by gearing down and
accelerating hard instead of braking. Understands better “…the different points of
view of the road”
France
Realises that the trickiest situations are the ones that cannot be predicted.
France
Knows the bike better, and hence knows what he can do with it.
France
Knows better the consequences of everything he does with his bike.
France
Is better at taking curves – puts sight where he wants to go and not where he feels
he would go.
France
Is better at watching out automatically for danger signs e.g. trajectory indications;
whether driver is on mobile phone; wheels starting to turn, etc
France
Leaves more space between his bike and the vehicle in front.
France
Is better at braking, especially emergency braking.
France
Has developed “intuition” – he can sense, even without realising it, when something
is wrong.
France
Can choose between different response options in an emergency e.g. whether to
brake hard and stop, or slow down; whether to fall down and slide with bike to avoid
collision with obstacle ahead; which trajectory to take if collision with obstacle is
unavoidable; strategy for running over obstacle if it is unavoidable (e.g. slow then
fast acceleration just before contact to take weight off the front wheel).
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APPENDIX 8: WORK TASK DOCKET – TIME MANAGEMENT
TIME MANAGEMENT – OPERATIONAL
Country
Austria
France
Australia
France
France
Comment
In town he uses the bus lane - but carefully and slowly, as he is afraid of hitting
bicycles.
Feels it is more difficult to feel the speed of the bike when riding big bikes. Very easy
to speed.
Bikes have a high weight to power ratio, making it easy to speed.
On the highway, he will split lanes and drive on the safety shoulder to save time, even
though it is illegal.
Do not split lanes in the city but rather drives in the center of the road to pass cars.
TIME MANAGEMENT – TACTICAL
Country
Australia
Australia
France
France
Comment
Feels he needs to be 20 km/hr over the speed limit otherwise drivers behind him get
stuck and get frustrated (scooter rider).
Finds it difficult to monitor speed and the road at the same time on a motorcycle.
Needs to divert eyes from the road to see the speedometer. Feels it is wrong that
bikers have to adhere so strictly to the speed limit.
Breaks rules more often on a motorcycle than in a car; feels he does not need to wait
for the broken line to overtake.
Gets frustrated when car drivers overtake, but do not return to their original lane, as
he must then slow down or overtake them on the inside lane.
TIME MANAGEMENT – STRATEGIC
Country
Austria
Australia
France
Comment
He can sleep for longer in the morning when he takes his bike.
He tries to be in a relaxed state of mind before and while riding.
He schedules his journey properly to avoid the need to speed. “Manage time, do not
hurry or become stressed.”
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TIME MANAGEMENT – EXPERIENCE
Country
Comment
France
“Well, if you don’t want to be late then you need to leave on time. You need to leave
enough time for yourself. You need to take your time. When I was 20, that wasn’t the
case – it was always about driving fast.”
Australia
Believes that there is a mentality of “if I have to wait you should have to wait too”.
Has become more comfortable with splitting lanes.
France
France
Has become better at assessing distances between cars which enhances his
confidence in splitting lanes.
France
Now controls speed more effectively from the sound of the engine and has better
control of the bike.
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APPENDIX 9: WORK TASK DOCKET – COMMUTING. TOURING
COMMUTING/TOURING – OPERATIONAL
Country
France
France
Comment
Knows that riding can be tiring. “When I’m riding along the highways on the way to
work, I have to really pay attention, so it can be tiring, so sometimes I’ll arrive at the
office and I’ll be quite tired.”
Drives at a moderate speed to enhance the enjoyment of riding.
COMMUTING/TOURING – TACTICAL
Country
Comment
Austria
Will often take a new/novel route spontaneously on his bike, for the enjoyment of it;
doesn’t do this in his car.
France
Thinks public transport in Paris is too expensive. His bike is cheaper.
France
Rides his bike partly because he doesn’t have to pay for parking.
Austria
He can park his bike on the sidewalk.
France
Feels it’s easier to change roads on a bike than in a car (e.g. when road ahead is
blocked with traffic)
France
Feels that putting protective clothing on and off is a pain when he has to wear it over a
suit and tie.
France
The insurance for a bike is double that of car; but even so, he prefers to ride.
France
Parking costs in Paris are very high for a car, so for him a bike is better
Is more likely to lane split if feeling angry/aggressive. Normally doesn’t do it.
