Air Quality in Ireland 2015
Key Indicators of Ambient Air Quality
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for
protecting and improving the environment as a valuable asset
for the people of Ireland. We are committed to protecting people
and the environment from the harmful effects of radiation and
pollution.
The work of the EPA can be
divided into three main areas:
Regulation: We implement effective regulation and environmental
compliance systems to deliver good environmental outcomes and
target those who don’t comply.
Knowledge: We provide high quality, targeted and timely
environmental data, information and assessment to inform
decision making at all levels.
Advocacy: We work with others to advocate for a clean,
productive and well protected environment and for sustainable
environmental behaviour.
Our Responsibilities
Licensing
We regulate the following activities so that they do not endanger
human health or harm the environment:
• waste facilities (e.g. landfills, incinerators, waste transfer
stations);
• large scale industrial activities (e.g. pharmaceutical, cement
manufacturing, power plants);
• intensive agriculture (e.g. pigs, poultry);
• the contained use and controlled release of Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMOs);
• sources of ionising radiation (e.g. x-ray and radiotherapy
equipment, industrial sources);
• large petrol storage facilities;
• waste water discharges;
• dumping at sea activities.
National Environmental Enforcement
• Conducting an annual programme of audits and inspections of
EPA licensed facilities.
• Overseeing local authorities’ environmental protection
responsibilities.
• Supervising the supply of drinking water by public water
suppliers.
• Working with local authorities and other agencies to tackle
environmental crime by co-ordinating a national enforcement
network, targeting offenders and overseeing remediation.
• Enforcing Regulations such as Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (WEEE), Restriction of Hazardous Substances
(RoHS) and substances that deplete the ozone layer.
• Prosecuting those who flout environmental law and damage the
environment.
Water Management
• Monitoring and reporting on the quality of rivers, lakes,
transitional and coastal waters of Ireland and groundwaters;
measuring water levels and river flows.
• National coordination and oversight of the Water Framework
Directive.
• Monitoring and reporting on Bathing Water Quality.
Monitoring, Analysing and Reporting on the
Environment
• Monitoring air quality and implementing the EU Clean Air for
Europe (CAFÉ) Directive.
• Independent reporting to inform decision making by national
and local government (e.g. periodic reporting on the State of
Ireland’s Environment and Indicator Reports).
Regulating Ireland’s Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• Preparing Ireland’s greenhouse gas inventories and projections.
• Implementing the Emissions Trading Directive, for over 100 of
the largest producers of carbon dioxide in Ireland.
Environmental Research and Development
• Funding environmental research to identify pressures, inform
policy and provide solutions in the areas of climate, water and
sustainability.
Strategic Environmental Assessment
• Assessing the impact of proposed plans and programmes on the
Irish environment (e.g. major development plans).
Radiological Protection
• Monitoring radiation levels, assessing exposure of people in
Ireland to ionising radiation.
• Assisting in developing national plans for emergencies arising
from nuclear accidents.
• Monitoring developments abroad relating to nuclear
installations and radiological safety.
• Providing, or overseeing the provision of, specialist radiation
protection services.
Guidance, Accessible Information and Education
• Providing advice and guidance to industry and the public on
environmental and radiological protection topics.
• Providing timely and easily accessible environmental
information to encourage public participation in environmental
decision-making (e.g. My Local Environment, Radon Maps).
• Advising Government on matters relating to radiological safety
and emergency response.
• Developing a National Hazardous Waste Management Plan to
prevent and manage hazardous waste.
Awareness Raising and Behavioural Change
• Generating greater environmental awareness and influencing
positive behavioural change by supporting businesses,
communities and householders to become more resource
efficient.
• Promoting radon testing in homes and workplaces and
encouraging remediation where necessary.
Management and structure of the EPA
The EPA is managed by a full time Board, consisting of a Director
General and five Directors. The work is carried out across five
Offices:
• Office of Environmental Sustainability
• Office of Environmental Enforcement
• Office of Evidence and Assessment
• Office of Radiological Protection
• Office of Communications and Corporate Services
The EPA is assisted by an Advisory Committee of twelve members
who meet regularly to discuss issues of concern and provide
advice to the Board.
Air Quality in Ireland 2015 Key Indicators of Ambient Air Quality Dr. Micheál O’Dwyer National Ambient Air Quality Programme Office of Radiological Protection
Published by Environmental Protection Agency An Ghníomhaireacht um Chaomhnú Comhshaoil PO Box 3000 Johnstown Castle Estate County Wexford, Ireland Telephone: +353 53 9160600
Lo Call: 1890 33 55 99
Fax: +353 53 9160699
Email: [email protected]
Web site: www.epa.ie
ISBN: 978-1-84095-697-9
© Environmental Protection Agency 2016
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complete accuracy cannot be guaranteed. Neither the Environmental Protection Agency nor the author(s) accept
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publication. Parts of this publication may be reproduced without further permission, provided the source is
acknowledged.
Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Contents
Contents .................................................................................................................................................. 3 Index of figures ....................................................................................................................................... 5 Index of tables ......................................................................................................................................... 6 Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................... 7 Glossary ................................................................................................................................................... 8 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................... 10 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 13 National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme ..................................................................... 13 Air pollution and human health ........................................................................................................ 13 Air pollution, ecosystems and climate .............................................................................................. 13 WHO air quality guidelines ............................................................................................................... 14 Irish and EU air quality legislation ..................................................................................................... 14 Report objectives and coverage ....................................................................................................... 14 Air quality zones 2015 ....................................................................................................................... 15 Air quality monitoring network 2015 ................................................................................................ 16 European air quality .......................................................................................................................... 16 2. Nitrogen oxides (NOX) ................................................................................................................... 17 3. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) .................................................................................................................... 18 4. Carbon monoxide (CO) .................................................................................................................. 19 5. Ozone (O3) ..................................................................................................................................... 20 6. Particulate matter (PM10) .............................................................................................................. 22 7. Particulate matter (PM2.5) ............................................................................................................. 24 8. Benzene and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) ........................................................................ 26 9. Heavy metals ................................................................................................................................. 27 10. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) .................................................................................. 29 11. Dioxins, PCBs and Brominated Flame Retardants survey ......................................................... 31 11.1 Origins of Dioxins in Air ......................................................................................................... 31 11.1.1 PCBs ............................................................................................................................... 32 3 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 11.1.2 Toxicity of Dioxins and PCBs ......................................................................................... 32 11.1.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) & the Stockholm Convention ............................. 33 11.2 Survey Results ....................................................................................................................... 33 11.2.1 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 34 11.2.2 Dioxins ........................................................................................................................... 34 11.2.3 PCBs ............................................................................................................................... 34 11.2.4 Dioxins & PCBs .............................................................................................................. 34 11.2.5 Comparison with earlier surveys and with other international studies. ...................... 34 11.2.6 Brominated Dioxins and Furans (PBDD/PBDF) ............................................................. 36 11.3 Brominated Flame Retardants (BFR) Study. ......................................................................... 36 11.3.1 General .......................................................................................................................... 36 11.4 Non Dioxin PCB results .......................................................................................................... 38 11.5 Conclusions and Outlook ...................................................................................................... 38 12. EMEP and Air quality research .................................................................................................. 39 12.1 European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) .................................................. 39 12.2 Air quality research ............................................................................................................... 40 12.2.1 Title: National mapping of GHG and non‐GHG emissions sources, Ole‐Kenneth Nielsen, Aarhus University ............................................................................................................ 42 12.2.2 Title: Particulate Matter from Diesel Vehicles: Emission and Exposure in Ireland, A. McNabola, University of Dublin, Trinity College (TCD) ................................................................. 42 12.2.3 Title: AEROSOURCE, C. O’Dowd, National University of Ireland Galway (NUIG) .......... 42 13. Key Statistics from Air Enforcement ......................................................................................... 43 14. Conclusion and future challenges ............................................................................................. 44 Appendix A – Summary data tables ...................................................................................................... 46 References ............................................................................................................................................ 69 4 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Indexoffigures
Figure 1.1 Impacts of air pollution (source: EEA 2014) ......................................................................... 13 Figure 1.2 EU vs WHO exposure levels to air pollution (source: EEA 2014) ......................................... 15 Figure 1.3 Air quality zones in Ireland in 2015 ...................................................................................... 15 Figure 1.4 Air Quality Monitoring Stations in 2015 .............................................................................. 16 Figure 1.5 Concentrations of NO2 across EU Member States in 2013 .................................................. 16 Figure 2.1 Trend in NO2 concentrations for zones in Ireland 2005 ‐ 2015 ........................................... 17 Figure 3.1 Annual mean SO2 concentrations 2005 ‐ 2015 ................................................................... 18 Figure 4.1 8‐hour maximum CO concentrations in Cork and Dublin, 2004 ‐ 2015 ............................... 19 Figure 5.1 Annual Mean Ozone concentrations across Europe 2013 ................................................... 20 Figure 5.2 8‐hour daily maximum concentrations at individual stations compared to the WHO guideline value for ozone ...................................................................................................................... 21 Figure 5.3 AOT40 at rural background stations, 2004 ‐ 2015 ............................................................... 21 Figure 6.1 Annual mean PM10 concentrations 2005‐2015 .................................................................... 22 Figure 6.2 PM10 concentrations across Europe in 2013 ........................................................................ 23 Figure 7.1 Annual mean PM2.5 concentrations 2009‐2015 ................................................................... 25 Figure 8.1 Annual mean concentrations for VOC ozone precursors including Benzene at Rathmines, Dublin 2005‐2015 .................................................................................................................................. 26 Figure 9.1 Lead, Arsenic, Cadmium, Nickel concentrations in Ireland 2009 ‐ 2015 ............................. 28 Figure 10.1 Annual mean PAH (BaP) concentration 2009‐2015 ........................................................... 30 Figure 10.2 Annual mean values for PAH (BaP) at individual stations in Ireland in 2015 with reference to EEA air quality estimated reference level for BaP ............................................................................ 30 Figure 11.1 Dioxins/Furans 2015 ‐ Data Compared with 2000‐2015 Averages .................................... 35 Figure 11.2 Dioxins/Furans + PCBs 2015 ‐ Data Compared with 2000‐2015 Averages ........................ 36 5 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Indexoftables
