AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 - 2021
MARCH 2017
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
ABOUT ACI-NA
Airports Council International - North America (ACI-NA) represents local, regional,
and state governing bodies that own and operate commercial airports in the United
States and Canada. ACI-NA member airports enplane more than 95 percent of the
domestic and virtually all the international airline passenger and cargo traffic in North
America. Approximately 380 aviation-related businesses are also members of ACI-NA,
providing goods and services to airports. Collectively, more than 1.3 million people work
at a U.S. airport. Airports account for $1.2 trillion in economic activity—or seven percent
of the total U.S. workforce and eight percent of GDP. Canadian airports support 405,000
jobs and contribute C$35 billion to Canada’s GDP. Learn more at www.aci-na.org. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ACI-NA thanks its member airports for their contribution and input to this report.
Without their participation, ACI-NA would not have been able to create this report and
the important information on the airport development costs required for the national
airport system of the United States.
ACI-NA staff contributors to this report include Liying Gu, Ashley Sng, Anda Husarciuc,
Debby McElroy, Tom Devine, Greg Cota, Annie Russo, and Scott Elmore. For further
information on this report, please contact Liying Gu at [email protected] or (202) 861-8084.
© 2017 Airports Council Internationa1 - North America
Airports Council International - North America
1615 L Street, NW // Suite 300
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: (202) 293-8500 // Fax: (202) 331-1362
www.aci-na.org
facebook.com/airportscouncil
twitter.com/airportscouncil
Cover photos courtesy of Salt Lake City International Airport, Raleigh-Durham
International Airport, and Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport.
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
MAKING AIRPORTS A NATIONAL PRIORITY
In recent months, President Donald J. Trump and policy makers on both sides of the
aisle have become outspoken advocates for America’s airports and the state of airport
infrastructure. After all, our airports are powerful engines of economic growth and
opportunity for local communities across the United States.
At the same time, America’s airports have significant infrastructure needs that must be
addressed in order to remain competitive in the global aviation system and support our
economy. As such, airports stand ready to work with the Trump Administration and
Congress to address airport needs in the most cost effective and sustainable way possible.
But where do we begin? To help us better understand the real infrastructure needs of
America’s airports and the impact our aging infrastructure has on our passengers and
customers, we conducted a study of U.S. airports. The results, contained in this report,
offers a comprehensive look at the scope of airport infrastructure needs and projects.
Over the next five years, airports in the United States have nearly $100 billion in muchneeded infrastructure projects. These projects will allow airports to accommodate
growth in passenger and cargo activity, rehabilitate existing facilities, and support aircraft
innovation.
The longer we delay, America’s airports will fall behind and our infrastructure needs
become more expensive to fix. Time is of the essence. We must act immediately to get
Washington out of the way and eliminate the outdated federal restrictions that hold
America’s airports back. By giving airports the ability to meet their local infrastructure
needs without relying on federal tax dollars, airports will be well positioned to maintain
their leadership in the global aviation system.
Warm regards,
Kevin M. Burke
President and CEO
Airports Council International – North America
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
TABLES
Table 1: Airport Infrastructure Cost Estimates by Year and Airport Category........................... 11
Table 2: Average Annual Cost Estimate from Published ACI-NA Infrastructure
Needs Reports............................................................................................................................ 11
Table 3: Development Costs by Project Location............................................................................. 15
Table 4: Development Costs by Project Type................................................................................... 17
Table 5: ACI-NA Sample Compared to Industry Total................................................................... 24
Table 6: ACI-NA Sample Infrastructure Development Costs Per Enplanement......................... 25
Table 7: Total Infrastructure Development Costs Estimate for Large, Medium,
and Small Hub Airports............................................................................................................ 25
Table 8: Total Infrastructure Development Costs Estimate............................................................ 26
Table 9: ACI-NA Total Costs by Project Type.................................................................................. 27
FIGURES
Figure 1: 5-Year Development Estimates from Published ACI-NA Infrastructure
Needs Reports.............................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 2: Consumer Price Index (CPI) Indicates Continued Inflation......................................... 12
Figure 3: CCI Exceeds CPI Over the Next Five Years..................................................................... 13
Figure 4: FAA Projects Continued Strong Growth in Passengers.................................................. 14
Figure 5: FAA Projects Continued Growth in Air Cargo................................................................ 14
Figure 6: Airport Infrastructure Needs by Type of Development................................................. 16
Figure 7: Change in Development Cost from Last ACI-NA Report............................................. 18
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLES......................................................................................................................................................4
FIGURES....................................................................................................................................................4
SURVEY SNAPSHOT.............................................................................................................................. 6
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS OVERVIEW......................................................................... 9
ACI-NA ESTIMATE OF AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS..................................................... 11
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT COSTS BY LOCATION AND TYPE....................................................15
COMPARISON OF ACI-NA AND FAA ESTIMATES.........................................................................19
CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................................21
APPENDIX 1: SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY..................................................................................22
APPENDIX 2: BACKGROUND.............................................................................................................23
APPENDIX 3: HOW ACI-NA CALCULATED INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT COSTS...24
APPENDIX 4: FAA DEFINITIONS OF AIRPORT CATEGORIES...................................................28
APPENDIX 5: RESPONDENTS 2015 PASSENGER TRAFFIC STATISTICS................................ 30
ENDNOTES.............................................................................................................................................35
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
The Infrastructure Needs of America’s Airports
SURVEY SNAPSHOT
AIRPORT
INFRASTRUCTURE
NEEDS
Terminal Buildings
$38 Billion
AIRPORT NEEDS
BY HUB SIZE
Between 2017 and 2021,
America’s airports
have nearly
$100 BILLION
in capital needs.
That’s
$20 BILLION
Airfield Capacity
and Standards
$19 Billion
a year.