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
France
France
Is more likely to lane split if in a hurry.
For him, public transport is inconvenient, with poor connections. “It stinks. I don’t feel
happy on it.”
“Public transport doesn’t take me where I want to go.”
She feels public transport is depressing and takes too long. The car also takes too
long and it is too far for her to walk.
Feels that when riding for fun, it’s okay to get lost.
France
Is careful with use of a map. No longer refers to it while riding because that is
dangerous.
France
Public transport system is too crowded.
France
Knows that when he has an appointment, the bike will get him there on time.
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COMMUTING/TOURING – STRATEGIC
Country
Comment
Austria
Carries spare parts with him at all times.
Australia
Believes that not having as much storage space and not being able to carry
passengers comfortably are downsides on a scooter.
France
When planning a trip, identifies stopping points for re-fueling/resting.
France
Uses his satellite navigation system, with voice guidance, for navigation..
Australia
Doesn’t’ leave his helmet on the bike “because people sometimes cut chin straps”.
Australia
Needs to consider how the bike is parked. The bike has the stand on left so it leans to
the left. Need to consider this so that bike doesn’t overbalance. Sometimes stand will
sink into soft surfaces or into bitumen on a hot day.
Australia
Memorizes his route. Picks key words and intersections. Memorises landmarks and
turns; doesn’t look at road names. Rather, uses strategy like: “go through the round
about, turn left after the second street. Go over four speed humps then turn right. After
the big intersection take the second left.”
Uses mobile phone real-time traffic updates to avoid congestion and traffic.
Australia
Australia
Australia
France
Chooses routes where roads are good all the way – avoids gravel roads
Knows the range of his bike. On long trips, carries spare fuel.
Has waterproof equipment to ride in the rain, but not in snow or ice.
France
When snow is possible, checks the forecast to ensure s/he does not get stuck at the
destination.
France
Small, country roads, curves & scenery are enjoyable.
Likes to be comfortable; avoids bad weather.
France
France
Off-road racing satisfies his need for experiencing speed & power – “I can use the
bike for what it was designed for”.
COMMUTING/TOURING – EXPERIENCE
Country
France
France
Comment
Is better at navigating and route planning.
Believes off-road racing has improved his handling skills.
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APPENDIX 10 – WORK TASK DOCKET – ROAD SYSTEM
OVERSIGHT
ROAD SYSTEM OVERSIGHT – OPERATIONAL
Country
Comment
Australia
Believes it is easier to break traffic rules on a motorcycle, because it is more
manoeuvrable.
ROAD SYSTEM OVERSIGHT – TACTICAL
Country
Comment
Austria
Breaks some laws on bike that he’d never break in a car e.g. uses bus lanes; goes
down one-way streets in opposite direction; runs red lights when no one is around.
Australia
Wants some sort of “public available data on protective gear independent of
manufacturers. With test results”.
Australia
Believes every bike should have an airbag and that airbag jackets would assist
(inexperienced rider)
France
Believes satellite navigation and ABS make riding safer. Uses satellite navigation
system regularly.
Australia
Put driving lights on the bike. “…it is an additional two lights that go either side of the
head light and stay on all the time. It made a big difference. No cars have pulled out in
front of me since I have three lights.”
Australia
Would like “braided” brake lines. “There is more of a direct effect on the brakes.
Standard brake lines are made from rubber, so they expand before they act on the
brake pads.”
Australia
Would like a rear shock absorber that is more adjustable for conditions and individual
differences.
Australia
Doesn’t like throttle locks which (like cruise control in cars) hold the throttle on –
because he believes they take time to disengage in an emergency.
Australia
Would like to get fog lamps- believes regular lights do not cut through the fog enough.
Wants brighter headlights. Believes his are not as strong as car lights.
Australia
Thinks that training courses are very expensive. Courses should be subsidized to
make them more available to people. Advanced training courses should be tax
deductible.
Believes that you need to follow more road rules in a car than on a bike.
Australia
Australia
Thinks that speed laws don’t apply to motorcycles.
Australia
Avoids losing licence for speeding by looking way down the road for police, radars,
anything. Looks 50 cars in front, over roofs of cars in front.
France
Lights that distinguish motorcycles from cars, especially from the back, would be
useful.
France
Wants a motorcycle brake light that illuminates automatically when slowing down.
