Memory and Cognition
Intro to Memory/Cognition
and Forming Memories
• Any system that
encodes, stores, and
retrieves info
• Human memory is
capable of distortion—
isn’t perfect
• Human memory works
closely w/ the senses
– Create memory
patterns that can be
recalled later
• This goes hand in hand
with learning
Memory
Which penny is the real thing???
• Lots of time our
memory is vague
enough so that we
only remember what
we need to know
What the Penny
Proves
– We can easily tell
diffs. btwn coins
• But good enough to
get us through the day
– Fill in the gaps with
our own thoughts
– Ex: Remember penny
is copper, but think it
says “United States
of America” on top
If we get this wrong =
a failure in encoding
3 Basic Tasks of Memory
• Take useless sensory info (noise of my voice) and
turn it into meaningful pattern (words and
concepts) you can store & use later
– Called information-processing model
– Understanding of memory that emphasizes
how info is changed when encoded, stored,
and retrieved
• Encoding—must select
some stimulus to focus on;
then identify something
distinctive about it
• Storage—retention of
encoded info over time
– 3 different types/lengths
• Retrieval—bringing a
memory to consciousness
– This is where human
memory messes up the
most
– Eidetic memory = no
messing up—photo-like
Encoding, Storage,
Retrieval
Encoding—in STM
• Usually automatic—what did you eat last night?
• Elaboration—deliberate encoding—studying
– Connect new info with old concepts you already know
• B/c limited capacity/short storage time STM has 2 ways of
encoding:
• 1) Chunking-organizing pieces of info into smaller meaningful
units (chunks)—frees up space in STM
– Ex: remember 6020718—takes 7 parts of STM
• 2) Rehearsal-consciously repeat new info
– Maintenance Rehearsal-when you mentally repeat or
review info to keep it in STM (does not move into LTM)
– Elaborated Rehearsal-info not just repeated, connects
info to already stored knowledge (does move to LTM)
• Ex: 1-800-KIA Cars
• 1. Sensory Memory-very 3 Storages
short-term; holds brief
sensory impressions of
stimuli; ex: hearing thunder
• 2. Working or Short-Term
Memory- takes info from
sensory mem. and connects
it to items already in LTM.
of Memory
– Holds info for few seconds—
like a phone number
• 3. Long-Term Memory
(LTM)-receives info from
working mem. and stores it
for a long time
Good Chart on
page 240
1st Stage: Sensory Memory
• Main job: hold all of the
stimuli we get so our
brain can scan it for
useful info—1/4 second
– Must be so quick b/c
there is so much info at
all times
– 12-16 items can be
stored
• Associated with
different senses (iconic
mem, olfactory mem)
• Here, there is no
meaning or encoding to
the stored info
2nd Stage: Working or Short Term Memory
• Where you process conscious experience
– Temporary storage for 20 secs—a name you just learned
• Where encoding takes place and linking with LTM
• Where “thinking” occurs—ideas or images pulled
Acoustic
from LTM
encoding
• Center of mental action
and go-between for other
parts of memory
• Holds about 7 (+ or – 2)
Items--#’s, letters, shapes
STM and Levels of Processing
• Levels-of-processing theory: how well we remember info is
related to how deeply we process it when it is encoded
• Shallow processing: emphasize physical characteristics—no
real connection to LTM—maintenance rehearsal
• Deep processing: attach meaning to info; connect new
memory to existing memory—elaborated rehearsal
– Ex: Semantic encoding: deep processing; emphasizes the meaning
of verbal input
• Head injuries can affect STM—concussions lead to loss of it
3rd Stage: Long Term Memory
• Concepts are encoded by meanings which
interconnects them with other items w/ similar
meanings
• Unlimited storage capacity
– Engram- physical changes in the brain associated
with a memory
• Connection to cerebral cortex-cerebellum
2 Main Parts of LTM
• 1) Procedural mem: things
we know how to do; ride
a bike; unconscious lots of
the time; physical
• 2) Declarative mem: info
we can describe;
facts/events; conscious
• Episodic mempersonal experiences;
temporal and context
coding
• Semantic memmeaning of words &
concepts; facts
The Brain and Memory
• Hippocampus and amygdala central to new episodic
memories (but not for retrieving old memories)
• Consolidation-process in which STM become LTM
• Types of amnesia:
– Anterograde: inability to form memories for new
information
– Retrograde: inability to remember information
previously stored in memory
– Source: a memory in which you cannot recall where the
information came from
• Flashbulb memory-a clear or vivid LTM of an
especially meaningful or emotional event (9/11)