Cognition


Cognition is the mental activities associated with thought,
decision making, language, and other higher mental activities.
Thinking: the manipulation of mental representations of the
world.
Three Basic Parts
1. Concepts - labels that represent a class or group of objects, people, or
events that share common characteristics or qualities.
a) Formal/Logical - concepts that can be clearly defined by a set of
rules or properties.
(Example: registered voter)
b) Natural - concepts that have no set of defining features, but instead
have characteristic features.
Members of this concept must have at least some of these
characteristics.
(Example: bird)
Prototypes - objects or events that best represent a
natural concept.
- Matching new items to the prototype provides a
quick and easy method for including items in a
category (as when comparing feathered creatures
to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
2. Propositions - sentences that relate one concept to
another and can stand as separate
assertions/statements.
(Example: Snowflakes are made of frozen water.)
Mental Models - clusters of
propositions/knowledge structures that guide our
interaction with the world.
3. Images - mental representations of things that are not
physically present.
- Cognitive maps contain images of what is
where.
- Humans store images using one of two devices:
Analog Code: a representation that closely
resembles the physical object
(i.e. a drawing of a mouse)
Propositions: abstract descriptions that are
used to create an image
(i.e. words)
(People make judgments about mental images in the
same way that they make judgments about an actual
picture; larger ones take longer than smaller ones.)

PROBLEM SOLVING
- Problem solving is the mental activity used
when we want to reach a certain goal that is
not readily available.
> Four Elements:
1. Understanding the problem
2. Planning a solution
3. Carrying out the solution
4. Evaluating the results
Problem Solving Strategies
A) Algorithms - Every possible solution is explored.
- This strategy guarantees that the problem will
be solved eventually, although it can be time
consuming.
(Example: Find your rental car in a parking lot by trying
your key in every door lock.)
B) Heuristics - "Rules of Thumb" or shortcuts that
help solve problems.
- While these shortcuts often work, there is no
guarantee that a solution will be reached.
(Example: find your rental car in the parking lot by
looking at the key to see the make of the car.)

Algorithm vs Heuristic
Unscramble
S PLOYO C HYG

Algorithm


all 907,208 combinations
Heuristic


throw out all YY combinations
other heuristics?
C) Subgoals or Means-ends Analysis - Intermediate
steps for solving a problem.
- Part of the problem is solved with each subgoal.
- It is often not obvious how to divide the
problem into subgoals.
(Example: First, find the rental agency counter.
Second, find an employee. Third, ask for the make
and model of the car.)
D) Analogy - The solution to an earlier problem is
used to help solve the current problem.
- It is often difficult to recognize the similarities
between problems.
E) Working Backwards - For a problem with a
clear goal, you begin at the goal and work
backwards.
F) Trial and Error - One solution after another
is tried in no particular order until a
solution is found.
- This can be very time consuming.
The Matchstick Problem

How would you
arrange six matches
to form four
equilateral triangles?
The Three-Jugs Problem

Using jugs A,
B, and C, with
the capacities
shown, how
would you
measure out
the volumes
indicated?
The Candle-Mounting
Problem

Using these
materials, how
would you mount
the candle on a
bulletin board?

Possible Difficulties in Problem Solving
1. Functional Fixedness - This is the inability to
solve a problem because the function we assign to
objects tends to remain fixed or stable.
- We tend to see objects only in terms of their
usual functions.
2. Mental Set - This is the tendency to persist with
old patterns for problem solving even when they are
not successful.
3. Confirmation Bias - This is the tendency to pay
attention mostly to information that confirms existing
beliefs.
- People often ignore information that is
inconsistent with their views.
The Matchstick Problem

Solution to the
matchstick
problem
The Three-Jugs Problem


Solution:
a)
All seven problems can
be solved by the
equation shown in (a):
B - A - 2C = desired
volume.
b) But simpler solutions
exist for problems 6 and
7, such as A - C for
problem 6.
The Candle-Mounting
Problem

Solving this
problem requires
recognizing that
a box need not
always serve as a
container
Nine dots problem

Without lifting your
pencil or re-tracing
any line, draw four
straight lines that
connect all nine dots
Nine dots mental set


Most people will not
draw lines that extend
from the square formed
by the nine dots
To solve the problem,
you have to break your
mental set

Two Types of Thinking
1. Convergent Thinking - This produces one
correct answer to a problem or question.
(Example: "What is the capital of Illinois?")
2. Divergent Thinking - This produces many
different correct answers to the same problem
or question.
(Example: Create a sentence using the word
"apple.")

DECISION MAKING
- Decision making is the process of choosing
among various courses of action or
alternatives.
> We often lack clear rules about how to
make the best decision and, thus, rely on
one or more heuristics.
Availability Heuristic - This involves
judging the probability of an event by how
easily examples of the event come to mind.
(Example: Failing an exam//Airplane crashes)
Representativeness Heuristic - This occurs
when you decide whether the sample you
are judging matches the appropriate
prototype for that concept or category.
*This is the most important decision making
heuristic.*
(Example: Porsche Boxster = sports car)
Note base rates.