Table 11.1 Summary of dioxin survey results 2015 .............................................................................. 35 Table 11.2 Summary of milk fat data for PBDEs ................................................................................... 37 Table 12.1 summary of ongoing EPA funded air quality related projects ............................................ 41 Table A1 Summary of the Air Quality Directive's limit values, target values, long‐term objectives, information and alert threshold values for the protection of human health. ...................................... 46 Table A2 WHO air quality guidelines (AQG), interim targets (IT) and EEA estimated reference levels (ERL) for PM, O3, NO2, BaP, SO2, CO, and toxic metals, in μg/m3, excepting BaP, CO, Cd and Pb. ..... 47 Table A3 Summary of Air Quality Directive critical levels, target values and long‐term objectives for the protection of vegetation. ................................................................................................................ 48 Table A4 Summary statistics for hourly NO2 concentrations in Ireland in 2015 .................................. 49 Table A5 Summary statistics for hourly NOX concentrations in Ireland in 2015 .................................. 50 Table A6 Summary statistics for hourly SO2 concentrations in Ireland in 2015 ................................... 51 Table A7 Summary statistics for rolling 8‐hour CO concentrations in Ireland in 2015 ......................... 52 Table A8 Summary statistics for rolling 8‐hour ozone concentrations in Ireland in 2015 ................... 53 Table A9 AOT40 values from rural stations (Zone D) in Ireland, 2010 – 2015 ...................................... 54 Table A10 Summary statistics for daily PM10 concentrations in Ireland in 2015 .................................. 55 Table A11 Summary statistics for daily PM2.5 concentrations for Ireland in 2015 ............................... 56 Table A12 Summary statistics for chemical composition of PM2.5 in 2015 .......................................... 57 Table A13 Summary statistics for daily benzene concentrations in Ireland in 2015 ............................ 58 Table A14 Summary statistics for daily ozone precursor VOCs concentrations at Rathmines in 2015 59 Table A15 Summary statistics for daily ozone precursor VOCs concentrations at Kilkenny in 2015 ... 60 Table A16 Summary statistics for monthly lead, arsenic, cadmium and nickel concentrations in Ireland in 2015 ...................................................................................................................................... 61 Table A17 Summary statistics for monthly mercury concentrations in 2015 ...................................... 62 Table A18 Summary statistics for monthly metal deposition concentrations in 2015 ......................... 63 Table A19 Summary statistics for monthly PAH concentrations in 2015 ............................................. 64 Table A20 Summary statistics for monthly PAH deposition concentrations in 2015 ........................... 65 Table A 21 Summary statistics for daily ozone precursor VOCs concentrations at Portlaoise in 2015 66 Table A22 Milk fat related PCDD/F and PCB‐TEQ values determined in the background samples A1 ‐ A 25 .......................................................................................................................................................... 67 Table A23 Milk fat related PCDD/F and PCB‐TEQ values determined in the potential impact samples B1 ‐ B 18 ................................................................................................................................................ 68 6 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of his colleagues, Kevin Delaney, Patrick Malone, Lin Delaney, Cathal Ruane, Patrick Kenny and Barbara Rafferty in the National Ambient Air Quality Programme. Additional support in monitoring and analysis is provided by EPA staff in Dublin, Castlebar, Monaghan, Mallow and Limerick with support in data collection and reporting from colleagues in the Environmental Research Centre, Air Cross Office Team, IT and GIS teams. The input of personnel from local authorities, the Health Service Executive, Met Éireann and NUI Galway and others who provided data for inclusion in this report is also acknowledged 7 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Glossary
> Greater than AOT40 This is a measure of the overall exposure of plants to ozone. It is the sum of the excess hourly concentrations greater than 80 µg/m3 and is expressed as ug/m3 hours. Only values measured between 08:00 and 20:00 Central European Time each day from May to July are used for the calculation. (The name AOT40 refers to 40ppb which is the same as 80 µg/m3) As Arsenic AEI Assessment Threshold Average exposure indicator Concentration at which varying levels of monitoring must be implemented Cd Cadmium CAFE Clean Air for Europe Directive (2008/50/EC) CEC Council of the European Communities C6H6 Benzene CLRTAP Convention on Long‐Range Transboundary Air Pollution CO Carbon monoxide DECLG Department of Environment, Community and Local Government EC European Commission EC/OC Elemental carbon/organic carbon EMEP European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme EPA Environmental Protection Agency EU European Union Hg Mercury LAT Lower assessment threshold Limit value Level to be attained and not exceeded mg/m3 Milligrammes per cubic metre na Not applicable ng/m3 Nanogrammes per cubic metre NH3 Ammonia Ni Nickel 8 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 NO Nitric oxide NO2 Nitrogen dioxide NOx Oxides of nitrogen O3 Ozone PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon Pb Lead PM10 Particulate matter with diameter < 10 µm PM2.5 Particulate matter with diameter < 2.5 µm ppb Parts per billion SO2 Sulphur dioxide Target value Level to be attained where possible over a given period Troposphere Region of the atmosphere from ground level to ~10‐15 kilometres Stratosphere Region of the atmosphere from ~15 kilometres to 50 kilometres VOCs Volatile organic compounds yr year UAT Upper assessment threshold µm Micron µg/m3 Microgrammes per cubic metre µg/m3.h Microgrammes per cubic metre hours µg/m2/day Microgrammes per square metre per day Zone A Dublin Zone B Cork Zone C Zone D Galway, Limerick, Waterford, Clonmel, Kilkenny, Sligo, Drogheda, Wexford, Athlone, Bray, Carlow, Dundalk, Ennis, Naas, Tralee, Celbridge, Letterkenny, Mullingar, Navan, Newbridge, Portlaoise, Greystones and Leixlip. Remainder of State (excluding Zones A, B and C) 9 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 ExecutiveSummary
Air Quality in Ireland 2015 Air monitoring data from 31 stations in the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network was assessed against legislative limit and target values for the protection of human health and vegetation. Air monitoring data was also compared to the World Health Organisation (WHO) guideline values (EEA estimated reference level used for PAH). Report highlights include: 

No levels above the EU limit value were recorded at any of the ambient air quality network monitoring sites in Ireland in 2015 WHO guideline values were exceeded as follows: 


Ozone at 7 monitoring sites Particulate Matter PM10 at 16 monitoring sites (24hr WHO guideline) Particulate Matter PM2.5 at 8 monitoring sites (24hr WHO guideline) Particulate Matter PM2.5 at 1 monitoring site (annual WHO guideline) EEA reference levels were exceeded as follows 
PAH at 4 monitoring sites The dioxin survey 2015 shows levels recorded are similar or lower than those from previous surveys and from studies undertaken in other EU countries This report summarises the current state of research in air quality supported by the EPA in 2015 This report also summarises some key statistics from work undertaken in air enforcement in 2015 by the EPA. Challenges The links between poor air quality and human health are well understood with the 2014 report by the European Environment Agency (EEA) estimating that around 1,200 deaths in Ireland in 2012 were directly linked to air pollution, while for Europe the figure was approximately 400,000 deaths. It is now apparent that the EU limit value levels are inadequate to protect people from the harmful effects of air pollutants and the WHO has intimated that there is no safe limit for air pollution. Along 10 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 with the clear health benefits in improving air quality in Ireland, there is also an economic saving in doing so, highlighted by the recent OECD report on the economic cost of air pollution (OECD 2016). In general air quality in Ireland is good and compares favourably with other EU member states, largely as a result of our relative absence of large cities, weather and access to predominantly clean air masses from the south west. However this status is a comparison, relative to our European neighbours many of whom are in exceedance of EU limit values for pollutants such as particulate matter, ozone and nitrogen dioxide. It is also much too dependent on the vagaries of our weather. When we compare our air quality levels to those recommended by the World Health Organisation, the situation is less positive. We face challenges in reducing our levels of particulate matter (both PM10 and PM2.5) and ozone to below those recommended by the WHO Air Quality Guidelines. Particulate matter in Ireland is predominantly sourced from solid fuel burning and it is in this area where much of the reductions can be made. As the improvement in our economy continues we will also face challenges to comply with EU legislation for pollutants emitted from car exhausts. Economic activity will likely be mirrored by increases in NOX emissions, particularly in urban areas. City centre and urban monitoring sites in Ireland are approaching EU limit values for NO2, and it is probable that we will see limit value exceedances in the near future unless mitigation steps are taken. Actions A key part of the approach to tackling these issues is better engagement with the public on the topic of air quality. The first step in this process is an increased access to air quality data and information. This is highlighted in the EPA’s proposed National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme (AAMP) which is currently out for public consultation. This programme proposes three main pillars along with under‐pinning supporting actions: 


A greatly expanded national monitoring network Modelling and forecasting capability Citizen engagement and citizen science initiatives Coinciding with the introduction of this AAMP, the EPA is now calling for movement towards the adoption of the more health appropriate WHO Air Quality Guidelines, in particular for particulates and ozone, as the legal standards across Europe and in Ireland. Reductions in levels of particulate matter in Ireland can begin with the consumer, who once properly informed can make decisions that will impact on their local air quality, particularly with regard to their choice of home heating fuel. Any shift from burning of solid fuel to cleaner, more energy efficient methods of home heating will result in cleaner air quality for the consumer, their family and neighbours with a resultant improvement in their health. With regard to vehicle exhaust emissions, although it is hoped that technological advances will go some way to addressing this issue, this approach cannot be solely relied upon and complimentary measures to mitigating the problem will be needed such as the transition of individuals from private fossil fuel powered motor cars to alternative modes of transport such as walking, cycling and public transport and policy incentives to promote a transition to more environmentally friendly and sustainable options such as electric motor powered vehicles. 11 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 The scientific community’s understanding of air pollution and its health implications is constantly evolving and we need to work to communicate these changes and their importance to the public and policy makers. This understanding will be crucial for individuals to make informed decisions on a range of choices that have implications on their local air quality. Although the problems are many, they are not insurmountable and it is heartening to know that the power to make changes and provide solutions is within our control. Measures such as policy changes, price incentives, and provision of clean alternatives for transport and home heating, support for clean air choices, education and the decisions made by individual consumers all have a role to play in maintaining and improving our air quality. 12 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 1. Introduction
Airpollutionandhumanhealth
Air pollution is the single largest environmental health risk in Europe (EEA 2015). Cardiovascular complications like heart disease and stroke are the main causes of premature death attributed to air pollution (WHO 2014). Air pollution itself is responsible for 80% of cases of premature death in Europe (2014). This negative impact on human health also has considerable negative impact on European member state economies, with working days lost, reduced productivity and increased medical costs (OECD 2016). Airpollution,ecosystemsandclimate
Air pollution also has impacts on vegetation, soil and water quality. For example NH3, NOX and SO2 contribute to the acidification of soil and water and ground‐level ozone damages agricultural crops, forests and plants. Many air pollutants are also climate forcers – for example the black carbon constituent of particulate matter and tropospheric ozone to name but two. Figure 1.1 shows an overview of the impacts of air pollution. National
Ambient
Air
MonitoringProgramme
Quality
In order to protect our health, vegetation and ecosystems, EU Directives set down air quality standards for a wide variety of pollutants. The current standards are contained in the Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) Directive (EP & CEU, 2008) and the Fourth Daughter Directive (EP & CEU, 2004). These Directives also include rules on how Member States should monitor, assess and manage ambient air quality. The EPA, as the National Reference Laboratory, is tasked with coordinating and managing this monitoring programme. A nationwide network of 31 monitoring stations measures levels of air pollutants in each zone and delivers this information in real‐
time to the public at www.airquality.epa.ie. The EPA has issued for public consultation a National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme, which will includes a proposed revision of the monitoring network and crucial actions to increase provision of air quality information to the public and improve citizen engagement in this area. Figure 1.1 Impacts of air pollution (source: EEA 2014) 13 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Reportobjectivesandcoverage
IrishandEUairqualitylegislation
This report provides an overview of the situation for ambient air quality in Ireland in 2015. It is based on monitoring data from 31 stations that were in operation during the year. Measured concentrations are compared with both: EU legislative standards and WHO air quality guidelines) for a range of air pollutants. The air quality analysis presented here is based on concentration measurements of the following pollutants: The EPA is the designated competent authority for the implementation of all Irish and EU ambient air quality legislation. It is assisted in its role by the local authorities and other partners, and it carries out ambient air quality monitoring, which contributes to what is known as the ‘National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network’. The EPA manages this monitoring network and is responsible for all reporting to stakeholders – which include the public and the EU. The EPA is also the National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for air quality for Ireland. 