Reconstruction
$15 Billion
Where is that money
needed most to make
airports better for air
passengers?
Surface Access
$13 Billion
Large Hubs
Medium Hubs
Small Hubs
Landside
Terminal
Airside
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE
UNMET NEEDS
Annually, airports generate about $10 billion to fund infrastructure projects. That leaves
airports more than $10 billion short when investing in local airport infrastructure.
Airport Generated Net Income
Airport Improvement Program
Passenger Facility Charges
Capital Contributions
State Grants
Unmet Needs
THE GOAL OF INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS:
IMPROVE, EXPAND, MAINTAIN
AIRPORT NEEDS vs. PASSENGER TRAFFIC
80
Infrastructure Needs in Billions of Dollars
Percentage of Passenger Traffic
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Large
Medium
Small
Non-Hub
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS OVERVIEW
The ACI-NA total estimate of U.S. airports’ infrastructure needs for 2017 through 2021,
adjusted for inflation,1 is nearly $100 billion ($99.9 billion) or almost $20 billion annualized.2
Sixty-three percent of the development is intended to accommodate growth in passenger and
cargo activity, and thirty percent is intended to rehabilitate existing infrastructure, maintain a
state of good repair, and keep airports up to standards for the aircraft that use them.
This estimate is a 31.9 percent increase over the 20153 estimate of $75.5 billion or $15.1 billion
annualized for 2015 through 2019. The estimate for large, medium and small hubs only4 is a
41.8 percent increase over the last estimate. For non-hub, non-primary commercial service,
reliever and general aviation airports, ACI-NA relied on the FAA National Plan of Integrated
Airport System (NPIAS) 2016 estimate for development costs, which are expected to increase
by 2.1 percent from the last report completed in 2014.
The $20 billion in average annual funding needs for U.S. airports is significantly higher than
the funding available through annual AIP grants, PFC revenue, and airport generated net
income. It is clear that the existing federally mandated funding system cannot meet U.S.
airport infrastructure needs for modernizing and expanding airport capacity which is critical
for a safe, efficient and globally competitive aviation system.
ACI-NA attributes the increase in airport infrastructure needs to several factors, including
the need to upgrade aging infrastructure, the recovering U.S. economy and increasing traffic
demand, and airline consolidation and concentration on hub operations.
The ACI-NA total estimate includes all airport improvements that are planned within the next
five years including those not eligible for AIP grants. Commercial service airports5, which
accounted for 99.8 percent of passenger enplanements in 2015, account for $86.1 billion (86.2
percent) of the total $99.9 billion for planned investments, while non-commercial-service
airports with 0.2 percent of the 2015 enplanements account for $13.8 billion (13.8 percent) of
the total $99.9 billion. Within the commercial service airports:
•
large hub airports, with 72.6 percent of all enplanements, account for $60.4 billion
(60.5 percent);
•
medium hub airports, with 15.4 percent of all enplanements, account for $11.7
billion (11.7 percent);
•
small hub airports, with 8.4 percent of all enplanements, account for $8.5 billion
(8.5 percent), and;
•
non-hub airports, with 3.4 percent of all enplanements, account for $5.5 billion (5.5
percent).
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
Commercial service airports reported a significant increase in infrastructure needs, with
an overall increase of 38.4 percent while non-commercial service airports had a 1.7 percent
increase. All airport categories showed growth from the previous estimate. Large hubs
reported the most significant increase at 50.6 percent followed by medium hubs with a 28.8
percent increase.
Large hubs reported an increase of 50.6 percent, from $40.1 billion to $60.4 billion, and
increased their share of total development by 7.5 percent from the 2014 - 2015 survey.
Significant development was identified at Detroit, San Diego, Portland, Los Angeles, Atlanta,
Chicago O’Hare, Chicago Midway, San Francisco, Orlando, Houston InterContinental,
Minneapolis, Salt Lake City, and Phoenix, with more than a 50 percent increase as these
airports undertake major infrastructure improvement programs. In particular, Los Angeles
International Airport alone reported $10 billion in infrastructure needs between 2017 and
2021, primarily for terminal redevelopment, landside access modernization, and runway
safety area rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Medium hubs reported an increase of 28.8 percent, from $9.1 billion to $11.7 billion,
and maintained their share of total development needs at around 12 percent. Significant
development was identified at Raleigh Durham, Ontario, Nashville, Jacksonville, Omaha,
Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky, San Jose, Sacramento, Houston Hobby, Dallas Love Field,
Kansas City, Austin, St. Louis, and John Wayne, with more than a 50 percent increase as these
airports undertake major infrastructure improvement programs.
Most small hubs reported single-digit increases in infrastructure needs. Major development
at Des Moines, Yellowstone, Hawaii Lihue, Manchester-Boston, Burbank, Savannah, and
Burlington airports resulted in an increase of over 50.0 percent in their infrastructure
improvement programs.
The overall increase shows that, as a result of the recovering economy and increasing
traffic demand, coupled with airline consolidation and their strategic shift to focus on
hub operations, large and medium hub airports have a particular need to invest in major
infrastructure improvement projects. Despite a decrease in flights at many small airports,
additional funding is still needed at these airports for upgrading aging infrastructure, meeting
federal mandates, and improving the passenger experience.
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
ACI-NA ESTIMATE OF AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
As shown in Table 1, total infrastructure needs for each year from 2017 through 2021 range
from $17.3 billion in 2021 to $21.9 billion in 20186, with average annual needs of $20.0
billion as shown in Table 2. Large hub airports account for the majority of these costs with
60.5 percent of the total followed by non-commercial service/new airports and medium hub
airports.