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France
Believes government should mandate more complete set of protective gear, reduce
tax on safety equipment & give insurance credits for it.
France
Thinks he should be able to ride at a speed at which he feels safe.
France
Says he can ignore speed cameras, because bikes have no front number plate for the
camera to detect and identify the bike.
France
Should provide insurance discounts for protective equipment and for some training
programs e.g. off-road riding.
France
Should reduce VAT tax on protective equipment from 20% to 5.5 %
ROAD SYSTEM OVERSIGHT – STRATEGIC
Country
Comment
Austria
Doesn’t wear a helmet except when riding at club events, where it is mandatory for
insurance cover. (elderly scooter rider)
Australia
Drinks alcohol and rides because of his perception that Police rarely test the breath of
motorcycle riders.
France
Uses his GPS for it’s speed camera detection capability and for his music. “I don’t
listen to the directions though. I only use it for these 2 reasons.”
France
Unhappy with a law that allows bicycle riders but not motorcycle riders to use bus
lanes to bypass traffic congestion.
Austria
Breaks some road rules: turns left although it is forbidden, parks on the side walk;
ignores stop signs if no traffic.
France
Wants to be periodically tested for fitness to ride – wants to be told if he is a danger to
himself or others.
France
On a bike, brakes two laws – speeding and overtaking. Believes these laws are
designed for cars, not motorcycles.
Australia
Believes riders should be covered when they do an advanced riders course- riders are
currently not covered if they have an accident while doing an off- road riding course.
Australia
Insurance companies should give people a discount for doing advanced rider training
courses.
Australia
Believes there should be an excess changed to riders who require medical attention
after a bike accident if they have not been wearing appropriate protective equipment.
This gives riders a choice to wear safety equipment - but they pay if they need extra
treatment.
Australia
Believes that lane splitting should remain illegal because “the risk is greater than the
return”.
Australia
Should adopt a common base level of training nationally or internationally. (Australian
rider)
Australia
Believes it should be legal for bikes to “lane filter” when the traffic is stationary or
moving slowly. If car drivers know that motorcycles can legally lane filter, they will not
get so aggressive and angry when a bike passes them.
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Australia
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In Australia, motorcycles are not covered by insurance in riding courses. Believes this
discourages people from taking the courses.
Need to have a box on the road at the head of the traffic for bikes- “it is safer because
it stops bikes from being rear-ended”
Believes bikes are being made for overseas conditions, not Australian conditions.
Believes laws are designed for cars rather than bikes.
Australia
Make white lines and “cats’ eyes” less slippery; make speed humps more obvious so
they don’t just look like lines on the road.
Australia
Believes raised handle bars, as opposed to low sports handle bars, give better control
and reduce fatigue.
Australia
Says pillion seat should be level with rider seat, so passenger does not slide forward
when stopping.
France
Should legalize lane splitting and use of safety shoulder
France
Improve road maintenance, and change road surfaces that become slippery when
wet.
France
Believes riders should influence legislation through the action of their clubs
France
Does not respect rules that are designed for cars and don’t take motorcycles into
account e.g. continuous white lines “designed and measured for cars”. Riders have
much more power than car drivers – so, if they can see far enough, can safely
overtake on continuous white line.
France
Many white surface paints, used mostly in cities, are slippery, even when dry.
France
Smooth pavements (“les pavés”), common in Paris, are very slippery, even in dry
weather. They are common before and after crosswalks.
France
Wire rope barriers can be a danger to riders who fall. Need another barrier (the same
as the one on the top) at/near ground level.
France
Put wire rope barriers on the exterior (not on the inside; where no one crashes) of
large curves.
France
Improve road maintenance procedures – some machines that remove old road leave
small rocks in narrow straight lines. Riders must follow the lines, which they find
dangerous.
France
Improve road maintenance procedures – when road is re-surfaced, avoid differences
in road level where lanes meet. Can be dangerous for riders who split lanes along
lane junctions.
France
Improve road maintenance procedures – small pebbles (“gravillons”) placed over
layers of new tar are a danger to riders, as they are slippery.
France
Metal plates on bridges which are used as “dilation buffers” are slippery and
dangerous, especially on curved road sections. Use non-slippery surfaces.
France
Some road signs are placed too close to the road. They can be dangerous to riders
who lean close to the road edge if their helmet comes in contact with the sign.
France
Advertising billboards, especially at night, can distract riders.
