Chapter Seven
Cognitive Views of Learning
cognition: to become acquainted with, to know, the act
or process of knowing including both awareness
and judgment
growing realization among educational psychologists
that learning is an active mental process instead of
simply responding to reinforcement and punishment
cognitive theorists believe that learning is the result of our
trying to make sense of the world
for this, we use all mental tools we have
the way we think about situations, along with our knowledge,
expectations, feelings, and interactions with others and
the environment, influence how and what we learn
Cognitive vs. Behavioral View
cognitive view, knowledge is learned and changes in knowledge
make changes in behavior possible
behavioral view, the new behaviors themselves are learned
cognitions see reinforcement as source of feedback about what
might happen if behaviors are repeated---a source of
information
behaviorists think reinforcement strengthens responses
cognitive view sees people as active learners, who initiate
experiences, seek out information to solve problems, and re-organize what is already known to achieve new insights
behaviorists believe people are passively influences by events
much study of behaviorist theory has been with animals in
controlled lab settings with goal to establish a few general
laws of learning that can apply to all higher organisms,
including humans, regardless of age, intelligence, or other
individual differences
cognitions study a wide range of learning situations---they have not
sought general laws of learning---one reason that there is
no single cognitive model or theory of learning representitive of the entire field
Knowledge
knowledge guides new learning, according to cognitions
cognitive approach suggests existing knowledge affects what
we will pay attention to, perceive, learn, remember, and
forget,... what we already know provides a scaffold that
supports all future learning
My question: if one doesn’t know much, does that mean his
learning capacity is diminished?
cognitions: “knowledge emphasizes understanding of concepts
and theories in different subject matter domains...
general knowledge: i.e. how to read or write, or use a word
processor, is general knowledge because it applies to
many different situations
specific knowledge (domain specific knowledge): applies to a particular
task or subject, i.e. knowing that the shortstop plays in
between second and third base is knowledge specific to the
sport of baseball
the text does point out that there is no specific line between general and
specific knowledge
declarative knowledge: knowledge that can be declared, usually
in words, through lectures, books, verbal exchange...
“knowing that” something is the case, i.e. range of
declarative knowledge is tremendous, i.e. facts, generalities,
preferences, rules...
procedural knowledge: knowing how to do something
conditional knowledge: knowing “when and why” to apply your
declarative and procedural knowledge
regarding math problems, it takes conditional knowledge to know
when to apply one procedure and when to apply another
to solve the problem
Gagne’ feels this type of knowledge is a stumbling block for
many students; the they have the facts and know the
procedures but don’t know when to apply what they
know
Memory: Processing Information
most common theory of memory is the information processing one,
including the neutral-network or connectionist approach
(Martindale)
compares memory to a computer—human mind takes in
information, performs operations on it to change form or
content, stores the information, retrieves it when needed,
three parts--Sensory Memory, Working Memory, Long-term
Memory
Sensory Memory: receives stimuli from environment—sights,
smells , sounds--encodes it and stores it briefly, one to three
seconds...perception and attention are critical at this stage
perception: the meaning we attach to raw information
attention: we pay attention to certain stimuli and ignore
others, we select what we will process
THE FIRST STEP IN LEARNING IS PAYING ATTENTION
students cannot process something that they don’t recognize or
perceive---they must stay focused on the important features
of the learning situation
Teachers should:
figure out ways to gain and retain their attention---underline,
lighting level, bright banners,
develop a signal to tell students when to change activities, avoid
distractions (pencil tap), give short clear directions before,
not during, transitions
make sure purpose of assignment of lesson is clear to students
write goals or objectives on board
explain reasons for learning, ask students how to apply
tie new material to previous lessons
emphasize variety, curiosity, suprise
“What would happen if...?”