sulphur dioxide; 
nitrogen dioxide and oxides of nitrogen; 
carbon monoxide; 
ozone; 
particulate matter ‐ PM10 and PM2.5; 
benzene and volatile organic compounds (VOCs); 
heavy metals ‐ lead, arsenic, cadmium, nickel and mercury; 
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH); 
elemental carbon/organic carbon (EC/OC) as part of PM2.5 speciation; and 
The results of air quality monitoring in 2015 presented in this report are compared to the limit and target values in the latest EU legislation, the Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) Directive (EP and CEU, 2008) and the Fourth Daughter Directive (EP and CEU, 2004). The CAFE Directive is an amalgamation of the Air Quality Framework Directive and its subsequent First, Second and Third Daughter Directives. The CAFE Directive was transposed into Irish legislation by the Air Quality Standards Regulations 2011 (S.I. No. 180 of 2011).The 4th Daughter Directive was transposed by the Arsenic, Cadmium, Mercury, Nickel and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Air Regulations 2009 (S.I. No. 58 of 2009). Further details on air quality legislation can be found at www.epa.ie/air/quality/standards/ and in previous air quality reports www.epa.ie/pubs/reports/air/quality/. anions and cations as part of PM2.5 speciation. The pollutants of most concern in terms of health impacts are particulate matter, PAH and, to a lesser extent, ozone and nitrogen dioxide. The sources and impact of these air pollutants, current levels in Ireland and trends over time for each pollutant are outlined in this report. A chapter on dioxins in the Irish environment is also included. Dioxins are not included in the air quality network but are measured separately in milk samples. WHOairqualityguidelines
This report makes reference to the World Health Organisation (WHO) air quality guidelines for particulate matter (PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide (WHO, 2005); and also the WHO air quality guidelines update, which includes PM2.5 (Air Qual Atmos Health, 2008). These guidelines were developed by the WHO, to inform policy makers and provide appropriate air quality targets worldwide, based on the latest health information available. Figure 1.2 below details a comparison of EU limits and WHO guideline values for six pollutants in EU urban areas (WHO guideline for BaP in the figure below is based on the EEA air quality reference level). When the stricter WHO guideline values are applied a significantly higher proportion of the urban population are exposed to harmful levels of air pollution (EAA, 2014). 14 Air Quality In Ir
reland 2015 2
Figurre 1.2 EU vs W
WHO exposure levels to air p
pollution (sourrce: EEA 2014)) Airqualit
tyzones2
2015
EU legislatio
on on air quaality requiress that Membber States divvide their territo
ory into zonees for the asssessment annd management own of air qualitty. The zoness in place in Ireland in 22015 are sho
in Figure 1.33. Zone A is the Dublin conurbationn, Zone B is the Cork bation with Zone C com
mprising 23 large townss in conurb
Ireland with
h a populatiion >15,000. Zone D is the remain
ning area of Irela
and. The air quaality in each
h zone is asssessed and classified with w
respect to u
upper and lower assesssment threshholds based on measurements over thee previous fiive years. Uppper and low
wer assessment thresholds are prescriibed in the legislation for each pollutaant. The num
mber of monitoring locat ions required is dependent o
on populatio
on size and w
whether ambbient air quaality concentratio
ons exceed the upper assessment threshold, are between the upper and
d lower asse
essment thr esholds, or are below the lo
ower assessm
ment thresho
old. Figurre 1.3 Air quallity zones in Irreland in 2015 15 Air Quality In Ir
reland 2015 2
Air
A qualitty monittoring ne
etwork
2015
2
The T
31 mo
onitoring sttations tha
at were employed in 2015 and w
whose data w
was used in
n compiling this annual report are shown s
in Figure 1.4. Th
here were no changes to
o the air quality monit
toring netwo
ork in 2015. European
E
airqualitty
Since the 19770s the EU has attempte
ed to use environmentaal policy as tthe main insstrument to
o improve air quality. To
o a large exttent this has been very succeessful, with
h great eductions in the primaryy pollutants a
across all re
member m
sstates and
d a no
oticeable im
mprovementt in air qu
uality. Howe
ever, air pollution scieence is also improving and our p
air understanding of the impact of poor quality on health is growing an
nd new hallenges aree facing Euro
ope over the
e coming ch
decades. In late 201
13, the European co
ommission p
proposed a n
new Clean A
Air Policy Package for Europe, wh
hich aims to
o ensure co
ompliance w
with existingg legislation by 2020 and to further improve Eu
urope’s air quality by hereafter (EC
C 2013). Figgure 1.5 2030 and th
sh
hows annual average concentrattions of nitrogen dioxxide (NO2) for the Europe
ean wide monitoring m
network (please note that these graphs are p
produced using 2013 airr quality data). As eevident in the graphics NO2 mmon acrosss most of exceedances are very com
Europe, indiccating that NO2 is a problem pollutant for European member states. Figure 1.4 Aiir Quality Mon
nitoring Statioons in 2015 Figure 1.5 Co
oncentrations of NO2 acrosss EU Member SStates in 2013 16 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 2. Nitrogenoxides(NOX)
WheredoesNOXcomefrom?
WhydowemonitorNOX?
NOX refers to the two pollutants: nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). They are produced during combustion at high temperatures with the main sources in Ireland coming from vehicles and power stations. sector is also a significant contributor to NOX levels in The industrial Ireland, particularly the cement production industry. The majority of NOX emissions are comprised of NO, with typically 5 ‐ 10% being directly emitted NO2. Diesel engines tend to emit a higher percentage of NO2. NO2 concentrations are closely associated with traffic volumes. As a result, sensitive individuals including asthmatics, elderly people and children are more susceptible to NO2 exposure closer to heavily trafficked roadways. Elevated NO2 exposure can lead to health impacts including Details with regard to ambient air quality standards and WHO guideline values for NOx and other pollutants are listed in Appendix A. 50
Annual limit value
40
Annual Mean µg/m3
respiratory related issues 
liver impacts Elevated NOX concentrations impact on ecosystems. NOX levels can contribute to the acidification and eutrophication of soils and water, which can lead to changes in species diversity. NOX also acts as a precursor to ozone and also is involved with the production of secondary organic aerosol (SOA). 2015Resultsandtrends
45

35
Zone A
Traffic
30
25
OutlookforNOXlevelsinIreland
Zone A
Background
20
15
Zone B
Traffic
10
Zone C
5
Zone D
0
Figure 2.1 Trend in NO2 concentrations for zones in Ireland 2005 ‐ 2015 NO2 concentrations were monitored at 15 locations across Ireland in 2015. NO2 values for all monitoring sites in Ireland were below the annual limit value in 2015. Details regarding annual averages and other statistics are available in Table A4 of Appendix A. Figure 2.1 shows the trend for NO2 across Ireland for 2005 to 2015. Levels across all zones of Ireland have remained relatively static since 2005, with signs of a slight increasing trend in the years 2008 ‐ 2010. During this period NO2 levels were close to the limit value at Dublin City and Cork City centre monitoring sites, with the limit value exceeded in Dublin in 2009. However, NO2 levels decreased in general from 2010 to 2012. This downward trend appears to have stabilised with NO2 values showing something of an increase again in 2013 and 2014 at some locations, such as the Zone B traffic site. The reason for the decrease in NO2 concentrations from 2010 to 2012 could partly be due to meteorological conditions (a predominance of wet and windy weather), as well as a decrease in traffic numbers for the period, reflective of the downturn in the economy. Due to our continued reliance on fossil fuelled combustion engine transport, NO2/NOX levels will remain a problem pollutant in our Irish towns and cities. In fact, the problem will likely be exacerbated with the continued increase in economic activity, as NOx concentrations would be expected to rise accordingly. Coupled with favourable meteorological conditions for the build‐up of NO2, it is probable that we will see exceedances of the NO2 limit value in the near future. Although there is some hope that technological advances in the future may lead to lower NOX emissions from individual cars (EURO 6 emissions standards), this technology will take time to make an impact on the levels as they stand. A more certain route to mitigating the problem of NOX, is for individuals to prioritise public transport and alternative modes of transport over use of the private motor car. Transport policy in Ireland should also further reflect this priority and should go further in attempting to tackle the problem of air pollution, whether through the use of alternative modes of transport or alternative fuels, including electric motor powered transport. 17 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 3. Sulphurdioxide(SO2)
WhydowemonitorSO2
WheredoesSO2comefrom?
SO2 is a gas which is formed when sulphur containing fuels (mainly coal and oil) are burned in power stations, domestically, and elsewhere. Volcanic eruptions are the predominant natural source of sulphur dioxide. Health effects from elevated levels of SO2 include Details with regard to ambient air quality standards and WHO guideline values for SO2 and other pollutants are listed in Appendix A. Aggravation of asthma 
Reduce in lung function 
Inflammation of the respiratory tract 
General discomfort, anxiety and headaches SO2 is also a contributor to acidification of rivers and lakes. 2015ResultsandTrends

OutlookforSO2concentrations
inIreland
25
Vegetation annual limit value
Annual Mean µg/m3
20
Zone A (traffic)
15
Zone A (background)
Zone B
10
Zone D
5
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Figure 3.1 Annual mean SO2 concentrations 2005 ‐ 2015 Smaller towns may be more vulnerable to higher SO2 levels due to increased coal or peat usage. Although it is expected that SO2 concentrations across Ireland will remain low for the foreseeable future, it will be important for the consumer to maintain awareness of their choice of home heating fuel and where possible to choose cleaner alternatives over coal and peat. Further volcanic activity in Iceland, due to its ability to influence SO2 concentrations here in Ireland, must also be monitored in the future. SO2 was measured at 10 stations in 2015. The results of individual stations are listed in Table A6 of Appendix A. No exceedances of the daily EU limit or the WHO guideline values were recorded in 2015. Figure 3.1 shows the trend in annual mean SO2 concentrations across Ireland since 2005. Levels have been consistently low in Ireland in that period. This is reflective of the shift in fuel choice across Ireland in both the residential heating sector and the energy production sector, from sulphur containing bituminous coal to those fuels which are low in SO2 production such as natural gas. 18 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 4. Carbonmonoxide(CO)
WheredoesCOcomefrom?
WhydoweMonitorCarbonMonoxide?
monoxide is a colourless gas, formed from incomplete Carbon oxidation during combustion of fuel. Sources of CO in Ireland are from vehicles, although tobacco smoke and poorly mainly adjusted and maintained combustion devices, such as boilers, contribute also. CO concentrations tend to be higher in areas with heavy traffic congestion. Details with regard to ambient air quality standards and WHO guideline values for CO and other pollutants are listed in Appendix A. Elevated concentrations of carbon monoxide in ambient air can lead to 
heart disease 
damage to the central nervous system 
fatigue and headaches 2015ResultsandTrends
12
10
mg/m3
8
Limit vlaue
Dublin
6
Cork
4 2 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Figure 4.1 8‐hour maximum CO concentrations in Cork and Dublin, 2004 ‐ 2015 OutlookforCOconcentrations
Carbon monoxide concentrations in Ireland are expected to stay low for the foreseeable future. CO was measured at five locations in 2015; the results are detailed in Table A7 of Appendix A. Levels in 2015 are very similar to concentrations observed in from 2005 to 2014 and are below the limit value. Measured concentrations were also below the WHO air quality guideline values. Trends in CO concentrations in Dublin and Cork since 2005 are shown in Figure 4.1. Levels have remained low over the period with all levels recorded below the limit value set out in the CAFE Directive and WHO guideline. 19 Air Quality In Ir
reland 2015 2
5. Ozone(O3)
Where
W
do
oes ozone come
frrom?
Whyd
dowemon
nitorozone
e?
Elevatedd concentrattions of ozone can decrrease lung fu
unction. It can also aggravaate respirato
ory ailmentss in sensitivve individuals e.g. asth
hmatics, individuuals with lungg disease Ozzone is forrmed as a secondary po
ollutant in the tropospherre from the ch
hemical OX, CO and reacction of NO
vo
olatile organic compounds (VOCs) in th
he presence of sunlight. Ozone can alsso be preseent in the troposphere du
ue to downnward flux from the ozzone‐rich sttratosphere, where it ly and has an
occcurs natural
n important ro
ole in abssorbing harmful UV radiation. Ozone is readily traansported from Atlaantic and Eu
uropean regions due to the t natural movement off air massess. Ground‐
d through levvel ozone is depleted
re
eactions w
with trafffic‐emitted po
ollutants; theerefore levels of ozone arre higher in ru
ural areas than in urban arreas. Ozonee‐Atransb
boundaryissue
De
etails with regard to ambient air qu
uality standards and WHO
O guideline vaalues for ozone and otherr pollutants arre listed in TTable A1, Table A2 and Taable A3 of Appendix A. Figure 5..1 Annual Mea
an Ozone conccentrations accross Europe 2
2013 he concentra
ations of ozoone in Irelan
nd in the Eu
uropean Figure 55.1 shows th
context . The impaccts of ground level ozonne can be seen s
in central and southerrn Europe, paarticularly byy those counntries with larger cities and high sunshin e levels. How
wever the inffluence of baackground levvels of ozonee can be seen aalong the western se
eaboard, wiith Ireland experiencin
ng this phenom
menon. Ozone cconcentrations are strong
gly influenceed by meteorrological con
nditions; stable aanticyclones o
over Ireland with warm s unny weathe
er are more llikely to producee higher levvels of ozone. This ca n arise from local em
missions; particul arly the interaction of oxxides of nitroggen, VOCs an
nd sunlight o
or it can oundary sources from tthe rest of Europe and
d other be duee to transbo
contine nts. The lack of high presssure stable aiir masses durring recent su
ummers is refleccted in the relatively low le
evels of ozonne observed d
during these yyears. 20 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 8-hr daily maximum µg/ m3
2015ResultsandTrends
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Outlook
for
concentrations
Ireland
WHO guideline
Zone A (Dublin)
Zone B (Cork)
Zone C (21
biggest towns)
Zone D
(remainder of
country)
Figure 5.2 8‐hour daily maximum concentrations at individual stations compared to the WHO guideline value for ozone Ozone concentrations recorded in 2015 were below the EU limit value for human health. There were six days recorded with maximum average 8‐hour mean concentrations >120 µg/m3, all at our Monaghan remote site – Kilkitt. When compared to the WHO guideline value shown in Figure 5.2, seven monitoring stations were above this guideline value. Summary statistics for individual stations are contained in Table A8 of Appendix A 9000
8000
Galway
remote
AOT40 (µg/m3).h
7000
Long‐term objective
6000
Monaghan
remote
5000
Laois
regional
4000
Kerry remote
3000
Mayo near
town
2000
1000
ozone
in
Short acute ozone pollution episodes are infrequent in Ireland; however they have happened in the past and will happen in the future. They are most likely to occur in summer months when there is a stable anti‐cyclone over Ireland bringing settled, warm weather. Movement of polluted air masses from Europe are more likely to occur during these periods, with the air masses likely to contain high levels of ozone. Because ozone levels in Ireland are highly influenced by transboundary sources, attainment of the Long‐Term objective (LTO) and compliance with the WHO guideline value will only occur should hemispheric ozone levels reduce. This will require a European, and possibly global, effort to reduce emissions of ozone precursors. 0
Figure 5.3 AOT40 at rural background stations, 2004 ‐ 2015 Figure 5.3 shows the AOT40 for five rural background stations for the years 2005‐2015. The AOT40 is an indicator of exposure of vegetation to ozone during the growing season, when vegetation is more susceptible to damage from pollutants. Rural background stations are classified as remote, regional or near‐city depending on their proximity to urban areas. Ozone levels are higher in remote regions and tend to be highest along the western seaboard (indicated by the Galway and Kerry sites) and lower in the east of the country (indicated by the Monaghan site). 21 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 6. Particulatematter(PM10)
Wheredoesparticulatematter(PM
10)comefrom?