France
When driving a car, thinks much about road laws; when on a bike, thinks much about
safety (a young inexperienced rider)
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ROAD SYSTEM OVERSIGHT – EXPERIENCE
Country
France
France
France
Comment
Has become more flexible about the rules with experience.
Believes that off-road circuits could be a good way for all riders to experience speed
etc., as have security safeguards (e.g. ambulances; everyone rides in the same
direction).
Off road experience could be beneficial in learning how to take curves, to ride on
slippery roads, etc.
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APPENDIX 11 WORK TASK DOCKET – SOCIAL INTERACTION
SOCIAL INTERACTION – OPERATIONAL
Country
Comment
France
Uses his warning lights if it’s night time or when it’s raining so that others see him
coming.
France
If a car driver overtakes him or puts him in a dangerous situation, he gives them “the
rude finger”. If they let him overtake them, he gives them “the thumbs up” to show
them his appreciation.
France
Thinks it’s important to maintain eye contact with other cars, “...so that I understand
and they understand what I’m doing.”
Austria
Gives hand signs to other MC riders but not to scooters; or with the head if the hands
are occupied.
France
Flashes headlights if he wants to pass someone in front of him who doesn’t realize he
wants to pass him.
France
Knocks on side of car if driver has been careless or discourteous.
France
Nods his head right or left to signal to others that they can have right of way left or
right.
France
Thinks drivers might not understand the meaning of rider courtesy gestures (e.g.
signal with leg). May mistake it for aggressive behaviour.
When reaching the head of the traffic, positions himself slightly in front of the lead
vehicle. “I position the bike so that the car knows that I am there.” But beware – if lead
vehicle is a ‘doof-doof’ car, they tend to be aggressive.
Australia
France
Signals with leg to thank for courtesies, as it lets him keep his hands on the
handlebars.
France
Uses his horn to warn drivers to open a space. If they are not paying attention, he
uses his brake lights to show that he is slowing down.
France
Acknowledges other riders as they pass.
France
Is concerned that drivers rarely use turn signals, especially at roundabouts (which
could cut them off).
France
Uses his helmet-to-helmet communication device occasionally, but only when riding
slowly for recreational purposes.
France
Listens, even at an unconscious level, for sounds of other vehicles that may be on a
collision course with him, especially when they cannot be seen.
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SOCIAL INTERACTION – TACTICAL
Session
Comment
Australia
If riding in a group, puts the slower rider at front to keep an eye on them rather than
“barreling off” so they are not riding on their own.
Austria
Rides extremely slow, when wet; sometimes asks cars to overtake him.
Australia
Chats occasionally with other riders when stopped at lights.
Australia
If he wants another rider to overtake him, puts leg out on the side that he wants
them to pass- it let’s the person behind know that he is ready for them to pass and
on which side to pass.
Australia
If riding ahead of someone and he can see a hazard on the road, he points it out to
the rider behind him.
Australia
Uses his horn, “but it doesn’t make anyone stop.”
Wants an extra stop light and blinker lights on the back of his box so that they stand
out more.
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
Australia
France
France
France
Believes that “Truck drivers are good. They seem to be more aware on the road.”
Is contemplating having air horn fitted to bike so that “they will know that I am there.”
Was told by a friend a technique for avoiding a collision without falling, which he
later used successfully.
Goes on organized rides, with a leader and tail ender. Everyone stays in front of the
tail ender, and when the leader turns off, s/he waves to the others behind that s/he
is turning and waits for others to pass.
Rides with others on weekends.
Gathers with other riders, and discuss issues (e.g. at club meetings, roadside
convocations)
Believes that “the safest heavy traffic” is in Paris, on the peripherique, because car
drivers “…take care of the bikers because they have the habit to deal with them”
SOCIAL INTERACTION – STRATEGIC
Session
Comment
Austria
As a scooter rider, does not communicate with m/c riders – “they look down on
scooter riders”. But would help them in an emergency.
Australia
Feels that people treated him differently on his last scooter, which had two front
wheels instead of one.
France
Believes he is part of riding community …”we watch out for each other.”
France
Riders talk to each other a lot about dangers/black spots when they meet e.g. over a
coffee, and at club functions. They remember what they discuss.
Australia
Need to create a bike culture. In countries where there is a bike culture there is more
awareness of bikes on the road, and less aggression towards motorcycles.
