Energy carriers
Why does energy matter?
Not everyone has enough energy (ACCESS)
Some energy supplies are uncertain (SECURITY)
Some energy sources are in finite global supply
(SCARCITY)
Energy sources are not equally geographically distributed
(DISTRIBUTION)
Some energy sources are intermittent (STORAGE)
Local nvironmental impacts from energy use
(POLLUTION)
Environmental impacts from energy use are changing the
earth's climate (GLOBAL CATASTROPHE)
1
Energy carriers in our daily lives
Biomass (food, fuel, fertilizer)
Fossil fuels: oil (liquid), coal (solid), natural
gas
Heat (solar, geothermal)
Electricity: through electric grid
Electricity: through battery or fuel cell
(chemical energy)
Uses for specific carriers
What can you use for heat?
Solar radiation, geothermal, burn biomass or any fossil fuel,
dissipate electricity in a resistance => EVERYTHING
What can you use for transportation?
Yourself (biomass), animals (biomass), oil (cars,buses, trains,
planes), compressed or liquid natural gas (cars, buses, trains),
coal (trains), electricity (grid transportation: bus, tram, train),
electric unit (battery or fuel cell) => almost everything.
Then why is oil the best transportation fuel ever?
What can you use for light? Electricity, oil, gas
What can you use for appliances?
ELECTRICITY
2
Important properties of energy carriers
1) Abundance
2) Availability
3) Cost (economic)
4) Rate of supply (renewable vs. fossil)
5) Energy density (MJ/kg)
6) Time-dependence of supply
7) Storage
8) Distribution
9) Production: centralized or distributed
10) Environmental impacts (risk, pollution)
Energy densities
What do you estimate the density of different
energy carriers to be? Maybe easier in
kcal/kg, 1000 kcal ~ 4 MJ.
3
Energy densities of selected carriers
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food
biomass
4
food
biomass
USA per capita energy consumption 1795-2006
(does not include biomass for food)
E n e rg y in G J p e r c a p ita
400
Coal
Natural gas
Petroleum
Nuclear
Hydroelectric
Geothermal
Solar PV
Wind
Wood
Total
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
2005
1991
1977
1963
1949
1935
1921
1907
1893
1879
1865
1851
1837
1823
1809
1795
0
Year
2000 Watt society
Sources: USA Energy Information Agency Annual Energy Review 2005 , USA Census Measuring America (2002)
5
USA per capita energy consumption 1795-2006
400
Total fossil
Nuclear
Total renewable
Total
Energy in GJ per capita
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
2005
1991
1977
1963
1949
1935
1921
1907
1893
1879
1865
1851
1837
1823
1809
1795
0
Year
Sources: USA Energy Information Agency Annual Energy Review 2006 , USA Census Measuring America (2002)
USA total energy consumption 1795-2006
Total fossil
100
E n e rg y in E x a J o u le s
P o p u la tio n in 1 0 0 %
Nuclear
Total renewable
80
Total
Population (100% = 2006)
60
40
20
2005
1991
1977
1963
1949
1935
1921
1907
1893
1879
1865
1851
1837
1823
1809
1795
0
Year
Sources: USA Energy Information Agency Annual Energy Review 2006 , USA Census Measuring America (2002)
6
OIL
Abundance, access, distribution: OIL
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
7
Peak Oil?
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Zittel, Schindler et al 2004:
(non-OPEC countries)
Or no peak oil?
Note: better extraction/prospection, inflation of reported reserves to avoid
economic loss of confidence?
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
8
EIA Nominal
EIA "Real" 2000
Using 2000 CPI
Using 2006 CPI
19
6
19 8
7
19 0
7
19 2
7
19 4
7
19 6
7
19 8
8
19 0
8
19 2
8
19 4
8
19 6
8
19 8
9
19 0
9
19 2
9
19 4
9
19 6
9
20 8
0
20 0
0
20 2
0
20 4
06
Price of one barrel in USD
World crude oil prices, 1968-2006
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Source: EIA 2007 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/oilprice.html
CPI from http://oregonstate.edu/cla/polisci/faculty/sahr/sahr.htm
Own calculation
Source http://www.wtrg.com/prices.htm
Any reasons for fluctuations?
