CHAPTER 2
The Journey Begins –
Childhood
Chapter Overview
The Journey
Begins-Childhood
Perspectives on Child
Development
The Psychodynamic
Perspective
Development of Personality
The Structure of Personality
Personality Dynamics
Modifications
Applying It to Yourself
The Biological Perspective
Nature v. Nurture
A Newer Approach
Applying It to Yourself
Chapter Overview cont’d
The Journey
Begins -Childhood
cont’d
The Social-Cognitive
Perspective
Social Learning Theories
Recent Additions
Applying It to Yourself
Developmental Challenges
Temperament
Self-Recognition and Self-Concept
Attachment
Applying It to Yourself
The Humanistic Perspective
The Phenomenal Self
Self-Actualization
Applying It to Yourself
Chapter Summary
• Perspectives on Child Development
• The Biological Perspective on Child
Development
– Nature Versus Nurture: An Old Debate
– A Newer Approach
– Applying It to Yourself
Chapter Summary
cont’d
• The Psychodynamic Perspective on
Child Development
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–
–
–
–
Development of Personality
The Structure of Personality
Personality Dynamics
Modifications
Applying It to Yourself
Chapter Summary cont’d
• The Social-Cognitive Perspective on
Child Development
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–
–
–
Social Learning Theories
Recent Additions: Cognitions & Behavior
Evaluation
Applying It to Yourself
Chapter Summary cont’d
• The Humanistic Perspective on Child
Development
– The Phenomenal Self
– Self-Actualization
– Applying It to Yourself
Chapter Summary cont’d
• Developmental Challenges in
Childhood
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–
–
–
Temperament
Self-Recognition and Self-Concept
Attachment
Applying It to Yourself
Perspectives on Child
Development
• Development-the relatively enduring changes in
people’s capacities and behavior as they grow
older because of biological growth processes and
people’s interaction with their environment,
including their social environment.
• … a healthy childhood creates resiliency and
therefore a more fulfilling adulthood.
• Different viewpoints (perspectives) on
development offer “hows” and “whys”…
The Biological Perspective
on Child Development
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•
•
•
•
Nature Versus Nurture: An Old Debate
Genes-the biochemical units by which
characteristics are inherited.
Heredity-transmission of traits from
parents to offspring.
Some argue that almost all of our personal
characteristics are inherited or genetic.
Others argue that the environment and
learning are more influential.
This controversy is called the naturenurture debate.
Nature Versus Nurture:
An Old Debate cont’d
• …evolution and adaptation also play a
role in determining our characteristics.
• Studies of identical twins (who possess
identical genetic profiles) help to tease
out whether nature or nurture is more
important.
• Important questions and ethical issues
regarding the perspective persist.
A Newer Approach
• The nature-nurture debate: what is
more influential? biology or environment?
• The newer approach- development is the
result of a combination of or complex
interaction of both!
• An example: identical twins-similar in
some traits (the influence of genes) ;
dissimilar in others (the influence of
being in different environments on
different occasions).
Applying It to Yourself
• Do not blame your genes for causing
behavior or personality.
• Families also share the same environment!
• …examine your family tree to discover
common family traits.
• Will you find causes? Maybe, maybe not;
but the exercise can be an interesting
journey of self-discovery and selfrevelation!
The Psychodynamic Perspective
on Child Development
Introduction
• Psychodynamic theory-a group of related
theories that view personality and behavior in
terms of the dynamics (or interactions) of driving
forces of development (and of personality) such
as desires, anxieties, conflicts, and defenses.
• Founder, Sigmund Freud, felt that the causes of
our behavior were inaccessible to us (i.e. hidden in
the unconscious).
• Psychoanalytic therapy--GOAL: help people gain
insight, mastery into unconscious processes.
The Psychodynamic Perspective
on Child Development
Development
• … children pass through several stages.
• Fixation--the person becomes emotionally fixed at
one stage and symbolically continues to act out
wishes that were overly inhibited or indulged.