Australia
Improve the public perception of motorcycle riders. A bad image affects the way that
drivers interact with riders in the road.
Beginner nights are good. Experienced riders give beginners advice. Opportunity for
novice riders to learn from experienced riders.
Australia
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France
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Riders have a code, there is a community spirit.
Project good image to other road users (protective clothing looks threatening which is
an issue).
Need more outreach club days to educate the non-riding community.
Need outreach days to take road designers and others on a bike to show them road
and infrastructure problems, and explain why.
SOCIAL INTERACTION – EXPERIENCE
Session
Australia
Australia
France
Comment
Need a positive message to encourage riders to reduce speed.
Need a positive message to encourage riders to wear better protection.
Riding can be dangerous; he knows that from friends who have crashed.
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APPENDIX 12: WORK TASK DOCKET – PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT
PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT – OPERATIONAL
Session
Comment
Austria
Needs to have the spare wheel of his scooter touching his knees – it helps him to
“feel” his direction, like when riding on a horse.
France
Sometimes finds the bike too noisy and uses earplugs.
Austria
Misses his car radio.
Austria
Enjoys feeling the forces transmitted through the bike.
France
Believes that too much assistance from advanced rider assistance systems might
“kill” the pleasure of riding.
France
Likes the feeling he gets when he rides the bike well.
France
Likes the power of the bike.
Enjoys greater control of brakes (ie compared to car).
France
Australia
Australia
France
Likes having no distractions, no-one talking to him, no phones. On the bike, he is
aware of the surroundings.
Likes to put his skill to the test.
Opens the helmet visor when riding in the country to enjoy the experience more.
PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT – TACTICAL
Country
Comment
France
When on the road and sees that another motorcyclist has had an accident or having
problems, will stop and ask them if they need help – “but for a bicyclist or a scooter
rider I would not do the same.”
France
Sometimes listens to an i-pod so that he can listen to music while he rides.
France
Enjoys being alone on his bike.
Australia
Doesn’t feel any vulnerability in the car- “my hackles and awareness are not up.” Has
an increased sense of awareness on the bike.
Is so focused on what he is doing that “all the rubbish” is pushed out of his head. He
finds it quite meditative.
Australia
France
Slows down, and enjoys the experience when riding for pleasure.
Enjoys weekend trips.
France
You don’t have to be blocked or constrained by anyone.
France
For some, ABS is “a suppression of freedom”. For me, it’s the last chance in an
emergency situation” (a young inexperienced rider).
France
Will not use ABS, because when you have it, you cannot “stop the wheels” – so you
can’t discover the limits of the bike.
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PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT – STRATEGIC
Country
Comment
Australia
“Motorcycle riders hate car drivers and think that they (car drivers) are above the law
when it comes to road rules”.
France
Believes that the smaller a scooter is, the more aggressive is the rider.
He feels that riding a motorbike reduces pollution.
Australia
Australia
Australia
Doesn’t ride in excessively windy weather, because the enjoyment of riding will be
reduced.
Riding lets him be by himself, “connected to the vehicle”.
Australia
If he had to stick to a speed limit of 100km/hr, he would give up riding because it
wouldn’t give him what he needs from riding.
Australia
The downsides of riding are getting wet, falling off and hitting something. Weather.
And the Police. They “take the fun out of it”.
Australia
Harley Davidson’s are about “look at me”; the sports bike is about speed.
Australia
Part of the fun of riding is overcoming the things that are thrown at you – that are
“designed” to take you off the bike.
Australia
I can do it (ie ride) by myself – not like waterskiing where you are connected by a
rope.
Australia
France
I enhance the adrenalin rush by riding on twisty roads.
The biker image is attractive.
France
You can use the bike to do almost anything – travel, tour with friends, ride off road etc.
France
You have engine power – you can increase speed very easily in a few seconds.
France
The bike can make you attractive to girls.
France
You cannot take pleasure from riding when you are also trying to control the situation.
“It’s incompatible. Pleasure is when you are free-minded.”
PERSONAL ENGAGEMENT – EXPERIENCE
Session
Comment
Austria
Started riding again after a break of 10 years as riding for him “is like an addiction”.
Australia
Rides more within his limits now because he doesn’t want to “bend” his bike, or
himself.
2BES_WP5_D21_UsingCWAforPTWsafety_INRETS_Final.doc
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