Anchoring Heuristic - This occurs when you
estimate an event's probability of
happening and then make insufficient
adjustments to that estimate based on
additional information.
Framing – presentation of information
concerning potential outcomes in terms of
gains or in terms of losses.
- Example A: What is the best way to market
ground beef, as 25% fat or 75% lean?
- Example B: (p. 260 textbook)
Reasoning
- Reasoning involves transforming information to reach a
conclusion.
> It includes evaluating and generating arguments to
reach a conclusion.
- Inductive reasoning: reasoning from the specific to the
general
(Drawing conclusions about all members of a category or concept
based on only some of the members is inductive reasoning.)
“Brown Recluses have eight legs.
Tarantulas have eight legs.
Black Widows have eight legs.
Thus, spiders have eight legs.”
Beware unusual specific examples

- Deductive reasoning: reasoning from the
general to the specific
(Making a prediction based on a theory involves
deductive reasoning.)
“Muscle cars have a large amount of horsepower.
Thus, a Camaro has a large amount of horsepower.”
- Logical reasoning includes mental
procedures that yield valid conclusions.
> Formal tasks have been developed that
measure logical reasoning:
1. Syllogisms: arguments made up of two
propositions, called premises, and a
conclusion based on those premises.
> They require deductive reasoning.
“All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.”
“All cats are animals.
All cats have four legs.
Therefore, all animals have four legs.”
(invalid reasoning)
2. Analogy: a type of reasoning task that is
always made up of four parts
- The relationship between the first two
parts is the same as the relationship between
the last two.
> Analogies require inductive
reasoning.
“Light is to dark as summer is to _______.”
Language

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Language: a system of symbols, plus rules for
combining them, used to communicate information
Characteristics of spoken language:
1. Phonemes - the smallest unit of sound that
affects the meaning of speech
English has 53 phonemes.
By changing the beginning
phoneme, the word "hat" becomes "cat."
2. Morphemes - the smallest unit of language that
has meaning
When speaking of more than one "bat," we add
the morpheme "s."
(prefix, root, suffix -- ex communica tion)
Words are usually sequences of morphemes,
but one morpheme can constitute a whole word.
“an” “anhydrous”
3. Semantics - the study of meaning in language
4. Syntax - The set of rules that determine how
words are combined to make phrases and
sentences.
5. Phonetics - the study of how sounds are put
together to make words
6. Grammar - a broader term than syntax; it
includes both syntax and phonetics
 Noam Chomsky distinguished between a sentence's
surface structure (the words actually spoken) and
its deep structure (its underlying meaning).
Different surface structure, but similar deep structure:
"The dog bit the boy." & "The boy was bitten by the
dog."
Surface structure can have more than one deep
structure:
"Visiting relatives can be boring."
*When we hear a spoken sentence we do not
retain the surface structure, but instead
transform it into its deep structure.*
Surface Structure vs Deep Structure

Real Newspaper Headlines
Police Begin Campaign To Run Down Jaywalkers
Safety Experts Say That School Bus Passengers Should Be Belted
Survivor Of Siamese Twins Joins Parents
Farmer Bill Dies In House
Stud Tires Out
Prostitutes Appeal To Pope
Panda Mating Fails; Veterinarian Takes Over
Teacher Strikes Idle Kids
Squad Helps Dog Bite Victim
Shot Off Woman’s Leg Helps Tiger Woods to a 66
Enraged Cow Injures Farmer With Axe
Miners Refuse To Work After Death
Juvenile Court To Try Shooting Defendant
Stolen Painting Found By Tree
Two Sisters Reunited After 18 Years In Checkout Counter
Killer Sentenced To Die For Second Time In Ten Years
Never Withhold Herpes Infection From Loved One
Language Development
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Cooing & Crying > Babbling > One-word Stage > Two-word
Stage > Telegraphic Speech > Verb Tenses, Adjectives,
Pronouns, etc. added > Syntax Acquired
Babbling - (4 months) repeating syllables "mamamama"
- By 6 months of age, an infant is more likely to babble when
an adult is talking to the infant.
- Babbling appears to be an innate ability because deaf
infants also do it.
One-word Stage - (10-12 months) child can only use one word
at a time
- The first words that children use tend to be concrete nouns
and verbs.
i.e. cat, dog, run, hit . . .
Two-word Stage - (18-20 months) child can make
short, two-word sentences
- Example: "More milk." & "Where ball?"
They may learn several new words a day at this
stage.
 Telegraphic Speech - (follows soon after) child
makes sentences that contain only content words
necessary to convey meaning.
- Example: "Doggie kiss Jeff."
Sentences follow the subject-verb-object sequence.
 Verb Tenses, Pronouns, etc. - eventually children
add verb endings, adjectives, etc. to their
sentences.
 Syntax Acquired - (by 4 or 5 years) by this time
children have acquired most of the syntax of their
native language.

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B. F. Skinner theorized that language learning takes
place similar to other forms of learning.
- Parents reinforce and shape babbling
sounds into words.
Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar
Noam Chomsky believes that children are
biologically prepared to learn words and use
grammar.
Our language acquisition capacity is like a box– a
“language acquisition device” (LAD) in which
grammar switches are thrown as children
experience their language.
Language

We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the world’s
languages
Percentage able 100
to discriminate
90
Hindi t’s
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Hindispeaking
adults
6-8
months
8-10
months
10-12
months
Infants from English-speaking homes
Englishspeaking
adults
Language Acquisition
Percentage
correct on
grammar
test

100
90
80
70
60
50
Native 3-7
8-10 11-15 17-39
Age at school
New language
learning gets
harder with age
Language

Linguistic Determinism
 Benjamin Whorf’s hypothesis that
language determines the way we
think
 The Hopi have no past tense for
their verbs. Therefore, a Hopi could
not so readily think about the past.