• First stage--the oral stage: the mouth becomes
the primary means of gratification for the child.
• Second stage--the anal stage: the child’s major
source of physical pleasure becomes the releasing
or retaining of feces.
The Psychodynamic Perspective
on Child Development
Development cont’d
• Third stage--the phallic stage: the period in
which the child experiences sensual pleasure
through handling his or her genitals.
• …also characterized by conflict or struggle
with the parent of the opposite sex, because
that parent attracts the attention and
affection of the other parent.
• In girls this is called the Electra complex.
• In boys it is called the Oedipal complex.
The Psychodynamic Perspective
on Child Development
Development cont’d
• Successful resolution of these conflicts
leads to the:
• Fourth stage--the latency stage: the
child’s interests turn away from sensuality
and the child’s urges lie dormant.
• Final stage--the genital stage: the person
begins the onset of puberty, true sexual
maturation, and adult sexual activity.
The Psychodynamic Perspective
on Child Development
The Structure of Personality
Freud suggested that the personality is composed of
three different structures which interact:
• ID – that part of the personality that is the
unconscious reservoir of psychic energy and the
source of later development.
• EGO – the direct outgrowth of the ID and which
functions as a manager of personality, thereby
enabling the individual to cope with the conflicting
demands of the ID, the SUPEREGO, and society.
• SUPEREGO – the part of personality which has
been shaped by the moral standards of society as
transmitted by the parents.
The Psychodynamic Perspective
on Child Development
The Structure of Personality cont’d
Each structure operates according to a
different principle:
ID – pleasure principle
EGO – reality principle
SUPEREGO – principle of
perfection
The Psychodynamic Perspective
on Child Development
Modifications
Freud’s students and followers:
• Anna Freud
• Carl Jung
• Erik Erikson
…decreased emphasis on sexuality.
…focused on ego development; social,
not intrapsychic conflict
The Psychodynamic Perspective
on Child Development
Applying It to Yourself
• Conflicting feelings are
“normal,” according to
Freud.
• Conflict may be
unconscious; it can cause
you to act in opposite ways,
e.g. loving and hating the
same person.
• Coping strategies derive
from your childhood and
how your parents raised
you.
• It is “normal” to
experience multiple
problems and anxieties
simultaneously.
• Optimal adjustment comes
from living in the world as
it is rather than wishing
the world were some other
way.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
on Child Development
Social-cognitive perspective--a broad term that includes
behavioral and social learning theories as well as cognitive
psychology.
Important concepts behind the perspective:
• Learning--a relatively permanent change in behavior.
• Learning theory--a systematic statement of learning
principles.
– Leading theorists: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B. F.
Skinner.
– Major concept: reinforcement--the addition of
something that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
EXAMPLE: a parent rewards a child’s bed-making by
reading her a favorite story.
• Cognitive psychology--perspective that assumes that
learning and behavior involve higher-level cognitive
functions or thinking.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
on Child Development
Social Learning Theory
…much of what we do and know is acquired through…
• Observational learning--process in which
we learn by observing events and other
people, or “models,” without any direct
reward or reinforcement.
– Leading theorist: Albert Bandura
– Research focus: the conditions under
which observational learning occurs; the
learning of aggression by children from
media sources.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
on Child Development
Recent Additions: Cognition and Behavior
Behavioral and social learning theorists now recognize that
behavior is influenced by:
• Cognition--the processing of information; involves
processes such as selective attention, information
gathering, memory, and motivation.
…and that behavior, thinking, and environment interact:
• Reciprocal determinism--the notion that there is a mutual
interaction among factors that affect our learning,
cognition, and behaviors.
– EXAMPLE: a child who watches violence and whose
parents explain that violence is not acceptable. The
child, then, is less likely to actually commit violence.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
on Child Development
Recent Additions: Cognition and Behavior
cont’d
…also important is:
• Self-efficacy--the belief in one’s capacity to
organize and execute the courses of action
required to produce given attainments.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
on Child Development
Self-Efficacy: An Example
• A student who studies hard for an
exam so as to improve her changes of
receiving a high grade is
demonstrating self-efficacy.