change room set-up
use movement, gestures, voice inflection, move around
the classroom, point
Working Memory: the “workbench” of the memory system,
takes input from sensory memory, processes it with
knowledge from long term memory, like workspace or
screen of your computer, some psychologists call this
“consciousness”
working memory capacity is limited to five to nine new
items at once
also called “short term memory” with duration of 5 -20
seconds
must keep activating information in working memory or it will
be lost
maintenance rehearsal: keep repeating the information in
your mind—keep it “in play”, ---repeat a phone number
elaborative rehearsal: connect information you are trying to
remember with something you already know---a type of
“association”, you meet someone at a party whose name
is the same as your brother’s name
forgetting: information is lost from working memory by
interference or decay---replaced with “new” information,
not used for the “duration” period
Long-Term Memory
this holds all the information previously processed and stored
for long term use
capacity is unlimited, duration is permanent
information stored as visual and/or verbal units, some feel
information coded visually and verbally easier to learn
Semantic memory: memory stored as meaning, in form of
propositions, images, schemas (structures for organizing
information; concepts)
schemas (schemata): abstract knowledge “structure” that
organizes vast amounts of info, a pattern, a framework
that encompasses all available knowledge about a topic
and puts it into play in the understanding of an event, a
concept, or a skill
example of the term “antique” in the book, page 259
Episodic memory: memory tied to specific place or time, an
“episode”
Procedural memory: memory of “how to do things” like
ski, serve a tennis ball, work quadratic equations
Storing and Retrieving Info in Long-Term Memory
How we first learn information affects how easily we can recall it
Elaboration: adding and extending meaning by connecting
new information to existing knowledge, build in “handles”
or retrieval clues, “associate” it with existing info
Organization: place concept in a structure, well-organized
info easier to find than bits and pieces
Context: easier to remember info in the same “context” as
it originally occurred, same room, same location, etc.
another example of “association”??
Retrieving Information from Long-Term Memory
We search both consciously and automatically
We retrieve information by “association” and “reconstruction”
Reconstructed memory plays big part in eye-witness testimony
Forgetting and Long-Term Memory
Some studies show that students retain much of the knowledge
taught in the classroom
Teaching strategies that encourage student engagement lead to
longer retention of info in long-term memory
Teachers should:
Get students’ attention---previously discussed in slide 9
Separate essential from non-essential details---make a good point
pause, repeat, ask student to repeat it, write it on board in
colored chalk, ask students to highlight it
make it “stand out” in their minds
Help students “connect” new information to known information
ask questions to bring known information into play
use outline or diagram (verbal or visual) to “find a place”
for the new information
structure lesson to specifically use new info with old
provide for repetition or review---begin class with quick
review, give frequent short tests to measure progress,
students work in groups to interact and quiz each other
Connectionism: An Alternative View of Memory
Views of knowledge being stored in patterns of connections among
basic processing units (neurons) in the brain
this model not developed enough to be useful to teachers
Metacognition, Regulation, and Individual Differences
Metacognitive Skills: control processes, such as attention,
maintenance rehearsal, elaboration, organization, that can
be intentionally used to regulate cognition---knowledge
about our own thinking process
“people’s awareness of their own cognitive machinery and
how that machinery works”---Meichenbaum
metacognitive knowledge is used to regulate thinking and learning
in three ways:
planning: decide how much time to give a task, how to
start, what resources to use in what order
monitoring: how am I doing?, am I going to fast?,
is this making sense?
evaluation: should I change strategies, get help?, give up
for now?, am I finished? (YES, THANK HEAVENS!)
These planning, monitoring, and evaluation processes are not
always conscious but are often automatic, especially in adults
Metacognitive abilities develop around age 5-7 and improve
throughout school---Flavell, 1985
Superior metacognitive skills can compensate for lower levels of
ability
Individual differences in metacognitive skills attributed to
biological, cultural, and experience differences
Individual Differences and Working Memory
Young children have limited working memories, may be because of
capacity or strategy---they need to keep room for basic daily things
Younger children can be taught to “rehearse” (repeat) to improve
working memory
children are 10-11 years old before developing adult-like working
memories
older elementary-school students and adolescents create images
or stories to remember ideas
Individual Differences and Long-Term Memory
The major individual difference that affects long-term memory is
knowledge
students with more domain-specific and procedural knowledge
are better at learning and remembering material in that domain
with more domain knowledge, you are not trying to understand
and remember at the same time
the more you know about a subject, the easier it is to know more
to develop expert understanding and recall in a domain requires
“continuous interplay of skill (i.e. knowledge) and thrill
(i.e. interest)”---Alexander, 1994
How Can Teachers Support the Development of Knowledge
declarative knowledge: “knowing that” something is the case--can be facts, generalities, rules, preferences
trying to build up general, overall knowledge from which to
draw associations for “new” knowledge
Rote memorization: a method of “learning” additional info so
as to increase the overall knowledge base
Mnemonics: systematic procedures for improving memory,
many using imagery (a form of association?)
loci method: loci means “place”, imagine a place like your house
and put information you want to remember in a “place” in
your house, then visualize walking through your house and
seeing the information in its place
acronym: an abbreviation, a good way to remember information
for a long time SEE from MSF classes
chain mnemonics: “associating” one element is a series with the
next element---”i” before “e” except after “c”
key word method: associate new word or concept with known cue
word
Teachers should (to help develop knowledge and skills):
present lessons in vocabulary that makes sense to students
clarify new terms with ties to familiar words and ideas
use old information to help students understand new information
use examples and analogies
develop “super learner” home work with material to be
learned in different ways, i.e. memorization
include family members, make a “parent coaching card”
showing different strategies to assist with
encourage families to create “study spaces” (quiet)
ensure parents know purpose of homework lessons
Constructivism and Situated Learning
General consensus regards the human mind as a symbol-processing system that converts sensory input into symbols (propositions, images, schemas) then processes these symbols so
knowledge can be held in memory and retrieved. Learning
leads to modifications of the internal symbol structures. Once
the symbols get into working memory, the important work
occurs “inside the head” of the individual.