TABLE 1
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE COST ESTIMATES
BY YEAR AND AIRPORT CATEGORY
Millions of Current Year Dollars
Airport Category
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2017-2021
Percent
Large hub
12,627
13,502
13,778
10,929
9,539
60,375
60.5%
Medium hub
2,376
2,766
2,545
1,953
2,078
11,718
11.7%
Small hub
1,748
1,871
1,713
1,485
1,665
8,483
8.5%
Non-hub
1,068
1,084
1,100
1,117
1,134
5,504
5.5%
Other*
2,677
2,717
2,757
2,799
2,841
13,790
13.8%
20,496
21,940
21,895
18,283
17,256
99,869
100.0%
Total
Source: ACI-NA Survey and FAA NPIAS.
*Note: “Other” includes non-commercial service airports and 8 proposed airports based on FAA NPIAS report (20172021).
TABLE 2
AVERAGE ANNUAL COST ESTIMATE FROM PUBLISHED
ACI-NA INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS REPORTS
Millions of Current Year Dollars
Estimate Period
Average Annual
Infrastructure Needs
Percent Change
2017 - 2021
19,974
31.9%
2015 - 2019
15,148
6.3%
2013 - 2017
14,254
-11.0%
2011 - 2015
16,015
-15.1%
2009 - 2013
18,861
8.0%
2007 - 2011
17,472
-
Figure 1 below shows a significant increase in airport infrastructure needs in 2017
through 2021, in response to the increasing travel demand and the need to upgrade aging
infrastructure.
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
FIGURE 1
5-YEAR DEVELOPMENT ESTIMATES FROM PUBLISHED
ACI-NA INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS REPORTS
0
20
40
60
80
Total Airport Industry Infrastructure Needs
(in Billions of Current Year Dollar)
100
ACI-NA adjusted its infrastructure development cost estimate by 1.5 percent to account at
least partially for inflation. As shown in Figure 2, inflation is projected to continue in the 2017
through 2021 development cost estimate period.
FIGURE 2
CONSUMER PRICE INDEX (CPI) INDICATES CONTINUED INFLATION
Base year is 1982-1984 = 100
280
Consumer Price Index
265
250
Year
Average
Growth
1993 - 2002
2.5%
235
2003 - 2007
2.8%
220
2008 - 2014
1.7%
FAA 2016 Forecast
205
190
0.9%
2.4%
2015 - 2036
2.3%
2021
2019
2020
2017
2018
2015
2016
2014
2011
2012
2013
2010
2009
2007
2008
2005
2006
2003
2004
2001
2002
160
2000
175
2015 - 2016
2015 - 2025
Source: Actual Consumer Price Index from the US Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Forecast from the FAA
2016 Forecast Report based on IHS Global Insight 30-Year Forecast, Fourth Quarter 2016
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
Compounding the general inflationary trend is the much higher inflation rate for construction
materials and components. As shown in Figure 3, the “ENR Construction Cost Index (CCI)”7
data shows significant construction cost escalation in recent years. For the period 2017-2021,
the predicted growth rate according to IHS Global Insight averages 3.1 percent.8
FIGURE 3
CCI EXCEEDS CPI OVER THE NEXT FIVE YEARS
Base year 2007 = 1
Year
Percent
Change
1.5
2008
4.3
1.4
2009
3.1
2010
2.7
2011
3.1
2012
2.6
2013
2.6
2014
2.7
Construction Cost Index
1.6
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
Source: Engineering News-Record/IHS Global Insight
2015
2.3
2016
3.0
Forecast
2017
3.2
2018
2.5
2019
3.3
2020
3.3
2021
3.2
As FAA points out in the 2017-2021 NPIAS report, airport infrastructure development needs
are driven by current and forecasted traffic; use and age of facilities; and changing aircraft
technology that requires airports to update or replace equipment and infrastructure.9
The demand for passenger and cargo service will continue to grow, resulting in a
corresponding increase in airport infrastructure development costs. The FAA’s Aerospace
Forecast Fiscal Years 2016-2036 predicts that U.S. airlines will reach the one billion
passengers-per-year mark by 2027. The industry is expected to grow from 785.8 million
passengers in 2015 to 1.2 billion in 2036, as shown in Figure 4; and more than double the
cargo traffic as measured by revenue ton miles, as shown in Figure 5.
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
Scheduled Passenger Enplanements in Millions
FIGURE 4
FAA PROJECTS CONTINUED STRONG GROWTH IN PASSENGERS
Year
Enplanements
in Millions
1,400
2007
763.8
2008
759.1
1,000
2009
704.4
800
2010
712.1
2011
731.1
1,200
600
2012
736.6
400
2013
738.6
200
2014
757.0
2015
785.8
0
FAA 2016 Forecast
Source: FAA
819.1
2021
916.1
2026
997.9
2027
1,017.5
2031
1,111.0
2036
1,239.7
Year
Revenue Ton
Miles
80,000
2007
39,909
2008
38,829
60,000
2009
30,999
2010
35,888
FIGURE 5
FAA PROJECTS CONTINUED GROWTH IN AIR CARGO
Air Cargo Revenue Ton Miles in Millions
2016
100,000
40,000
20,000
0
in Millions
2011
37,277
2012
36,509
2013
34,790
2014
35,180
2015
35,947
FAA 2016 Forecast
Source: FAA
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
2016
37,565
2021
46,094
2026
54,493
2031
64,014
2036
74,844
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT COSTS BY LOCATION AND TYPE
To help provide a broad perspective on the various infrastructure development projects
that airports are considering for 2017 through 2021, ACI-NA asked respondents to provide
information on project costs by location and type. Project location indicates whether
projects are for the airside, terminal, or landside areas of the airport. Project type indicates
whether projects are for surface access, airfield capacity, airfield standards, terminal building
development, environmental projects, airfield reconstruction, safety, security, or construction
of a new airport.