• Self-efficacy is an extremely
important concept in the field of
personal growth and development.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective
on Child Development
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•
•
•
Applying It to Yourself
Many behaviors and personality traits are
acquired by interaction with significant
others, like parents.
Past experiences and learning can be
undone; we can acquire new behaviors and
better traits and achieve personal change
and growth.
“Abnormal” patterns can be replaced by
more adaptive and optimal patterns.
Because of constant interaction with our
environments personal change and growth
is ongoing.
The Humanistic Perspective
on Child Development
• Humanistic psychology--a group of related
theories and therapies that emphasize the values
of human freedom and the uniqueness of
individuals.
…also known as the “third force” in psychology, with
psychoanalysis and behaviorism being one and two!
– Leading humanistic theorists: Carl Rogers, Abraham
Maslow.
New outgrowth of humanistic psychology:
• Positive psychology--umbrella term for the study
of positive emotions, positive character traits,
and enabling institutions.
The Humanistic Perspective
on Child Development
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•
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The Phenomenal Self
Described by Carl Rogers
…it is the individual’s overall self-concept
available to awareness.
… part our biological tendency to develop
and fulfill ourselves.
Children have a need for unconditional
positive regard or acceptance by others.
They often experience “conditions of
worth” from significant others, leading to
self-distortions…
The Humanistic Perspective
on Child Development
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•
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The Phenomenal Self cont’d
Rogers states that children thrive in
supportive and accepting environments.
…but not all environments are supportive
and accepting!
Person-centered therapy, developed by
Rogers, provides a supportive, warm, and
accepting environment.
…more detail on this later!
The Humanistic Perspective
on Child Development
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Self-Actualization
Described by Abraham Maslow
It is the process of fulfilling our inborn
potential.
…an inborn tendency.
When our basic needs (food, water, etc.)
are met, we become more aware of our
need for fulfillment.
…more on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
to come.
The Humanistic Perspective
on Child Development
Apply It to Yourself
• Perceive yourself in terms of your positive
strengths and potential rather than in terms of
shortcomings.
• Problems and conflicts are not necessary nor
inevitable.
• Optimal adjustment can be achieved through
personal growth and by taking reasonable risks.
• Self-actualization is an ongoing process and as
such is only imperfectly realized for most of us.
• Perfection is not necessary for happiness.
Developmental Challenges
in Childhood
There are several developmental
milestones that affect
personality…
Developmental Challenges
in Childhood
Temperament
• An individual’s characteristic pattern of
emotional response and behavioral reactivity to
situations and stressors.
• Researchers categorize infant temperament in
one of three ways:
– Easy--happy and cheerful
– Difficult--irritable and unpredictable
– Slow-to-warm--restrained until they adjust to new
situations
• Temperament seems to be “nature”
• Early temperament correlates with later
personality.
Developmental Challenges
in Childhood
Self-Recognition and Self-Concept
• Self-concept depends on…
• Self-recognition--a child's ability to
differentiate him- or herself from others in the
social environment.
• …occurs between 18-24 months as evidenced by
the “surprise-mark” test.
• Children start using personal pronouns (i.e., “I,”
“me”) around 20-24 months.
• Self-concept, self-esteem, self-efficacy are
based in self-recognition.
Developmental Challenges
in Childhood
Apply It to Yourself
Are you:
• Trusting or suspicious?
• Easy-going or anxious?
• Secure in your relationships or mistrustful?
When you look in the mirror, who do you see?
The answers to these questions are rooted in your
childhood!
Conclusion
• There are differing perspectives on child
development, each with its own contributions.
• No one perspective is better than another.
• In fact, given human uniquenesses, perhaps a
combination of ideas from the various
perspectives will one day offer a better
conceptualization of human growth and
development.
• Child development is the prelude to later
development.