WhydowemonitorPM10?
PM10 are particles with diameters of 10 μm or less. These particles can include direct emissions such as dust, emissions from combustion engines, emissions from the burning of solid fuels or natural sources such as windblown salt, plant spores and pollens. These direct emissions are known as primary PM10. PM10 can also be produced indirectly by formation of aerosols as a result of reactions of other pollutants such as NOX and SO2; these are known as secondary PM10. In Ireland the main sources are solid fuel burning and vehicular traffic. Agriculture is also a significant source of secondary particulate matter, primarily through formation of aerosols from ammonium nitrates for example. Details with regard to ambient air quality standards and WHO guideline Table A1, Table A2 and values for ozone and other pollutants are listed in Table A3 of Appendix A. Elevated levels of PM10 can cause the following health effects: 
cardiovascular disease 
lung diseases 
heart attacks and arrhythmias 2015ResultsandTrends
50 45
Annual limit value
Annual Mean µg/m3
40
Zone A traffic
35
Zone A background
30
Zone B traffic
25
WHO air quality guideline
Zone C
20
Zone D
15
10
5
0
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Figure 6.1 Annual mean PM10 concentrations 2005‐2015 PM10 was monitored at eighteen stations across Ireland in 2015; the results and summary statistics for individual stations are available in Table A10 of Appendix A. Mean concentrations are below the annual limit value of 40 µg/m3. With respect to WHO air quality guideline values, no monitoring stations exceeded the annual guideline value. However, when measuring against the WHO 24‐hour mean guideline value (50 µg/m3), sixteen monitoring stations had daily mean values > 50 µg/m3. Figure 6.1 displays the trend in PM10 annual mean concentration from 2005 to 2015. In cities, traffic emissions are the main source of PM10, while in smaller towns or those areas not connected to the natural gas grid, emissions from residential solid fuel combustion dominate. The air quality in cities benefits from increased use of gas in place of solid fuel, and a ban on the use of bituminous coal, with the result that levels of PM10 are similar across all zones. Despite large differences in population number Zone D has similar PM concentrations compared to Zones A and B. This is most likely due to residential solid fuel emissions in Zone D which in this zone are a more significant source than traffic emissions. 22 Air Quality In Ir
reland 2015 2
Ou
utlookforP
PM10conccentrationss
Loo
oking at the ttrend analyssis for the lasst decade (Figgure 6.1) it is clear that tthere has beeen no discerrnible decreaase in P
PM10 concen
ntrations acro
oss Ireland. A
Although aveerage concentrations are
e below the EU limit valu
ue, they bord
der the
e WHO air qu
uality guideline value. To
o see a reduuction in the impact of P
PM10 on the hhealth of the
e population
n, a mpetus for tthis decrease
con
nsistent decr
rease in emissions is req
quired. The i
e could com
me from an adoption of tthe WH
HO air qualityy guideline vvalue across the EU. The reductions in emissions across Irela nd will require a changee in the
e choices individual custo
omers make in the fuels tthey use to heat their ho
omes, with aa significant sshift from so
olid fue
el use to cleaaner alternattives. Impro
oving the aw
wareness of cconsumers o
of the relatioonship betwe
een health and air quality and ssupporting cclean air choices, will be eessential to achieve thesse goals. PM
M10‐aEuro
opeanview
w
Figu
ure 6.2 PM10 cconcentrationss across Europ
pe in 2013 As can be seen from Figuree 6.2 above ffor 2013, PM
M10 concentraations vary cconsiderably throughout Europe. Mu
uch of tthis variation
n stems from
m dominant ffuel use on aa regional basis, for taskss such as hom
me heating o
or even the u
use of ssolid fuel forr outdoor coo
oking, with tthe use of woood in the M
Mediterranean states a siggnificant sou
urce of PM.
23 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 7. Particulatematter(PM2.5)
WheredoesparticulatematterPM2.5comefrom?
PM2.5 or ‘fine’ particulate matter is particle pollution made of a mixture of solids and liquids of size 2.5 μm or less. It is composed of a number of varying components depending on its source. These can include acids such as nitrates and sulphates, VOCs, metals, and soil or dust particles. This PM2.5 can be emitted directly into the atmosphere or can be formed secondarily. For example, sulphate particles are formed by the chemical reaction of SO2 in the atmosphere after its release from power plants or industrial facilities. PM2.5 is considered a better indicator of man‐made particulate matter than PM10. Details with regard to ambient air quality standards and WHO guideline values for PM
2.5 and other pollutants are listed in of Appendix A Why do we monitor particulate
matterPM2.5?
PM10 and PM2.5 include inhalable particles that are small enough to penetrate the thoracic region of the respiratory system. The health effects of inhalable PM are well documented. They are due to exposure over both the short term (hours, days) and long term (months, years) and include: 
respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity, such as aggravation of asthma, respiratory symptoms and an increase in hospital admissions; 
mortality from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and from lung cancer (WHO, 2013) NationalEmissionReduction
TargetforPM
2.5
The CAFE Directive (2008/50/EC) requires Member States to determine the PM2.5 average exposure indicator (AEI). The value will decide the national exposure reduction target (NERT) which must be met by 2020. Based on historical levels of PM2.5, Ireland is required to reduce levels by 10% on or before 2020. This equates to a 1µg/m3 reduction from 10.4µg/m3 to 9.4µg/m3. 24 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Data2015Results
30
Annual limit value
25
Coleraine St.
Annual Mean µg/m3
20
Rathmines
Marino
Cork
15
Ennis
Longford
10
Claremorris
WHO air quality guideline
Bray
5
Finglas
0
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Figure 7.1 Annual mean PM2.5 concentrations 2009‐2015 The CAFE Directive introduced mandatory monitoring of PM
2.5. Figure 7.1 details results at 7 stations from 2009 to 2015. Levels in Ireland are below both the stage one and stage two limit values of 25 and 20 µg/m3 (stage one was to be attained by 2015, with stage two attainment by 2020). PM
2.5 results for individual stations are detailed in Table A11 of Appendix A. With regards to WHO air quality guideline values, Ireland exceeds the annual WHO guideline value for PM2.5 at 1 of the 9 stations monitored. When looking at the 24hr average WHO guideline value, 8 out of the 9 monitoring stations are above this guideline value. Summary statistics for chemical composition of PM2.5 in 2015 are shown in Table A12 of Appendix A OutlookforPM
2.5concentrations
There have been no exceedances of the EU limit value for PM
2.5 (25µg/m3) in Ireland. However as can be seen from Figure 7.1 concentrations in general are above the WHO air quality guideline value. PM2.5 is considered a better marker than PM10 for anthropogenic air pollution and thus it is evident in Ireland that human activities are impacting on air quality with the potential to negatively impact on human health. The levels observed have a variety of sources including contributions from the commercial, industrial, and agriculture sectors. However the largest contribution in Ireland comes from the residential sector with solid fuel combustion being the predominant source. Steps have been taken in recent years to mitigate this problem with the extension of the bituminous coal ban; however a total shift from solid fuel combustion is needed before large improvements will be noticed. Under the National Emissions Reduction Target (NERT) set for each country by the European Commission, Ireland’s obligation is to decrease PM2.5 concentrations by 10% by 2020. The timely implementation of sectoral emission reduction polices will be key to achieving this target. One aspect of particulate matter pollution which may be important in the future is ‘black carbon’. Black carbon is the fraction of PM2.5 which strongly absorbs light, and it may be included into the National Emissions Ceiling Directive in the future. Black carbon is also a key concern for the recently formed Climate and Clean Air Coalition of which Ireland is a member. The synergy of air quality and climate change issues, in particular short lived climate pollutants such as methane, black carbon and ozone, is a key concern for this coalition. 25 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 8. Benzeneandvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs)
Wheredoesbenzenecomefrom?
Whydowemonitorbenzene?
Urban areas can have measurable quantities of benzene in air. The major source of benzene and VOCs in Ireland is from automobile exhaust emissions as regular unleaded petrol may contain up to 1% benzene. Benzene and VOCs can also be released to the air from petroleum refining, fuel storage/filling stations, industrial emissions, chemical usage and tobacco smoke. The relevant Irish and European legislation limit values for benzene are set out in Table A1, Table A2 and Table A3 of Appendix A. 
Benzene is a known human carcinogen 
Benzene has harmful effects on the bone marrow and can cause a decrease in red blood cells 2015ResultsandTrends
Outlook for benzene
concentrations
7
Annual Mean µg/m3
6
5
4
3
Benzene
Ethylbenzene
m‐ and p‐Xylene
o‐Xylene
2
1
0
Toluene
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Figure 8.1 Annual mean concentrations for VOC ozone precursors including Benzene at Rathmines, Dublin 2005‐2015 Routine annual monitoring for Benzene was carried out at two stations in 2015; there was no exceedance of the annual limit of 5 µg/m3. In addition, toluene, ethyl benzene, o‐xylene, m‐xylene and p‐xylene were measured at Rathmines, an urban background station in Dublin and Kilkenny (the first time these parameters, other than toluene, were monitored at this location). Summary results for these compounds are contained in Table A13, Table A14 and Table A15 of Appendix A. There is no limit value for these ozone precursor VOCs. On 1 January 2000 the EU limit for benzene in petrol reduced from 5% to 1% and the average content of benzene in petrol in the EU is 0.7%. This has significantly reduced the levels of benzene Europe‐wide. Benzene concentrations have been relatively low and stable for the last number of years and are anticipated to stay low in the medium term. The recently introduced Stage II Petrol Vapour Regulations will, over the next few years, require petrol stations to install equipment to collect vapour displaced from car fuel tanks during refuelling, so this may further reduce ambient levels. With regards to the national car fleet, petrol vehicles have reduced greatly over the last number of years and this is unlikely to change in the near future. Figure 8.1 shows the trend in annual mean concentrations of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and meta, para, ortho ‐ xylene at Rathmines from 2005 to 2015. It shows that the concentration of benzene in the city since the early 2000s has been relatively stable and below the limit value. These parameters were also measured in Port Laoise at a location chosen to monitor ambient concentrations adjacent to an industrial installation, see Table A 21 for details. 26 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 9. Heavymetals
Wheredoheavymetalscomefrom?