Development Costs by Location10
As shown in Table 3, for 2017 through 2021, terminal projects represent 54.1 percent of the
total infrastructure development costs for responding airports11, followed by landside projects
that represent 24.7 percent of total costs and airside projects that represent 21.1 percent
of total costs. Compared to the 2014 - 2015 estimates, terminal projects now represent the
majority of airports’ infrastructure needs, and there is a higher share of landside projects than
reported two years ago.
TABLE 3
DEVELOPMENT COSTS BY PROJECT LOCATION
Percentage for all
respondents
Percentage
for large hub
respondents
Percentage for
medium hub
respondents
Percentage
for small hub
respondents
21.13%
15.95%
36.48%
50.34%
Terminal
54.13%
59.58%
31.98%
35.38%
Landside
24.74%
24.47%
31.54%
14.28%
Total*
100.0%
79.6%
13.7%
6.4%
Project location
Airside
Source: ACI-NA Survey.
*Note: Summary excludes projects without a specified location code or projects located in multiple locations without
breakdown.
Development Costs by Project Type
Figure 6 below shows based on ACI-NA survey data that terminal building projects account
for 47 percent of the total development needs of all airports for 2017 through 2021. Such
projects are needed to accommodate more passengers and larger aircraft, implement new
security requirements, facilitate increased competition among airlines, and enhance the
passenger experience. Surface access projects to improve access options and relieve landside
congestion make up 16 percent of all projected airport development.
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
FIGURE 6
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS BY TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT
Terminal Building
Security
Airfield Capacity
Safety
Environment
New Airports
Standards
Surface Access
Reconstruction
Other
Source: ACI-NA Survey
As shown in Table 4, for 2017 through 2021 for large hub airports, terminal building projects
are the dominant project type representing 51.9 percent of all projects, followed by surface
access projects at 18.0 percent and capacity projects at 8.0 percent. Additionally, Salt Lake City
reported having a terminal redevelopment program categorized as “new airport” to replace
existing terminal facilities that were constructed 30 to 50 years ago and have reached the end
of their useful life.
For medium hub airport respondents, terminal building projects are the dominant project
type, representing 26.7 percent of all projects followed by reconstruction projects at 21.4
percent. New Orleans reported having a long-term infrastructure development plan that
includes airport redevelopment categorized as “new airport”. Small hub airport respondents
reported that their dominant project type is terminal building projects at 29.6 percent,
followed by capacity projects at 24.9 percent.
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
Security
Reconstruction
Standards
Environment
Capacity
Terminal Building
Access
New Airports
Other
Total
Large
1.4%
1.3%
6.4%
1.5%
1.3%
8.0%
51.9%
18.0%
4.3%
6.0%
100.0%
Medium
3.3%
1.4%
21.4%
1.8%
2.5%
8.9%
26.7%
9.9%
6.4%
17.7%
100.0%
Small
6.5%
2.5%
17.0%
2.5%
4.2%
24.9%
29.6%
3.9%
0.0%
8.8%
100.0%
Non-hub
6.0%
1.0%
36.5%
34.3%
2.8%
3.3%
12.6%
3.3%
0.0%
0.2%
100.0%
Other
1.9%
2.5%
34.7%
49.7%
0.8%
4.2%
0.9%
2.1%
2.4%
0.8%
100.0%
Total
2.3%
1.5%
14.6%
10.1%
1.7%
8.8%
37.8%
12.8%
3.7%
6.6%
100.0%
Airport Category
Safety
TABLE 4
DEVELOPMENT COSTS BY PROJECT TYPE
Sources: ACI-NA Survey and FAA NPIAS.
Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
Figure 7 below shows that almost all projects have increased with the exception of projects to
bring an existing airport to design criteria recommended by FAA. Additionally, the FAA 20172021 NPIAS report identifies eight proposed airports that are anticipated to be developed
over the five-year period, including four new general aviation airports, two non-primary
commercial service and two new primary airports.
FIGURE 7
CHANGE IN DEVELOPMENT COST FROM LAST ACI-NA REPORT
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
Source: ACI-NA Surveys.
Note: see Table 9 for total cost by project type.
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
2017 - 2021
2015 - 2019
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
COMPARISON OF ACI-NA AND FAA ESTIMATES
The ACI-NA Infrastructure Needs Survey is far more comprehensive than the FAA NPIAS
survey, which is also issued every two years. It is important to understand the differences
between the ACI-NA and FAA estimates because of the importance of the data in both
surveys in developing federal policy for funding airport development.
The ACI-NA estimate of $99.9 billion is greater than the FAA NPIAS estimate of $32.5 billion
for several reasons:12
First, the ACI-NA estimate includes all future projects, while the FAA estimate includes only
future AIP-eligible projects. Additional projects captured in the ACI-NA estimate but not
included in the NPIAS report include:
•
Development eligible under the PFC program but ineligible under the AIP grant
program, such as terminal areas related to the movement of passengers and their
baggage, but leased by airlines (holdrooms, baggage claim, baggage makeup, etc.)
•
AIP-ineligible projects, including parking facilities, hangars, cargo buildings, the
revenue producing portions of passenger terminals, and certain improvements to
highway and transit airport access systems;
•
AIP-eligible projects that airports did not report to the FAA because the airport
believes there is a low probability of obtaining additional AIP discretionary grants;
and
•
Airport-funded air traffic control facilities and airport or TSA-funded security
projects such as the in-line checked baggage screening system.
Second, the ACI-NA estimate includes both projects that have identified and not identified
funding sources, while the FAA estimate only includes projects that do not have identified
funding sources. This results in current projects with approved PFC collections not being
included in the NPIAS report.13
Third, the ACI-NA estimate uses more recent data than that used by the FAA.