9
1869-2004 crude oil prices
Last week
More recent prices: light crude futures
Source: 2007 http://futures.tradingcharts.com/
Source: http://www.wtrg.com/prices.htm
10
World-wide oil trade
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2004
Transportation of oil: ship, pipeline, truck
Kazakhstan, source USA Energy Information Agency 2004-2005
11
Eurasia and pipelines
Source USA EIA 2004-2005
12
Pipelines, continued
Source USA CIA 2003 (via EIA)
Geopolitics and pipelines: blue stream
Source: Radio Free Europe Free Liberty
13
Coal
14
“Down the mine” by Orwell (1937)
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Integral text online: http://www.george-orwell.org/Down_The_Mine/0.html
King Coal
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
15
Fossil Worldwide Reserves,
Production, Consumption
FUEL
Reserves
Production
Consumption
Years left at
current
consumption
Units
MJ
MJ
MJ
Years
Oil
9.44E+015
1.63E+014
1.61E+014
58.74
Anthracite
1.50E+016
lignite
7.75E+015
Coal
2.28E+016
1.21E+014
1.23E+014
185.7
Gas
6.82E+015
1.05E+014
1.04E+014
65.4
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
Lots of coal left: what does it mean?
Coal is currently mainly used for electricity
generation (thermal power plants).
When oil runs out or becomes too expensive,
coal can be transformed into a high energy
density liquid through the process of "coal
liquefaction" (already done by the Nazis and
Apartheid South Africa).
Break-even costs for coal liquefaction?
estimated at 30-60 $/barrel (currently above
60 $/barrel since mid-2005).
16
Electricity and electricity mixes
Important properties of energy carriers
1) Abundance
2) Availability
3) Rate of supply (renewable vs. fossil)
4) Energy density (MJ/kg)
5) Time-dependence of supply
6) Storage
7) Distribution
8) Production: centralized or distributed
9) Environmental impacts (risk, pollution)
17
Electricity: a final energy from many primary sources
Hydraulic (via solar and atmospheric processes and
water pressure turning mechanical turbines)
Nuclear (via supernova nucleosynthesis and
galactic processes, extraction, refining, controlled
fission heating water and turning mechanical
turbines)
Wind (via via solar and atmospheric processes and
air pressure turning mechanical turbines)
Photovoltaic Solar (solar radiation via the
photoelectric effect in high-tech Si chips)
Fossil (Solar radiation, geothermal processes, time,
extraction, refining, burning to heat water and turn
mechanical turbines)
Energy carrier properties for electricity
Energy carrier
Storage
Distribution
Production:
centralized or
distributed
Environmental impacts
Electricity
Not possible
(except in
repumping
dams)
Requires electric grid
Can be both
Depends on production
mechanism, usually fossil
Gasoline
Possible
Requires tanker
ships, pipelines
VERY LOCAL
Air pollution, water pollution,
climate change
Natural Gas
Possible but
difficult
VERY LOCAL
Air pollution, water pollution,
climate change (but cleaner than
oil)
Coal
Possible
LOCAL
Air pollution, water pollution,
climate change (much worse than
oil)
Nuclear
Pollution risks
Pollution risks
LOCAL
Waste disposal is unsolved
problem. Uranium itself may be as
toxic as lead.
Solar
Not possible
(except in
plants)
Worldwide, more or
less
Decentralized
Depends on technology choice,
trade-offs in land-use choices.
Wind
Not possible
Sea coast, mountain
ridges
Decentralized
Landscape, usually considered
not very high
Hydro
good storage
large river systems
Possible but difficult
(pipelines, LNG
infrastructure)
Ship, train, truck (no
passive transport like
pipelines over long
distances)
LOCAL
Ecosystem disruption
18
CO2 emissions from electricity
Electricity Source
Units
Fossil power plants
Hard Coal (anthracite or
bituminous)
Soft Coal (sub-bituminous
or lignite)
Oil
Natural Gas
Primary
Primary
CO2
energy (nonenergy
emissions
renewable) (renewable)
MJ primary
MJ primary /
k g CO2 /
/MJ final
MJ final
MJ final
3.44
0.03
0.275
3.84
0.01
0.338
3.45
3.1
0.01
0.01
0.238
0.167
Nuclear power plants
3.52
0.01
0.002
Renewable
Wind
Solar Photovoltaic
Hydraulic dam
0.05
0.38
0.01
4
6.5
1.28
0.003
0.020
0.001
Source: EcoInvent Database
What is in coal-generated electricity?
110 times more Particulates per kWh
compared to natural gas
23 times more SO2 per kWh
16 times more mercury per kWh (380 kg/yr for
a 1000 MW plant)
radioactive trace elements
Coal is 1-10 ppm Uranium, 2.5-25 ppm Thorium
Uranium energy density in coal is 25% the
energy density of coal!
Sources: EcoInvent and A. Gabbard, ORNL
19
20
21
22
Transportation
23
Transportation
Growing energy use for transportation
worldwide.