Lead, arsenic, cadmium, nickel and mercury are toxic heavy metals, which can be found in the air. They impact on health through inhalation of particulate matter containing the metals or, in the case of mercury, direct inhalation of vapour. Heavy metals can enter the food chain through deposition to the ground. Their sources are primarily fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes such as metal‐plating, mining, smelting, the production of batteries, plastics and pigments. Lead was used in many products such as paint in the past. The most common source of lead was emissions from motor vehicles; however, this has dramatically reduced since the introduction of lead‐free petrol in the 1980s. Mercury is also a toxic heavy metal which can be found in the atmosphere. The majority of mercury emissions to the atmosphere are from natural sources such as volcanoes. Anthropogenic sources of atmospheric mercury in Ireland are predominantly from unabated coal combustion. Heavy metal deposition from air pollution can also have a significant impact on water quality. This is especially true with respect to mercury. Details of EU standard limit values for heavy metals are detailed in Table A1, Table A2 and Table A3 of Appendix A. Why do we measure heavy metals in
air?
Exposure to elevated levels of the four legislative metals monitored under CAFE obligation can have various health impacts as detailed below (EEA, 2014): 

Arsenic – human carcinogen Cadmium – human carcinogen. Inhalation is a minor part of total exposure, but ambient levels are important for deposition in soil and, thereby, dietary intake. 
Nickel – human carcinogen 
Lead ‐ Can affect almost every organ and system, especially the nervous and cardiovascular systems. It may also have adverse cognitive effects in children and lead to increased blood pressure in adults. 2015Data
Lead, arsenic, cadmium and nickel in PM10 were measured at five stations in 2015. The annual mean concentrations measured at all stations were all below the respective target or limit values. Results and summary statistics for each station are contained in Table A16 in Appendix A. Mercury was measured at one site in 2015 and deposition of lead, arsenic, cadmium and nickel were measured at three stations in 2015. There is no target value for mercury or metal deposition specified in Directive 2004/107/EC. Results and summary statistics for mercury and deposition of lead, arsenic, cadmium and nickel from all monitoring stations in 2015 can be found in Table A17 and Table A18 of Appendix A. 27 Air Quality In Ir
reland 2015 2
Figure 9.11 Lead, Arseniic, Cadmium, N
Nickel concenttrations in Ireland 2009 ‐ 20
015 Hea
avyMetals
sTrends
Figure 9.1 above shows the annual mean cconcentratio ns in Ireland from 2009 to
o 2015 for le ad, arsenic, ccadmium and
d nickel. hese trend grraphs indicatted that these
e heavy metaals have conccentrations b
below their lim
mit or target values.. Results will All th
conttinue to be m
monitored in the future. Outtlookforh
heavymeta
alconcentrrations
High
h levels of heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium and nickel are usually ob
bserved in arreas with a lo
ot of heavy in
ndustry, such
h as smelting and mining. Ireland is a country whicch has few h
heavy industries such as tthese and as a consequen
nce, the conccentration of heavy metals is likely to rremain low inn the future.
28 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 10.Polycyclicaromatichydrocarbons(PAH)
WhydowemonitorPAH?
WheredoesPAHcomefrom?
PAH and in particular benzo (a) pyrene (BaP) are known carcinogens. PAH are chemical compounds which consist of two or more fused aromatic rings made entirely from carbon and hydrogen. PAH are emitted domestically from the combustion of solid fuels, such as coal, wood and peat. They can also be emitted from incomplete combustion of fuel in vehicles. Waste burning or ‘backyard burning’ and bonfires are a source of PAH as is cigarette smoke. PAH are monitored based on the premise that one particular compound can be used as a marker for all PAH. Details with regards to target values for PAH and other pollutant legislative values are detailed in Appendix A. PAH deposition from air pollution can also have a significant impact on the quality of water. It is considered that rainfall deposition arising from airborne PAH emissions may be a significant source of PAH concentrations in many surface waters, particularly in rural areas. MonitoringofPAHinIrelandin2015
BaP was monitored at five stations across Ireland in 2015. Details and summary statistics for PAH can be accessed in Table A19 of Appendix A. informationforyour
1.2
regionisavailableat: 1
Annual Mean (ng/m3)
Uptodateairquality
www.epa.ie/air/quality
0.8
0.6
0.4
EEA air quallity reference level
0.2
0
Zone A (Dublin)
Zone B (Cork)
Zone C (21 biggest
towns)
Zone D
c
Figure 10.1 displays mean PAH concentrations in Ireland from 2009 to 2015. Regarding on‐going trends of PAH concentrations in Irish air, levels detected have been relatively stable over the past three years. Figure 10.2 below shows the annual mean concentrations of BaP at these monitoring stations with respect to the EEA air quality estimated reference level. It can be seen that BaP concentrations are above this level at four of the five monitoring stations. @EPAAirQuality
29 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Outlook
for
concentrations
Ireland
Annual Mean (ng/m3)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Future PAH concentrations in Ireland will likely depend on the choices of fuel for home heating that is used by the public in Ireland in the forthcoming years. Coal, peat, and wood are the predominant sources of PAH in Ireland, especially when burnt inefficiently or when burning poor quality or wet wood. Any increased use of solid fuel as a home heating source presents a problem for the compliance with PAH limit values. EEA air quallity reference level
Zone A (Dublin)
Zone B (Cork)
Zone C (21 biggest
towns)
Zone D (remainder of
country)
Figure 10.1 Annual mean PAH (BaP) concentration 2009‐2015 1.2
Annual limit value
1
Zone A background
Annual Mean ng/m3
Zone A traffic
0.8
Zone B
Zone C
Zone D background
0.6
Zone D suburban
0.4
0.2
EEA air quality reference level
0
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Figure 10.2 Annual mean values for PAH (BaP) at individual stations in Ireland in 2015 with reference to EEA air quality estimated reference level for BaP 30 PAH
in
Air Quality In Ireland 2015 11.Dioxins,PCBsandBrominatedFlameRetardantssurvey
11.1 OriginsofDioxinsinAir
"Dioxins" is a collective term for the category of 75 polychlorinated dibenzo‐para‐dioxin compounds (PCDDs) and 135 polychlorinated dibenzofuran compounds (PCDFs). These compounds or congeners are not formed for specific purposes but arise mainly as unintentional by‐products of incomplete or poorly controlled combustion and from certain chemical processes. They can be formed when any substances containing carbon compounds are burned in the presence of chlorine at temperatures of at least 300°C. Dioxins, furans, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention on POPs which has as its objective the protection of human health and the environment from POPs. Such POPs are also controlled under legislation such as the EU POPs Regulation (EU 2004) and national POPs regulations (DECLG 2010). PCDDs and PCDFs are not produced intentionally except for research and analysis purposes, but their formation is often a by‐product of many anthropogenic activities. According to a 2006 study in the context of the Stockholm Convention, the main sources for emissions of dioxins to air in EU‐25 are from non‐industrial sources, with approximately 30 % of emissions across the EU‐25 being as a result of residential combustion, with 15 % from backyard burning. ec.europa.eu/environment/dioxin/sources Industrial emissions of dioxins and furans are highly controlled and it is estimated that industrial emissions of dioxins and furans in Europe has reduced by approximately 80 % over the last two decades as a result of more stringent legislative requirements. Across the EU‐25 countries the main sources of dioxin emissions are reported as: • Residential combustion (~ 30%) • Open burning of waste (backyard burning) (~15%) • Wood preservation (~15%) • Iron and steel industry (~ 8%) • Power production, non‐ferrous metals, chemical industry (~ 5% each) It should be noted that there is no longer any iron and steel manufacturing in Ireland, with the vast majority of dioxin emissions to atmosphere estimated to be from uncontrolled combustion activities and power and heat generation (including residential). 31 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 This is also consistent with the results of the most resent European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (EPRTIR) report for Ireland for 2013 ‐ where the dioxin emissions for 369 industrial facilities are estimated at essentially zero in 2013. www.epa.ie/pubs/advice/aerprtr/prtr/EPA_European_Pollutant_Release_&_Transfer_Register_WEB
_V10.pdf A 2014 review (Malisch and Kotz) summarises a selection of recent international contamination incidents with dioxins and PCBs. dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.03.022 11.1.1 PCBs
Unlike dioxins, PCBs have found widespread use in a number of commercial open and closed applications, due to their physical and chemical properties, such as non‐flammability, chemical inertness, high boiling points and high dielectric constants. Typical open applications have been their use in pigments, sealants, rubber products and carbonless copy paper. Closed applications have included use of PCBs in hydraulic and heat transfer systems, transformers and capacitors. The production and use of PCBs has been discontinued for some years but because of their persistent qualities they remain in electrical equipment, buildings and the environment. Dioxins and furans are often found in appreciable quantities as contaminants in PCBs. In Ireland, the Waste Management (Hazardous Waste) Regulations 1998 were brought into force to implement provisions of the PCB Directive which set out the requirements in terms of the disposal of PCBs and registering holdings of PCBs. As in previous years sampling for brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and brominated dioxins and furans (PBDD/F), was undertaken at the same time as the dioxin survey. Five pooled samples, representative of different regions, were analysed. Samples were taken between June and August 2015 when the cows could be expected to be grazing outdoors. Analytical results are given in Tables 4 and 5 in Appendix 1. 11.1.2 ToxicityofDioxinsandPCBs
The toxicity of individual dioxin and dibenzofuran compounds (or congeners) varies considerably. The PCDD and PCDF congeners which are likely to be of toxicological significance are those 17 congeners with chlorine atoms at the 2, 3, 7 and 8 positions. There are also 12 PCB congeners with dioxin like properties, known as dioxin‐like PCBs. A system of Toxic Equivalency Factors (TEFs) or weighting factors is used for assessing relative toxicities of mixtures of Dioxins and Dioxin‐like compounds. 32 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Further discussion of the toxicity of dioxins, furans and dioxin‐like PCBs is contained in earlier reports (EPA 2012). Maximum levels for dioxins, dioxin‐like PCBs and non‐dioxin‐like PCBs in foodstuffs including milk, are governed by Regulation, EU 1259/2011. The dioxin limits are 2.5 pg WHO‐TEQ/g and the dioxin+ PCB limits are 5.5 pg WHO‐TEQ/g. Limits are also set for non‐dioxin‐like PCBs. 11.1.3 PersistentOrganicPollutants(POPs)&theStockholmConvention
Dioxins, PCBs and PBDEs (See Chapter 5) are among the substances listed as POPs in the Stockholm Convention. In keeping with its obligations under the Convention, the Environmental Protection Agency as competent authority under the national POPs regulations, has prepared a National Implementation Plan on POPs which details the measures put in place to protect human health and the environment from the POPs that are listed under the Convention, including dioxins, PCBs and PBDEs. http://www.epa.ie/pubs/reports/waste/haz/POP%20Report_web.pdf. The plan sets out further priority actions to support the control of POPs showing how it plans to limit and control POPs. 11.2 SurveyResults
Direct measurement for dioxins in ambient air is extremely difficult and no limits have set in CAFE. The most appropriate method for assessing dioxin exposure in the air is to sample Dioxin levels in cows’ milk samples taken during the grazing season. The Environmental Protection Agency has carried out a number of such surveys, at almost identical locations in the form of separate reports. These can be used as indicators for the actual average local dioxin exposure by atmospheric deposition. This is described more fully in earlier reports (EPA 2010). This survey was undertaken in summer 2015 and is a follow‐up survey to 11 earlier studies carried out between 1995 and 2013 (EPA 1996, EPA 2001, EPA 2005, EPA 2008 (1) and (2), EPA 2009, EPA 2010, EPA 2011, EPA 2012, EPA 2013 and EPA 2014). These studies have shown that concentrations of dioxins and the other pollutants remain at a consistently low level in the Irish Environment. As in earlier surveys, testing for dioxin‐like PCBs was also included in this programme along with some “marker” non‐dioxin‐like PCBs. Two types of sampling stations were chosen: Type A background stations covering the entire country (24 samples) Type B potential impact stations in areas of perceived potential risk (14 samples) 33 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 11.2.1 Summary
A summary of the milk fat data showing a breakdown of the background (type A), and the potential impact (type B) samples along with the combined data set is presented in Table 11.1 and plotted in Figure 11.1Error! Reference source not found. and Figure 11.2. Data from the individual sampling locations are presented in Table A22 and Table A23 in Appendix A.