Fourth, the ACI-NA estimate is adjusted for inflation, while the FAA estimate is not. 14
Fifth, the ACI-NA estimate includes contingency costs (provision for increases in costs based
on changes in design or construction uncertainty) while the FAA estimate does not.15
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
For example, the cost for projects at large hub airports in the NPIAS totals $6.8 billion while
the ACI-NA estimate totals $60.4 billion. Within this category, the NPIAS totals $0.4 billion
for terminal building type projects while the ACI-NA estimate totals $37.8 billion. The
difference in this case is because the NPIAS generally does not include gates and related areas,
or the revenue generating portions of terminals such as development of facilities for nonaeronautical revenue. Additionally, even though FAA estimates that about 50 to 60 percent
of the overall costs of terminal projects are eligible for AIP grants, airports do not typically
report terminal projects to FAA due to the low probability of getting federal grants for such
projects.
The ACI-NA and FAA estimates are the two main sources for Congress and other stakeholders
to review in considering the funding necessary for airport infrastructure development going
forward as part of the FAA reauthorization process. As in the past, decisions on funding reach
well beyond the actual authorization period and impact the infrastructure improvements that
can be achieved to address aviation demand. Additionally, these decisions have a direct and
long-term bearing on the ability of communities to generate jobs and commerce as well as
ensure our nation’s competitive position in the global economy.
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
CONCLUSION
The infrastructure development cost estimate for 2017-2021 shows an increase of 41.8 percent
from the estimate for 2015-2019 for large, medium and small hub airports combined and a 2.1
percent increase for non-hubs and non-commercial service airports. The improving economic
environment, increasing passenger travel, and aging infrastructure have caused airports to
plan or begin infrastructure projects that were previously postponed or canceled.
Airport infrastructure development needs are driven by current and forecast aviation activity;
use and age of airport facilities and the need to modernize aging infrastructure; and changing
aircraft technology that requires airports to update or replace equipment and infrastructure.
Airport infrastructure needs are not only correlated with passenger and cargo activity levels,
but are also affected by how airlines use airport infrastructure. Airport operators have a
responsibility to make needed investments in modernizing aging airport facilities so that they
can ensure efficient, safe and secure operations for aeronautical users and the traveling public
as well as facilitate airline competition. Failure to make adequate investments in infrastructure
will diminish the ability of airports to fully serve as growth engines for the public and
communities across the United States.
It is important to understand that the existing federally-mandated funding system fails to meet
U.S. airport infrastructure needs for modernizing and expanding airport capacity. Failure to
meet the future infrastructure needs of airports will impair the ability of the U.S. economy to
grow and compete globally.
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
APPENDIX 1: SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY
The 2016/17 ACI-NA Survey was based on the 2014/15 survey instrument that was developed
with input from the FAA and the GAO. This included the various definitions in the survey,
such as project type codes.
ACI-NA surveyed all of its airport members in the United States. One hundred (100) airports
responded. ACI-NA staff followed-up with respondents as necessary to answer questions
about the survey and ensure the accuracy of respondents’ answers.
Respondents were asked to identify all infrastructure development projects and associated
costs for calendar years 2017 through 2021, and to report these costs in 2016 constant year
dollars. Costs included interest, construction and management costs, architectural and
engineering costs, and contingency costs. Costs for multi-year projects were listed in the year
when the money was expected to be spent.
Information on costs for infrastructure development projects were divided into two sections:
committed and uncommitted. For each section, airports were requested to list the ten largest
projects in terms of costs and list the rest of the project costs as “all other projects.”
Committed projects included those projects for which financing was secured or was expected
to be secured, and environmental and other required approvals had been obtained or were
expected to be obtained. These are projects that airlines supported or will not block through
such actions as Majority in Interest (MII) veto/disapproval.
Uncommitted projects included projects in airport master, layout, or capital plans that are
essential to meet current or future air traffic growth and facility demand, but that could not
proceed due to inadequate funding. Respondents were specifically asked to include only
projects they expected the airlines would support or would not block through such actions as
MII disapproval, and for which they expected to obtain all environmental and other approvals.
For both committed and uncommitted projects, respondents were asked to identify projects
by location and type. Location codes included whether a project was airside, terminal,
or landside. Type codes included whether a project was access, airfield capacity, airfield
standards, environment, new airport, airfield reconstruction, safety, terminal, or security.
To ensure the ACI-NA data was fully comparable with the FAA, ACI-NA used the same
definitions for project type as the FAA uses in its NPIAS. In cases where multiple codes
applied for either project location or type, respondents were asked to provide the cost
percentage for each code.
22
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
APPENDIX 2: BACKGROUND
Airports Council International-North America (ACI-NA) regularly updates its estimate of
infrastructure development needs for the airports that comprise the national airport system of
the United States, as defined by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
The national airport system is composed of 3,340 airports, ranging from the largest
commercial service airports to small general aviation airports. Development projects at these
airports generally fall within five categories: (1) expanding an airport’s capacity beyond its
current design to meet growth in demand for aviation services; (2) upgrading infrastructure
to accommodate the introduction of different aircraft types; (3) reconstructing aging
airport infrastructure; (4) bringing an airport up to FAA-mandated design standards to
achieve full productivity of aircraft using the airport; and (5) addressing safety, security, and
environmental concerns.
ACI-NA conducts its assessment using the FAA’s airport classifications. Definitions of the
FAA’s airport classifications used in this report are included in Appendix 4.
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
APPENDIX 3: HOW ACI-NA CALCULATED INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
COSTS
ACI-NA calculated airports’ infrastructure development needs using the ACI-NA survey
and the FAA NPIAS. Specifically, ACI-NA used its survey data to calculate costs for large,
medium, and small hub airports and used the FAA NPIAS data to calculate costs for nonhub, commercial service, reliever, and general aviation airports. ACI-NA also used FAA 2015
enplanement data, which is the latest available information, to make calculations.