Principally based on petroleum products
Generally two types of transportation:
1) Electric grid + rail or road (tram, train, buses)
2) Liquid fuel-based
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3)Animal or human powered.
Metrics for transportation
Personal transportation: passenger*kilometre
Freight transportation:
tonne*kilometre
Source OECD 1996
24
Primary energy cost of passenger transport
Transport mode
Plane
Car
Bus
Train
Primary energy
MJ / p-km
9.83
3.25
1.87
1.06
CO2 emitted
kg / p-km
0.36
0.18
0.11
0.06
Source EcoInvent Database
Final energy for passenger transportation
Source EEA 2001
25
Primary energy cost of freight transport
Transport mode
Plane
16tonne truck
32tonne truck
Train
Barge
Ocean Tanker
Primary energy
MJ / t-km
17.71
6.13
2.81
0.75
0.65
0.09
CO2 emitted
kg / t-km
1.11
0.35
0.16
0.036
0.04
0.044
0.04
0.005
0.01
Source EcoInvent Database
Final energy cost of road freight
Source EEA 2001
26
The global carbon cycle
What happens when we burn so much fossil fuels?
27
Climate change in the past
current
level
380 ppm
Agriculture
begins
Homo
Source T. Stocker 2005
Sapiens
appears (Can extend graph to 850'000, T. Stocker 2006)
Climate change in the present
28
CO2 and energy carriers
-4
-3
2
1
0
+2
+4
Source: J. Siirola, GRC 2006
29
Source: J. Siirola, GRC 2006
Causes of CO2 increase in atmosphere
Volcanoes ?
Agriculture / deforestation ?
Burning biomass ?
Burning fossil fuels ?
Sun-driven global warming?
at 380 ppm, CO2 in atmosphere corresponds
to 730 GigaTonnes Carbon (GTC)
or 2650 GigaTonnes CO2 (GTCO2)
(3.664 factor between CO2 and C)
a 30% increase since 1900.
30
Remember CO2 in
atmosphere is
currently 730 GTC!
Source: J. Siirola, GRC 2006
CO2 content of proved fossil reserves
CO2 in atmosphere at 380 ppm: 2.65e12 tonnes
FUEL
Units
Oil
Anthracite
lignite
Coal
Gas
Total
Proportion to
Reserves current CO2 in
atmosphere
tonnes CO2
percent
7.01E+011
26.45%
1.32E+012
1.45E+012
2.77E+012
104.49%
3.41E+011
12.88%
3.81E+012
143.82%
Production
Consumption
tonnes CO2
1.21E+010
tonnes CO2
1.19E+010
1.66E+010
5.25E+009
3.40E+010
1.69E+010
5.22E+009
3.40E+010
Source for proven reserves: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006
31
Food
A few facts about food
In Switzerland, fossil primary energy spent
on food is estimated to be 34 GJ/person/year
Fossil primary energy spent on private
transportation is 42 GJ/person/year
An average person eats 4.75 GJ/person/year in
nutritional calories
Primary fossil / nutritional energy = 7
Source: Keanzig et Jolliet 2006, Consommation respectueuse de l'environnement, Rapport pour l'OFEV
32
Swiss agriculture and climate change
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2003
Agriculture and climate change (2)
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2003
33
Methane et Nitrous oxide
Methane = CH4 (natural gas)
8% of CO2-eq. in Switz., of which 63% from agriculture
1 kg CH4 = 21 kg CO2-eq.
In agriculture, methane comes from animal digestion and
organic fertilizer.
Nitrous oxide = N2O
7% of CO2-eq in Switz., of which 72% from agriculture
1 kg N2O = 310 kg CO2-eq.
Soil processes and various fertilizer.
Agriculture world-wide has emitted as many greenhouse
gases as fossil fuel burning since 1900.
Livestock world-wide emits as much GHG/yr as global
transport.
(Source: FAO 2006, Livestock’s long shadow)
8
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2003
34
Cause of the reduction of Swiss agricultural
methane
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2005
Conséquence
Plus de farines animales: donc fourrage
importé:
Source BLW, Rapport Agricole 2002
Dont soja du Brésil et de l'Argentine
(déforestation, perte de biodiversité)
35
Example of an industrial symbiosis with a
bad ending …
Feeding animals with animal remains
Result: Spongiform encephalitis – Mad cow
disease.
Soybean in Brazil
Source M. Shean, United States Department of Agriculture, 2004
36
Soybean area in Brazil (2)
Source M. Shean, United States Department of Agriculture, 2004
37
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