11.2.2 Dioxins
Considering the entire set of samples (Table A22 and Table A23), the reported WHO‐TEQ ranges for dioxins in milk fat are 0.158 to 0.274 pg with an overall mean values of 0.180 pg WHO‐TEQ/g. The highest value was the A15 sample from the Co Sligo area catchment but was still well within EU limits and action values. 11.2.3 PCBs
The highest dioxin‐like PCB level was the B8 sample from North Co Dublin at 0.254 pg WHO‐TEQ/g, around 15% of the EU action level. The mean value was 0.095 pg WHO‐TEQ/g with a range of 0.050 to 0.254 pg WHO‐TEQ/g. There is no separate EU limit value for dioxin‐like PCBs. 11.2.4 Dioxins&PCBs
The range for the sum of Dioxins & PCBs is 0.208 to 0. 451pg WHO‐TEQ/g with a mean of 0.275 pg WHO‐TEQ/g. The highest value was the B8 sample because of the PCB content of this sample as mentioned above. 11.2.5 Comparisonwithearliersurveysandwithotherinternationalstudies.
Full details of previous surveys are given in the earlier reports. It is clear however from Figure 11.1 and Figure 11.2 that the 2014 data is below the historic averages for almost all sample locations. A listing of comparable EU and other international studies is given in earlier reports. (EPA 2012). The data from this survey continue to compare favorably with these published studies. 34 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Table 11.1 Summary of dioxin survey results 2015 Dioxins Dioxin‐like PCBs
Dioxins and PCBs Total WHO‐TEQ incl. LOQ WHO‐TEQ incl. LOQ pg/g WHO‐TEQ incl. LOQ pg/g pg/g milk fat milk fat milk fat Overall mean 0.180 0.095 0.275 Max 0.274 0.254 0.451 Min 0.158 0.050 0.208 Mean A 0.185 0.095 0.280 Mean B 0.170 0.096 0.267 EU limit value 2.5 None 5.5 EU guide level 1.75 2 none 3.20
3.00
2.80
2.60
2.40
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WHO-TEQ pg/g milk fat
Figure 11.1 Dioxins/Furans 2015 ‐ Data Compared with 2000‐2015 Averages 35 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 6.00
5.50
5.00
WHO-TEQ pg/g milk fat
4.50
4.00
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2015
3.00
EU Limit Value
00_15 mean
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A22
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0.00
Figure 11.2 Dioxins/Furans + PCBs 2015 ‐ Data Compared with 2000‐2015 Averages 11.2.6 BrominatedDioxinsandFurans(PBDD/PBDF)
These substances are formed unintentionally, either through, incineration of wastes that include consumer products containing brominated flame retardants like PBDEs, accidental fires or as trace contaminants in mixtures of bromine‐containing chemicals. 11.3 BrominatedFlameRetardants(BFR)Study.
11.3.1 General
BFRs replaced PCBs as the major chemical flame retardant in the late 1970s and are commonly used in furniture, fabrics and electronic products as a means of reducing the flammability of combustible organic materials. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are of greatest environmental interest among BFRs because they are considered as persistent and bio accumulative. PentaBDE is considered as very poisonous to water organisms. PBDEs are classified as priority substances according to the EU Water Framework Directive. EU has banned the use of Penta‐and OctaBDE since 2004. BDE‐47 and BDE‐99 are the predominant congeners in environmental samples (FSAI 2005). Brominated dioxins and furans (PBDD/PBDF) can also be formed as a by‐product of the combustion of these substances. 36 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Five pooled samples from the survey were analysed for a range of BFRs and PBDD/PBDFs. PBDEs were the only compounds of any significance detected in this study. The data are summarised in Table 11.2. The range for Σ−PBDEs (N=5) was 65.4 to 90.7 ng/kg fat with a mean of 80.6 ng/kg fat. (Table 11.2) This compares with the mean value of 126 ng/kg fat, from the earlier surveys since 2006 when monitoring for these substances commenced and also contrasts favourably with the 2005 FSAI study carried out in the same laboratory where the average concentration for Σ−PBDE was 407 ng/kg fat (N=12) FSAI (2006). Although there are no maximum limits set for PBDEs, these levels are relatively low by international comparisons. pg/fat Sample 1 Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Sample 5 Mean Cork Hbr Midlands West East N/NW Pooled from samples B1 B2 B14 A5 A8 A9 A7 A15 A24 A3 A20 A23 A11 A19 A25 PBDEs 73.6 96.0 96.7 71.2 65.4 80.6 Table 11.2 Summary of milk fat data for PBDEs 37 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 11.4 NonDioxinPCBresults
Non‐dioxin PCBs were included in the survey. These have a different toxicological profile to the dioxin like‐PCBs There is a total of 209 different PCB congeners and for analysis purposes it is considered appropriate to measure sum of the six marker or indicator PCBs; PCB 28, 52, 101, 138, 153 and 180. (EU 2011). The limit for PCBs in milk fat is 40,000 pg/g. The data ranged from 307 to 800 with a mean of 369 expressed as pg/g. This compares with a mean value of 381 pg/g in 2014. It can be seen that the highest value, from the B8 North Dublin area, a suburban area, is less than 3% of the limit value. The corresponding B8 sample from 2014 was 884 pg/g and in 2013 was 1030 pg/g. 11.5 ConclusionsandOutlook
All dioxin levels recorded in this survey are similar or lower than those from previous surveys and from other EU countries. While assessment of consumer exposure to dioxins through the consumption of milk was not the object of this environmental survey, the highest levels were well below legislative limits. PCB data is very low compared with EU limits and BFR data continue to remain at low levels although no limits are set for these substances In many respects the outlook for levels of dioxin and related compounds in the Irish environment will broadly mirror that of PAH compounds (section 10). Both sets of pollutants arise largely from incomplete and inappropriate burning of organic matter and fuels. Considerable efforts have been made in recent times to minimise illegal waste and backyard burning. These include the EPA media campaigns on backyard burning and illegal waste collection, the “Dump the Dumpers” phone hotline and the “See it, Say it” smartphone app. More recently these initiatives were enhanced by the Waste Management Regulations which make more explicit the offence of disposal of waste by uncontrolled or unregulated burning, including backyard burning of household waste (DOEHLG 2009). Measures to improve energy efficiency put in place through the National Climate Change Strategy 2007‐2012, with an increased focus on wasteful fuel consumption and waste management and consequent emphasis on non‐combustion energy alternatives, should also have a positive impact on dioxin levels in the future. The Air Quality Regulations 2011 (DOEHLG 2011) giving effect to the EU CAFE Directive (2008/50/EC) is another example of a synergistic effect on dioxin emissions from a related piece of legislation. The CAFE Directive requires that Ireland must reduce its average PM2.5 background concentration by 10% by 2018. Bringing about reductions in particulate levels from combustion should result in reductions in dioxin levels. The National Energy Efficiency Action Plan 2009 – 2020 which aims to achieve by 2020 a 20% reduction in energy demand across the economy, should also have a similar impact (DCENR, 2011). A link to the raw data presented in this chapter is www.epa.ie/pubs/reports/other/dioxinresults 38 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 12.EMEPandAirqualityresearch
12.1 EuropeanMonitoringandEvaluationProgramme(EMEP)
Pollution that originates in one country can impact negatively on a neighbouring country. The European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) is a scientifically based and policy driven programme under the Convention on Long‐range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) for international co‐operation to solve transboundary air pollution problems. Monitoring at the EMEP sites indicates a number of important pathways for transboundary pollution to reach Ireland, e.g., from the UK and Europe, from North America and from marine sources. Air flows with these pathways can bring particulate matter, ozone and biogenic sulphate among other pollutants to Ireland and the transboundary component of local air quality is often sufficient to enable a breach of air quality threshold values. Transboundary air pollution is associated with acidification, eutrophication and ozone formation, which damages ecosystems, vegetation and human health. The EPA operates six EMEP sites in Ireland and includes a suite of high precision instruments. The sites provide data on transboundary air pollutants and greenhouse gases and can be used to indicate how much pollution (be it anthropogenic or biogenic) is coming from outside Ireland (and from where it is coming) and how much is generated by Ireland. The EPA plans to combine data from this network with modelling activities for emission verification and improved assessment of transboundary air pollution. The EPA is currently upgrading the EMEP sites and instrumentation to optimise network performance and achieve compliance with the Integrated Carbon Observation System (ICOS)1. The EMEP sites have also been used to assist international monitoring programmes for persistent organic pollutants, ozone depleting substances and heavy metals.