The total infrastructure development costs for large, medium, and small hub airports were
based on responses from 29 large hub, 27 medium hub, and 36 small hub airports. As shown
in Table 5, this represents 97 percent of all passengers enplaned at large hubs, 91 percent of all
passengers enplaned at medium hubs, and 58 percent of all passengers enplaned at small hubs
in 2015.
TABLE 5
ACI-NA SAMPLE COMPARED TO INDUSTRY TOTAL
Respondents
percentage
of total 2015
enplanements
Large hub
29
30
97%
97%
70.5%
Medium hub
27
31
87%
91%
14.1%
Small hub
36
72
50%
58%
4.9%
All other
8
3,207
0.2%
1%
<0.1%
100
3,340
-
-
89.5%
Total
//
Respondents
percentage
of total 2015
enplanements
in the category
Number of
respondents
Airport
Category
24
Respondents
percentage of
all airports in
the category
Total number
of airports in
the category
AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
As shown in Table 6, ACI-NA then calculated the total infrastructure development costs per
2015 enplanement for the respondent large, medium, and small hub airports.
TABLE 6
ACI-NA SAMPLE INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
COSTS PER ENPLANEMENT
Total costs for 2017-2021
in millions of 2016
constant dollars
Total 2015 enplanements
by category
Cost per enplanement in
2016 constant dollars
Large hub
56,250
564,277,659
99.68
Medium hub
10,268
112,568,577
91.21
Small hub
4,694
38,980,461
120.41
Airport Category
As shown in Table 7, this cost per enplanement in 2016 constant dollars was then used as the
unit cost to estimate the infrastructure development costs for all large, medium, and small hub
airports.
TABLE 7
TOTAL INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT COSTS ESTIMATE
FOR LARGE, MEDIUM, AND SMALL HUB AIRPORTS
2016 Constant Dollars
Airport Category
Large hub
Total 2015
Enplanements
Cost per enplanement
in 2016 constant dollars
Total 2017-2021
infrastructure
development costs
in millions of 2016
constant dollars
580,568,021
99.68
57,874
Medium hub
123,217,532
91.21
11,239
Small hub
67,449,117
120.41
8,122
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
Table 8 shows the total infrastructure development costs for all airports in the national
airport system in 2016 constant dollars using the ACI-NA estimate for large, medium, and
small hub airports and the FAA NPIAS data for non-hub, commercial service, reliever, and
general aviation airports. ACI-NA used the NPIAS data due to the small number of non-hub,
commercial service, reliever, and general aviation airports in the ACI-NA survey sample.
TABLE 8
TOTAL INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT COSTS ESTIMATE
2016 Constant Dollars
Total number of airports
by category in national
airport system
Total 2017-2021
infrastructure
development costs
in millions of 2016
constant dollars
Percentage of Total
30
57,874
60.5%
Medium hub
31
11,239
11.7%
Small hub
72
8,122
8.5%
Airport
Category
Large hub
Non-hub
249
5,262
5.5%
Other
2958
13,185
13.8%
Total
3,340
95,671
100%
Taking the escalation of construction costs into consideration, ACI-NA made a 1.5 percent
inflation adjustment to the total estimate in 2016 constant dollars to reflect total infrastructure
needs in current year dollars. As shown in Table 1, total industry infrastructure needs are
estimated to be $99.9 billion in current year dollars. Average annual infrastructure needs for
the years 2017 through 2021 as shown in Table 2 are 31.6 percent higher than for the years
2015-2019 estimated in the ACI-NA survey done almost two years ago.
Besides calculating the total developments costs, ACI-NA also calculated development costs
by project type. To do this ACI-NA first determined the percentage distribution by project
type using ACI-NA survey results for large, medium, and small hub airports and using
the NPIAS data for non-hub and all other airports. As shown in Table 9, the project type
percentage distribution was then multiplied by the total industry estimate for each category of
airport to determine the total costs by project type.
26
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AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
TABLE 9
ACI-NA TOTAL COSTS BY PROJECT TYPE
Airport Category
Safety
Security
Reconstruction
Standards
Environment
Capacity
Terminal Building
Access
New Airports
Other
Total
Percent
In Millions of Current Year Dollars
Large
819
765
3,845
911
789
4,854
31,309
10,853
2,610
3,620
60,375
60.5%
Medium
383
167
2,507
209
287
1,041
3,133
1,159
752
2,079
11,718
11.7%
Small
556
215
1,442
213
360
2,111
2,513
329
-
744
8,483
8.5%
Non-hub
327
55
2,009
1,886
153
184
692
183
-
14
5,504
5.5%
Other
257
342
4,782
6,850
116
584
128
285
336
111
13,790
13.8%
Total
2,342
1,544
14,585
10,070
1,705
8,773
37,774
12,809
3,698
6,568
99,869
100.0%
Percent
2.3%
1.5%
14.6%
10.1%
1.7%
8.8%
37.8%
12.8%
3.7%
6.6%
100.0%
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
APPENDIX 4: FAA DEFINITIONS OF AIRPORT CATEGORIES
FAA defines airports by categories of airport activities, including commercial service, primary,
reliever, and general aviation airports, as shown below:
TABLE 10
FAA AIRPORT CATEGORIES
Hub Type: Percentage
of Annual Passenger
Boardings
Airport Classifications
Common Name
See Definitions of Airport Categories below for more information.