Constructivism and Situated Learning challenge the above
some major proponents of constructivism were Piaget, Vygotsky,
and John Dewey
there is no ONE , agreed-upon, constructivist theory of learning
Constructivist Perspective emphasizes the active role of the
learner in building understanding and making sense of
information
Types of Constructivism
exogenous constructivism views learning as building accurate,
mental structures (propositional networks and schemas)
that reflect “the way things really are” in the world,
direct teaching, feedback, and explanation affect learning
role of teacher in this venue is to guide students toward more
accurate and complete knowledge, to teach and model
effective strategies, and to correct misconceptions
endogenous constructivism says new knowledge is constructed
by transforming and reorganizing previous knowledge,
knowledge is not a mirror of the external world, even though
experience influences thinking and thinking influences
knowledge. Exploration and discovery are more important
than teaching---Piaget
role of the teacher in this venue is to challenge, to guide toward
more complete understanding, to act as facillator, listen
for students’ current conceptions, ideas, thinking
dialectical constructivism says knowledge is based on social
interactions and experience, knowledge reflects the
outside world as filtered through and influenced by
culture, language, beliefs, interactions with others, and
by direct teaching and modeling...guided discovery,
models, and coaching as well as the individual’s prior
knowledge , beliefs, and thinking affect his learning
role of the teacher in this venue is to co-construct knowledge
with the student, act as facilitator and guide, co-construct
different interpretation of knowledge, listen to socially
constructed conceptions
Situated learning
the idea that skills and knowledge are tied to the situation
in which they were learned and are difficult to apply in new
settings
Vygotsky---learning is inherently social and embedded in
a particular cultural setting
learning in the real world is not like learning in school,
more like an apprenticeship, with a guide and a model,
this explains learning in factories, at the dinner table,
in the business, on the playground
often described as “enculturation”, or adopting the norms,
beliefs, skills, language, etc. of a particular community
emphasis that students should acquire skills and knowledge
in meaningful contexts , with connections to “real-life”
situations in which the skills and knowledge will be useful
evidence exists that skills and knowledge can be applied across
contexts that were not part of the initial learning situation
Summary
cognitive view sees students as active learners,
who initiate experiences, seek out new information to solve
problems, and reorganize what they know to achieve
new insights
cognitive approach suggests that important element of the
learning process is what knowledge the individual
brings to the learning process...what we already know
influences what we will pay attention to, perceive, learn,
remember, and forget
cognitive view that knowledge is learned, and changes in
knowledge make changes in behavior possible
behavior view is that new behaviors themselves are learned
behavior view feels that reinforcement strengthens responses
much of work on behavior learning principles have been
animals in a controlled lab settings, attempting to draw a few
conclusions that can be applied to humans regardless
of age, culture, etc.
cognitive psychologists study a wide range of learning situations,
focusing on individual and developmental differences in
cognition---they have not sought general laws of learning
knowledge is important to learning, the more you know, the
easier it is to “know more”
general and domain specific knowledge
sensory memory...the initial reception of stimuli
working memory...stimuli are initially processed, not kept long,
need to keep these stimuli in action
long-term memory...knowledge is stored for future reference
need to apply “handles” to it for easier retrieval
The first step in learning is paying attention
many factors in the class room affect student attention
color, banners, posters, lighting, teacher’s actions and
movements, calling students names, pacing
metacognition is knowing our own learning and thinking
processes an individual needs to understand how he
himself thinks and learns
ways of developing knowledge
schemas, build frameworks, scaffolds on which to build
and store new knowledge
memorization, mnemonics (chain memory, “i before e
except after c), acronyms
constructivism - --build accurate mental structures that reflect
“the way things really are”
new knowledge is abstracted from old knowledge
knowledge is based on social interaction and experience
situated learning---skills and knowledge are tied to the situations
in which they were learned
teachers functions are to guide, to facilitate, to con-construct
knowledge, listen for students conceptions, ideas, and
thinking, challenge, guide toward more complete
understanding
The best way to learn and remember is to understand.
To make the information to be learned meaningful is
often the greatest challenge to teachers.