The national emissions inventories submitted by CLRTAP parties are used to model different air pollutants emissions scenarios which have fed directly into the CAFE Directive as well as the Clean Air Package announced in December 2013 by the European Commission. EMEP monitoring data is also used for validation of air quality models as well as for the estimation of critical loads of pollutants in determining impacts on Natura 2000 ecosystems. 1
ICOS RI (Research Infrastructure) is a pan‐european research infrastructure which provides harmonized and high precision scientific data on carbon cycle and greenhouse gas budget and perturbations. ICOS data is openly available at the carbon portal. The carbon portal is a one‐stop shop for all ICOS data products. 39 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 12.2 Airqualityresearch
This section gives a brief description of current EPA funded research projects in the thematic areas of ambient air quality and climate change. The EPA Research programme has been funding high quality environmental research in Ireland since the EPA was established in 1994. Research projects can range from small scale studies lasting a few months to large scale projects which are undertaken over a number of years. Fellowships can comprise research specialists working at their academic institution and/or working in‐house with EPA on particular environmental topics. Table 12.1 below presents ongoing research projects and research fellowships in the air quality area. This research includes a range of topics such as air quality modelling, monitoring, emission inventories and impact assessment. Recent reports published include the following: 1. Research report No. 158: Assessing the Impact of Domestic Solid Fuel on Ambient Air Quality in Ireland, Patrick Goodman, Martin Fitzpatrick, Barry Foley, Michelle McNally, Tracey Healy, Sarah Middleton, Peter Brien and Doug Dockery (Environmental Protection Agency, 2015). 2. Research report No. 154: PALM: A Personal Activity–Location Model of Exposure to Air Pollution, Brian Broderick, Miriam Byrne, Aonghus McNabola, Laurence Gill, Francesco Pilla, James McGrath and Andrew McCreddin (Environmental Protection Agency, 2015). 3. Research report No. 193: Ambient Atmospheric Ammonia in Ireland, 2013‐2014, Brian Doyle, Thomas Cummins, Cara Augustenborg and Julian Aherne (Environmental Protection Agency, 2016). 4. Research report No. 197: Development of Critical Loads for Ireland: Simulating Impacts on Systems (SIOS), Julian Aherne, Jason Henry & Marta Wolniewic (Environmental Protection Agency, 2016). 5. Transboundary Air Pollution Measurements in Ireland from 2005 to 2012, Michael Geever, Damien Martin, Brian Ward. A research database is available which contains information about all of these projects and is searchable by: keywords, lead researcher, research institution etc. This database also provides details of the project abstract, expected end date and where relevant, a link to the final report/output (erc.epa.ie/smartsimple ). Previously published air quality research can be accessed for download on the EPA website www.epa.ie/researchandeducation. The outputs of air quality research projects and fellowships aim to inform and advance the EPA’s monitoring and enforcement activities as well as provide an evidence base for policy decisions at government level. Ongoing engagement with the research community, policy makers, internal colleagues and other air quality stakeholders is important to maintain capacity in this area. 40 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Table 12.1 summary of ongoing EPA funded air quality related projects Project Number Project Title Organisation 2013‐EH‐FS‐7 Development of a spatially‐ and temporally‐resolved University of Dublin, Trinity emission inventory for Ireland 2013‐CCRP‐FS.15 CRiMsON (Consolidation of IRelands Greenhouse Gas and National University of Ireland Transboundary MOnitoring Network) 2013‐EH‐MS‐14 College (TCD) Galway (NUIG) Assessment of the impact of ammonia emissions from University College Dublin (UCD)
intensive agriculture installations on SACs and SPAs 2013‐EH‐MS‐15 Source Apportionment of Particulate Matter in Rural and University College Cork (UCC)
Urban Residential Areas (SAPPHIRE) CCRP‐09‐FS‐4‐2 Research support for integrated atmospheric studies at National University of Ireland Mace Head 2011‐CCRP‐MS‐4.5 Galway (NUIG) Emission Factors for Domestic Solid‐Fuel Appliances University College Dublin (UCD)
(EFDOSOF) 2012‐CCRP‐MS.7 Critical Loads and Dynamic Soil‐Vegetation Modelling
Trent University 2012‐EH‐FS‐6 Air quality modelling University of Dublin, Trinity College (TCD) 2013‐CCRP‐MS.14 Integrated Modelling Project ‐ GAINS Ireland
APEnvEcon 2014‐CCRP‐MS.19 On‐Line BioAerosol Sampling (OLBAS)
University College Cork (UCC)
2015‐CCRP‐MS.26 National mapping of GHG and non‐GHG emissions sources
Aarhus University 2015‐CCRP‐FS.24 Exploiting the vast remote sensing capabilities at Mace Head National University of Ireland to understand Irish air quality 2015‐CCRP‐MS.29 2016‐CCRP‐MS.31 Galway (NUIG) Particulate Matter from Diesel Vehicles: Emission and University of Dublin, Trinity Exposure in Ireland. College (TCD) AEROSOURCE National University of Ireland Galway (NUIG) 41 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 Below is some further detail on a selection of projects with an important air quality focus: 12.2.1 Title: National mapping of GHG and non‐GHG emissions sources, Ole‐Kenneth
Nielsen,AarhusUniversity
Commenced in 2016, this project will develop a model for the distribution of emissions from Ireland at a high spatial and temporal resolution. The integrated model will also be closely linked to the official Irish emission inventory to ensure easy updating for the periodic reporting to the Convention on Long‐Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP). The research will serve not only to fulfil the requirements for Irelands official reporting to CLRTAP, but will also provide a strong foundation for improvement of air pollution modelling and assessment of human exposure. 12.2.2 Title:ParticulateMatterfromDieselVehicles:EmissionandExposureinIreland,
A.McNabola,UniversityofDublin,TrinityCollege(TCD)
Commenced in 2016, this project investigates the impact of diesel vehicle emissions on the exposure of the population to PM2.5 and their subsequent health impacts. The project includes: 




the collection of PM2.5 samples in location‐specific microenvironments and among selected population subgroups to complement existing records of PM2.5 exposure; a source apportionment study to identify the contribution of diesel emissions to the total mass of particles in different microenvironments; the development of population exposure models; a PM2.5 population exposure assessment for Dublin based on time‐activity profiles and census records; the development of a diesel vehicle emissions model to assess the current and future impact of diesel vehicles on emissions at a local urban scale. These emissions and exposure models will enable the project to inform policy and develop solution to the environmental impact of diesel vehicles in Ireland. 12.2.3 Title:AEROSOURCE,C.O’Dowd,NationalUniversityofIrelandGalway(NUIG)
Commenced in 2016, this project will deploy state‐of‐the‐art aerosol mass spectrometry techniques in conjunction with source apportionment techniques and modelling to determine and assess the trans‐boundary air pollution, and biogenic source contribution, as well as an impact from local domestic solid fuels on the ambient air quality in Ireland. Measurements of aerosol chemical composition and black carbon will be performed in three parallel locations: west coast of Ireland (Mace Head), east coast (Carnsore Point) and urban centre (Dublin). The advance in the classification and quantification of aerosol over Ireland will contribute to more precise national air quality and climate model predictions. Accurate source apportionment will enable Ireland to address the most sensitive areas and reduce the emissions in the most cost effective way. In addition, this project will review the long term trend in air quality in Dublin based on data from historical and modern measurement techniques. 42 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 13.KeyStatisticsfromAirEnforcement
As part of the Agency’s regulatory function in relation to industrial and waste activities the EPA issues and enforces licences at more than 700 large industrial and waste facilities in Ireland. As in previous years, one of the key air compliance issues is odour nuisance complaints relating to a relatively small number of licensees. In 2015, the Agency received 743 odour complaints from the public, relating to 53 different sites, however the majority (75 % of complaints) relate to just ten sites. In terms of the activities causing these odours, 41 % of complaints are associated with food and drink production activities, with 33 % relating to waste transfer stations and 18 % to landfills. The EPA completed 8 prosecutions against licensees in relation to odour issues in 2015. The EPA also completes independent monitoring of air emissions from these licensed sites and in 2015 there were 437 individual tests completed. 28 of these tests indicated that the licensee had breached the emission limit value specified in their licence (compared to 23 in 2014), with the main breaches relating to particulates, volatile organic compounds and NOX. All exceedances are assessed by the Agency and those deemed of significance are subject to formal Compliance Investigation. Licensees are also required to complete their own testing of emissions and in 2015 licensees reported 78 incidents where these tests indicated a breach of their licence emission limit values (this is down from 113 in 2014). None of these incidents were identified as resulting in significant impact; however all such incidents are investigated by the EPA, with further enforcement action being taken as necessary to ensure that licensees take appropriate correction actions. The EPA also has an enforcement/oversight role in relation to local authority activities, and from an air quality perspective one of the key issues under the control of local authorities relates to the enforcement of domestic solid fuel regulations, such as the enforcement of smoky coal ban areas in towns across the country. On‐the‐spot fines are now available to local authorities to use where they identify an offence (i.e. sale or use of smoky coal within a ban area). Further details on enforcement activities and information are available on the EPA website at http://www.epa.ie/enforcement/. 43 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 14.Conclusionandfuturechallenges
With the increasing understanding of the science of air pollution and the potential impact of air quality on human health, there is a growing need for action in the area of air quality monitoring and legislation. The WHO has intimated that there is no safe level of air pollution. In this regard Ireland faces challenges to decrease its levels of air pollution, particularly PM10 and PM2.5 to below that of the WHO Air Quality Guideline values. The EPA sees a number of steps as crucial to achieving progress in this area ‐ firstly there should be movement towards adoption of the WHO guideline values across Europe as this would provide a real impetus for improvements in air quality. These WHO guideline values are more health appropriate than existing EU limit values. To support this movement, there will be an increased need for air quality monitoring. This need is reflected by a desire from the public for greater access to air quality data and information. This will entail both an increase in the number, and increase in the spatial representativeness of air quality monitoring stations in the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network. This need and a proposed solution is outlined by the EPA’s National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme (AAMP), which is currently available for public consultation. Dovetailing with the EPA draft monitoring programme, the DCCAE are in the process of developing a ‘Clean Air Strategy’ for Ireland which can highlight these issues and propose policy solutions. Some examples of potential policy solutions would be – a continued promotion of the shift from solid fuel as a method of home heating to cleaner alternatives. This is the key issue regarding particulate matter levels in Ireland and the area where there is the greatest scope for improvements in air quality. Actions such as the introduction of Government incentives for private home owners, to encourage a switch to cleaner energy alternatives, along with group schemes for gas installations off the national grid should be encouraged similar to already existing water schemes. Regulation of fuels will also play a role, as should regulation of the methods of combustion of those fuels. Helping with this shift in fuel use across Ireland would be ‐ a national campaign for greater energy efficiency in our homes and workplaces to build on the work done by the SEAI, which would lead to a reduction in energy demand which in turn will lead to reductions in emissions. Pollutants from the transport sector, such as NO2 is set to become an issue in the coming years for Ireland, driven by our increased dependence on fossil fuel combustion powered transport. While technological advancements may yield improved reductions in pollutants from motorised vehicles and a viable alternative to fossil fuel as a motor fuel is a possibility, these improvements are not 44 Air Quality In Ireland 2015 likely to fully resolve the challenges faced, even in the long term. On the other hand policy changes can be implemented immediately and will yield results more quickly. Emphasis and priority should be given to public transport or clean transport over motor vehicles in all aspects of society. However, it is the individual choices that people make that will have the most immediate and greatest impact on transport emissions in our urban areas where NO2 is problematic and where public transport is a viable option. Ireland’s air mass is subject to occasional transboundary impacts of pollutants, in particular ozone. To tackle this problem an integrated, European wide approach is needed to reduce the levels of ozone precursor compounds in our air. To tie all these strands together, education will be of paramount importance, particularly the need to increase public awareness and understanding of the link between air quality and health and how the actions of individuals can have a positive effect on local air quality. More research is needed to achieve a better understanding of the links between air quality data, health impacts and mortality rates associated with pollution. This understanding will help to identify the critical issues and inform policy makers to promote the changes necessary to improve our air quality and associated public health. Crucial to this education is the further development of environmental education websites such as Live Green www.epa.ie/livegreen, Be Green www.epa.ie/begreen and Ireland’s Environment www.epa.ie/irelandsenvironment. Finally the EPA’s AAMP has highlighted the need for increased citizen engagement which is crucial to achieving some of the proposed solutions to air quality issues. 45 AppendixA–Summarydatatables
Table A1 Summary of the Air Quality Directive's limit values, target values, long‐term objectives, information and alert threshold values for the protection of human health. Human health Pollutant Long‐term objective (where applicable) Limit or target value Averaging
period Maximum
number of allowed occurrences Value 3 Value Date Information and alert thresholds (where applicable) Period Threshold value 500 μg/m3
Exceeded for three consecutive hours 400 μg/m3
Exceeded for three consecutive hours 24 3 1 hour alert 18 0 1 hour alert 0 0 50 μg/m 3
40 μg/m 35 0 Year 25 μg/m3 20 μg/m3 (ECO) 0 8.5 to 18 3
μg/m Year 0.5 μg/m 0 0 0 0 0 1 hour alert 1 hour inform
ation 240 μg/m
Average SO2 Hour Day 350 μg/m
3
125 μg/m NO2 Hour Year 200 μg/m 3
40 μg/m Benzene (C6H6) Year 5 μg/m CO Maximum daily 8‐hour mean 10 mg/m PM10 Day Year PM2.5 Pb 3
3
3
3
3
3
As Year 6 ng/m Cd Year 5 ng/m Ni Year 3
20 ng/m BaP Year 1 ng/m O3 Maximum daily 8‐
hour mean averaged over 3 years 3
3
3
120 μg/m 25 3
3 180 μg/m
average 46 Table A2 WHO air quality guidelines (AQG), interim targets (IT) and EEA estimated reference levels (ERL) for PM, O3, NO 2, BaP, SO2, CO, and toxic metals, in μg/m3, excepting BaP, CO, Cd and Pb.