Commercial Service:
Publicly owned
airports that have at
least 2,500 passenger
boardings each
calendar year and
receive scheduled
passenger service
§47102(7)
Primary:
Have more than
10,000
passenger boardings
each year
§47102(11)
Nonprimary
Nonprimary
(Except Commercial Service)
Large:
1% or more
Large Hub
Medium:
At least 0.25%,
but less than 1%
Medium Hub
Small:
At least 0.05%,
but less than 0.25%
Small Hub
Non-hub:
More than 10,000,
but less than 0.05%
Non-hub Primary
Non-hub:
At least 2,500
and no more than 10,000
Nonprimary Commercial
Service
Not Applicable
Reliever
§47102(18)
Definition of Airport Categories
1. Commercial Service Airports are publicly owned airports that have at least 2,500
passenger boardings each calendar year and receive scheduled passenger service.
Passenger boardings refer to revenue passenger boardings on an aircraft in service in air
commerce whether or not in scheduled service. The definition also includes passengers
who continue on an aircraft in international flight that stops at an airport in any of the
50 States for a non-traffic purpose, such as refueling or aircraft maintenance rather than
passenger activity. Passenger boardings at airports that receive scheduled passenger
service are also referred to as Enplanements.
28
//
•
Nonprimary Commercial Service Airports are Commercial Service Airports that
have at least 2,500 and no more than 10,000 passenger boardings each year.
•
Primary Airports are Commercial Service Airports that have more than 10,000
AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
passenger boardings each year. Hub categories for Primary Airports are defined
as a percentage of total passenger boardings within the United States in the most
current calendar year ending before the start of the current fiscal year. For example,
calendar year 2001 data are used for fiscal year 2003 since the fiscal year began 9
months after the end of that calendar year. The table below depicts the formulae
used for the definition of airport categories based on statutory provisions cited
within the table, including Hub Type described in 49 USC 47102.
2. Reliever Airports are airports designated by the FAA to relieve congestion at Commercial
Service Airports and to provide improved general aviation access to the overall
community. These may be publicly or privately-owned.
3. General Aviation Airports are the largest single group of airports in the U.S. system. The
category also includes privately owned, public use airports that enplane 2500 or more
passengers annually and receive scheduled airline service.
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
APPENDIX 5: RESPONDENTS 2015 PASSENGER TRAFFIC STATISTICS
Code
30
//
Airport Name
Hub
CY2015
Enplanements
CY2014
Enplanements
ATL
Hartsfield - Jackson Atlanta International
Large
49,340,732
46,604,273
BWI
Baltimore/Washington International
Thurgood Marshall
Large
11,738,845
11,022,200
CLT
Charlotte/Douglas International
Large
21,913,166
21,537,725
DCA
Ronald Reagan Washington National
Large
11,242,375
10,115,546
DEN
Denver International
Large
26,280,043
26,000,591
DFW
Dallas-Fort Worth International
Large
31,589,839
30,804,567
DTW
Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County
Large
16,255,520
15,775,941
EWR
Newark Liberty International
Large
18,684,818
17,773,405
FLL
Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood International
Large
13,061,632
12,031,860
HNL
Honolulu International
Large
9,479,094
9,463,000
IAD
Washington Dulles International
Large
10,363,974
10,415,948
IAH
George Bush Intercontinental/Houston
Large
20,595,881
19,772,087
JFK
John F Kennedy International
Large
27,782,369
26,244,928
LAS
McCarran International
Large
21,857,693
20,620,248
LAX
Los Angeles International
Large
36,351,272
34,314,197
LGA
LaGuardia
Large
14,319,924
13,535,372
MCO
Orlando International
Large
18,759,938
17,278,608
MDW
Chicago Midway International
Large
10,830,850
10,311,996
MIA
Miami International
Large
20,986,349
19,471,466
MSP
Minneapolis-St Paul International/WoldChamberlain
Large
17,634,273
16,972,678
ORD
Chicago O'Hare International
Large
36,305,668
33,843,426
PDX
Portland International
Large
8,340,252
7,878,760
PHL
Philadelphia International
Large
15,101,349
14,792,339
PHX
Phoenix Sky Harbor International
Large
21,351,504
20,344,867
SAN
San Diego International
Large
9,985,763
9,333,152
SEA
Seattle-Tacoma International
Large
20,148,980
17,888,080
SFO
San Francisco International
Large
24,190,560
22,770,783
SLC
Salt Lake City International
Large
10,634,538
10,139,065
TPA
Tampa International
Large
9,150,458
8,531,561
ANC
Ted Stevens Anchorage International
Medium
2,525,893
2,381,826
AUS
Austin-Bergstrom International
Medium
5,797,562
5,219,982
BDL
Bradley International
Medium
2,926,054
2,913,380
BNA
Nashville International
Medium
5,715,205
5,396,958
BUF
Buffalo Niagara International
Medium
2,336,431
2,378,469
AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
Code
CLE
Airport Name
Cleveland-Hopkins International
Hub
CY2015
Enplanements
CY2014
Enplanements
Medium
3,916,922
3,686,315
CMH
John Glenn Columbus International
Medium
3,312,496
3,115,501
CVG
Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International
Medium
3,054,991
2,875,844
DAL
Dallas Love Field
Medium
7,040,950
4,522,341
HOU
William P Hobby
Medium
5,937,990
5,800,726
IND
Indianapolis International
Medium
3,889,567
3,605,908
JAX
Jacksonville International
Medium
2,716,473
2,589,198
MCI
Kansas City International
Medium
5,135,127
4,982,722
MKE
General Mitchell International
Medium
3,229,897
3,228,607
MSY
Louis Armstrong New Orleans International
Medium
5,329,711
4,870,569
OAK
Metropolitan Oakland International
Medium
5,506,687
5,069,257
OGG
Kahului
Medium
3,220,753
3,019,338
OMA
Eppley Airfield
Medium
2,046,179
2,020,354
ONT
Ontario International
Medium
2,089,801
2,037,346
PBI
Palm Beach International
Medium
3,113,591
2,926,242
PIT
Pittsburgh International
Medium
3,890,681
3,827,860
RDU
Raleigh-Durham International
Medium
4,954,735
4,673,869
RSW
Southwest Florida International
Medium
4,159,215
3,948,006
SJC
Norman Y Mineta San Jose International
Medium
4,822,480
4,621,003
SMF
Sacramento International
Medium
4,714,729
4,384,616
SNA
John Wayne Airport-Orange County
Medium
4,945,209
4,584,147
STL
Lambert-St Louis International
Medium
6,239,248
6,108,758
ACY
Atlantic City International
Small
587,967
594,346
ALB
Albany International
Small
1,276,793
1,210,825
BLI
Bellingham International
Small
447,693
543,346
BOI
Boise Air Terminal/Gowen Field
Small
1,487,777
1,378,352
BTV
Burlington International
Small
581,143
602,932
BUR
Bob Hope
Small
1,973,897
1,928,491
BZN
Bozeman Yellowstone International
Small
512,042
482,683
CAE
Columbia Metropolitan
Small
533,575
498,151
DAY
James M Cox Dayton International
Small
1,041,759
1,120,842
DSM
Des Moines International
Small
1,156,462
1,141,172
ELP
El Paso International
Small
1,381,392
1,395,363
FAT
Fresno Yosemite International
Small
695,008
710,353
GEG
Spokane International
Small
1,515,351
1,445,572
GRR
Gerald R Ford International
Small
1,280,803
1,174,821
GSO
Piedmont Triad International
Small
848,249
851,157
GSP
Greenville Spartanburg International
Small
955,097
945,477
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AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
Code
Airport Name
//
CY2015
Enplanements
CY2014
Enplanements
519,785
523,248
HSV
Huntsville International-Carl T Jones Field
Small
ITO
Hilo International
Small
627,171
626,950
IWA
Phoenix-Mesa Gateway
Small
666,187
669,807
JAN
Jackson-Medgar Wiley Evers International
Small
497,042
537,821
KOA
Kona International at Keahole
Small
1,485,777
1,403,559
LIH
Lihue
Small
1,491,688
1,340,014
MEM
Memphis International
Small
1,873,716
1,800,268
MHT
Manchester
Small
1,026,349
1,032,964
MSN
Dane County Regional-Truax Field
Small
826,640
833,634
ORF
Norfolk International
Small
1,515,200
1,488,114
PIE
St Pete-Clearwater International
Small
819,974
663,810
PSP
Palm Springs International
Small
947,728
953,607
PVD
Theodore Francis Green State
Small
1,763,676
1,764,828
RNO
Reno/Tahoe International
Small
1,669,876
1,611,572
SAV
Savannah/Hilton Head International
Small
980,531
932,416
SDF
Louisville International-Standiford Field
Small
1,640,297
1,634,983
SFB
Orlando Sanford International
Small
1,209,382
1,064,133
SRQ
Sarasota/Bradenton International
Small
607,449
598,219
SYR
Syracuse Hancock International
Small
987,732
987,169
TUS
Tucson International
Small
1,549,253
1,597,247
HND
Henderson Executive
Non-hub
53,551
65,209
IAG
Niagara Falls International
Non-hub
121,616
111,212
LCK
Rickenbacker International
Non-hub
83,466
49,486
VGT
North Las Vegas
Non-hub
15,434
26,955
EFD
Ellington
None
470
983
MKC
Charles B Wheeler Downtown
None
2,969
2,422
TZR
Bolton Field
None
7
3
HWO
North Perry
#N/A
#N/A
#N/A
Source: FAA
32
Hub
AIRPORTS COUNCIL INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
Please note that in this report, ACI-NA defines airport category based on FAA calendar year
2015 enplanements, while the latest FAA NPIAS report for 2015-2019 categorized airports
based on FAA Calendar Year 2014 enplanements.
Airport Category
2015
2014
Large Hub
30
30
Medium Hub
30
31
Small Hub
72
72
250
249
Nonprimary
Commercial Service
121
127
Reliever
259
259
General Aviation
2,564
2,564
Subtotal
3,326
3,332
Non-hub
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33
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
// City
AIRPORTS
COUNCIL
INTERNATIONAL - NORTH AMERICA
Salt34Lake
International
Airport
AIRPORT INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS
2017 – 2021
ENDNOTES
ACI-NA used a 1.5 percent inflation adjustment.
1
The ACI-NA total estimate of airports’ capital development needs for the period 2017
through 2021, in 2016 constant dollars, not adjusted for inflation, is $95.7 billion or $19.1
billion annualized.
2
Estimates reflect the dollars at the time the report was prepared. The 2015 report reflects 2014
dollars.
3
Development costs for large, medium and small hubs are based on ACI-NA Survey data.
Development costs for non-hub, non-primary commercial service, reliever and general
aviation airports are based on FAA 2017-2021 NPIAS report.
4
ACI-NA used the FAA definitions for categories of airports. See Appendix 4.
5
See appendix 3 for an explanation of how ACI-NA calculated airports’ infrastructure
development costs.
6
ENR Construction Cost Index, U.S. 20 City Average, Engineering News Record.
7
IHS Global Insight Non-residential Construction Cost Index forecast as of November 2016.
8
Executive Summary, FAA 2017-2021 NPIAS report.
9
Includes all projects in this location. For example, projects located in terminal include all
those in the terminal building including security projects.
10
See Appendix 5 for a full list of airport respondents.
11
Both the ACI-NA and the FAA estimates are for 2017 through 2021. The ACI-NA survey
was completed in 2017 and the FAA estimate is based on airport master and state system
planning documents available through FY2015.
12
See page vii of the FAA NPIAS report 2015-2019.
13
See page vi of the FAA NPIAS report 2017-2021.
14
See page vi of the FAA NPIAS report 2017-2021.
15
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Phone: (202) 293-8500 // Fax: (202) 331-1362
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