IT‐1 PM10 24 h Annual PM2.5 3
IT‐2
IT‐3
2
AQG
ERL ) 150 70 100 50 75 30 50 20 24 h Annual 75 35 50 25 37.5 15 25 10 O3 8 h daily max 100 NO2 1 hour Annual 200 40 BaP Annual 0.12 ng/m SO2 10 mins 24 hour 500 20 CO Annual 30 mg/m 4
3
3
3
As Annual 10 mg/m Cd Annual 5 ng/m 35
3
Ni Annual 20 ng/m
Pb Annual 500 ng/m (C6H6) Annual 3
2
WHO has not set an AQG for BaP and benzene, the EEA estimated reference level was estimated assuming an
additional lifetime risk of 1 x 10-5. 3
99th percentile (3 days/year) 4
99th percentile (3 days/year) 5
AQG set to prevent any further increase of cadmium in agricultural soil, likely to increase the dietary intake of future
generations. 47 Table A3 Summary of Air Quality Directive critical levels, target values and long‐term objectives for the protection of vegetation. Vegetation Critical level or target value Long‐term objective Pollutant Averaging period Value Value Date SO2 Calendar year and winter (October to March) 20 μg/m3 NOX Calendar year 30 μg/m3 O3 May to July AOT40 18 000 (μg/m3).hours
averaged over 5 years AOT40
6 000 (μg/m3).hours Not defined 6
6
AOT40 is an accumulated ozone exposure,
expressed in (μg/m3).hours. The metric is the sum of the amounts by which
hourly mean ozone concentrations (in μg/m3) exceed 80 μg/m3 from 08.00 to 20.00 (Central European Time) each day,
accumulated over a given period (usually 3 summer months). The target value given in the air quality legislation is 18 000
(μg/m3).hours and the long-term objective is 6 000 (μg/m3).hours. 48 Table A4 Summary statistics for hourly NO2 concentrations in Ireland in 2015 Kilkitt Castlebar Enniscorthy Emo Court Portlaoise South Link Road Swords St Anne’s Park Blanchardstown Ballyfermot Dun Laoghaire Rathmines Coleraine St. Winetavern St. Kilkenny Seville Lodge 7
µg/m Zone A 8
Zone C Zone B Zone D 3 9 8 2 8 2 6 5 1 97 88 33 94 100 98 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 88 170 128 70 84 34 87 96 97 Annual mean 31 25 18 16 16 25 14 13 22 5 10 Median 27 21 14 11 10 14 11 9 17 3 % Data Capture 95 99 99 97 100 98 96 95 97 NO2 values >200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Values >140 (UAT) 8 4 0 0 1 19 0 Values >100 (LAT) 51 25 4 5 9 164 182 157 106 103 142 178 9
Hourly max 7
3
NOx is expressed as µg/m NO2. 3
NO2 annual mean limit value for the protection of human health: 40 µg/m applicable from 2010 9
3
NO2 hourly limit value for the protection of human health: No more than 18 hrs > 200 µg/m applicable from 2010. 8
49 Table A5 Summary statistics for hourly NO X concentrations in Ireland in 2015 Kilkitt Castlebar Enniscorthy Emo Court Portlaoise South Link Road Swords St Anne’s Park Blanchardstown Ballyfermot Dun Laoghaire Rathmines Coleraine St. Winetavern St. Kilkenny Seville Lodge 10
µg/m Zone A 11
Zone C Zone B Zone D Annual mean 49 44 28 27 23 55 21 22 49 7 16 3 9 11 2 Median 35 31 17 16 13 21 16 13 30 4 11 2 6 7 1 % Data Capture 95 99 99 97 100 98 96 95 97 97 88 33 94 100 98 Hourly max 982 962 593 915 553 962 362 833 729 255 360 63 391 254 289 10
3
NOx is expressed as µg/m NO2. 3 NOx annual mean limit value for the protection of vegetation: 30 µg/m applicable from 2010. Limit only applies to rural stations in Zone D 11
50 Table A6 Summary statistics for hourly SO2 concentrations in Ireland in 2015 Shannon Estuary Kilkitt Enniscorthy Portlaoise Ennis South Link Road Tallaght Rathmines Coleraine Street Winetavern Street 3
(μg/m ) Zone A 12
Zone B Zone C Zone D Annual mean 1 0.3 2 3 4 3 1 2 2 2 Median 0.2 0.2 2 1 4 3 1 1 2 2 % data capture 94 90 98 57 87 99 90 96 97 98 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hourly max 20 17 27 30 35 68 17 35 15 14 Daily values > 125 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Daily max 6 7 10 17 18 17 9 11 6 4 Hourly values > 350 13
12
3 SO2 annual mean limit value for the protection of ecosystems: 20 µg/m applicable from 2001. 3 SO2 hourly limit value for the protection of human health: No more than 24 hrs > 350 µg/m applicable from 2005. 13
51 Table A7 Summary statistics for rolling 8‐hour CO concentrations in Ireland in 2015 Enniscorthy Zone A 3
(mg/m ) Portlaoise South Link Road Coleraine Street Winetavern Street Zone B Zone C Zone D Annual mean 0 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 Median 0 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 % data capture 98 92 98 75 94 Values > 10 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 2 2 3 14
Max 14
3
CO maximum daily 8‐hr mean limit value for the protection of human health: 10 mg/m .
52 Table A8 Summary statistics for rolling 8‐hour ozone concentrations in Ireland in 2015 Valentia Castlebar Zone C Mace Head Kilkitt Emo Court Zone B Bray Zone A Kilkenny South Link Road 3
(μg/m ) Swords Clonskeagh Rathmines Zone D Annual mean 42 54 53 43 55 52 54 60 76 58 71 Median 45 57 56 43 57 52 51 60 78 59 74 % data capture 99 100 100 98 100 81 96 97 98 100 100 No. days > 120 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 Max 8‐hr value 92 106 95 90 110 98 106 129 116 115 114 15
15
3
Max ozone daily 8‐hr mean limit: No more than 25 days > 120 μg/m .
53 Table A9 AOT40 values from rural stations (Zone D) in Ireland, 2010 – 2015 Kilkitt Co. Monaghan Mace Head Co. Galway Castlebar Co. Mayo Valentia Co. Kerry Emo Court Co. Laois 2010 1232 2315 1051 1230 857 2011 1405 3354 620 1064 280 2012 2046 3606 1757 2417 1375 2013 1482 5064 1366 4436 1017 2014 1316 4091 597 1583 785 2015 747 2521 693 3460 276 Average 1371 3492 1014 2365 765 3
16
(μg/m ).h 16
3
3
AOT40 target value for 2010 is 18,000 μg/m .h; long‐term objective for 2020 is 6,000 μg/m .h. AOT40 is calculated 1 May – 31 July. 54 Table A10 Summary statistics for daily PM10 concentrations in Ireland in 2015 Kilkitt 14 11 17 15 12 18 13 10 18 9 Median 12 12 9 14 11 9 10 14 11 10 14 13 10 15 10 9 14 7 % data capture 99 100 100 99 100 91 98 100 98 75 62 76 98 95 98 98 99 90 Values > 18
50 4 5 2 9 3 3 6 3 4 0 3 2 1 10 2 0 9 1 Daily Max 84 93 60 72 59 70 86 96 67 44 133 59 52 72 57 32 75 53 Zone C Zone B Claremorris 15 Castlebar 13 Ennis 12 Portlaoise 13 Zone A Galway 17 Tallaght 12 Davitt Road 15 Ballyfermot 14 Rathmines Enniscorthy South Link Road Heatherton Park St Anne’s Park Dun Laoghaire Blanchardstown Phoenix Park Winetavern St Annual 17
mean 3
μg/m Zone D 17
3
PM10 annual mean limit value for the protection of human health: 40 µg/m applicable from 2005. 3
PM10 daily limit for the protection of human health: No more than 35 days >50 µg/m applicable from 2005. 18
55 Table A11 Summary statistics for daily PM2.5 concentrations for Ireland in 2015 Claremorris Longford Zone B Ennis Bray Heatherton Park Marino Finglas Rathmines Coleraine St Zone A 3
μg/m Zone C Zone D Annual 19
mean 9 10 8 8 7 7 12 10 6 Median 6 6 6 6 4 5 8 7 4 % data capture 100 78 91 97 100 96 95 93 97 Daily max 82 85 75 84 42 40 65 74 24 19
3
Annual mean limit value 25 µg/m . 56 Table A12 Summary statistics for chemical composition of PM2.5 in 2015 Chemical Species Claremorris, Co. Mayo 2 20
Annual Mean (ug/m ) Zone D Elemental Carbon (Transmittance Correction) 0.10 Organic Carbon (Transmittance Correction) 1.16 Total Carbon 1.26 ‐
Chloride (Cl ) 0.62 ‐
Nitrate (NO3 ) 0.14 2‐
4
Sulphate (SO ) 0.22 +
Ammonium (NH4 ) 0.17 +
Calcium (Ca ) 0.04 2+
Magnesium (Mg ) 0.05 +
0.05 Sodium (Na ) 0.45 % data capture 100 Potassium (K ) +
20
There are no limit values for chemical composition of PM2.5. 57 Table A13 Summary statistics for daily benzene concentrations in Ireland in 2015 Rathmines 3
(μg/m ) Zone A 21
Annual mean Median
0.92 % data capture Daily Max Kilkenny Seville Lodge Zone C 0.13 0.74 0.10 99 93 7.89 0.81 21
3
Annual mean limit value for benzene is 5µg/m . 58 Table A14 Summary statistics for daily ozone precursor VOCs concentrations at Rathmines in 2015 Benzene Toluene
3
(μg/m ) Ethylbenzene
m‐ and p‐Xylene o‐Xylene Zone A 22
Annual mean 0.92 1.88 0.16 0.8 0.22 Median 0.74 1.42
0.09
0.48
0.09 % data capture 99 99 99 99 99 Hourly max 7.9 13.57
2.10
8.29
8.59 22
No limit values for toluene, ethylbenzene, m‐and‐p‐xylene and o‐xylene. 59 Table A15 Summary statistics for daily ozone precursor VOCs concentrations at Kilkenny in 2015 Benzene Toluene
3
(μg/m ) Ethylbenzene
23
m‐ and p‐Xylene o‐Xylene Zone C 24
Annual mean 0.13 0.15 0.00 0.02 0.01 Median 0.10 0.11
0.00
0.01
0.00 % data capture 93 93 93 93 93 Hourly max 0.81 1.14
0.38
1.30
0.24 23
Ethylbenzene, m‐and‐p‐xylene and o‐xylene statistics refer to data collected between 11 September 2014 and 31 December 2014 24
No limit values for toluene, ethylbenzene, m‐and‐p‐xylene and o‐xylene. 60 Table A16 Summary statistics for monthly lead, arsenic, cadmium and nickel concentrations in Ireland in 2015 Rathmines Heatherton Park Galway Zone A Zone B Zone C Kilkitt
Castlebar Zone D (ng/m3) Pb As Cd Ni Pb As Cd Ni Pb As Cd Ni Pb As Cd Ni Pb As Cd Ni Annual mean25 3.3 0.7 0.3 0.6 3.6 0.9 0.3 0.6 2.5 0.8 0.6 0.9 1.9 0.4 0.3 0.5 1.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 Median 3.1 0.7 0.2 0.3 3.6 0.8 0.2 0.7 1.3 0.3 0.3 0.8 1.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 1.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 % data capture 100 100 100 100 75 75 75 75 83 83 83 83 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Monthly average max 8.3 1.3 0.6 1.5 6.9 2.3 0.8 0.9 5.7 3.1 1.2 2.2 3.8 0.9 0.8 1.2 2.2 0.3 0.7 0.8 25
3
3
3
3
Annual mean limit value for lead is 500 ng/m . Target values for remaining heavy metals are applicable from 2013: arsenic 6ng/m , cadmium 5ng/m , nickel 20ng/m . 61 Table A17 Summary statistics for monthly mercury concentrations in 2015 Macehead 3
(ng/m ) Zone D 26
Annual mean Median
1.37 1.34 % data capture 92 Monthly average max 1.58 26
No limit values for mercury. 62 Table A18 Summary statistics for monthly metal deposition concentrations in 2015 27
Metal Rosemount, UCD 2
28
Shannon Estuary, Co. Limerick Valentia, Co. Kerry Annual Mean (µg/m /day) Zone A Zone D Nickel * 0.1 0.3 0.1 Arsenic * 0.1 0.2 0.0 Cadmium * 0.0 0.0 0.0 Lead * 1.1 1.2 0.4 Mercury * 0.0 0.1 0.02 Aluminium 32.5 38.5 11.2 Chromium 0.5 0.8 0.2 Cobalt 0.1 0.1 0.0 Copper 0.0 11.9 21.4 Manganese 7.2 3.8 2.4 Antimony 0.6 1.2 0.1 Thallium 0.0 0.0 0.0 Vanadium 0.3 0.3 0.1 Zinc 12.6 11.4 30.3 Barium 0.1 0.0 0.9 % data capture 100 100 92 27
The metals marked * require monitoring under the legislation. The remainder are reported for information purposes. There are no limit values for metal deposition. 28
63 Table A19 Summary statistics for monthly PAH concentrations in 2015 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon 3
Annual Mean (ng/m ) 29
Rathmines Zone A Heatherton Park Galway Kilkitt Castlebar Zone B Zone C Zone D Zone D Benzo[a]Pyrene 0.29 0.47 0.27 0.06 Naphthalene 0.11 0.43 0.37 0.26 Acenaphtylene 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.03 Acenaphthene 0.08 0.16 0.16 0.16 Fluorene 0.07 0.16 0.16 0.08 Phenanthrene 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.03 Anthracene 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 Fluoranthene 0.06 0.13 0.08 0.05 Pyrene 0.07 0.15 0.10 0.05 Chrysene 0.13 0.23 0.12 0.04 Benz[a]Anthracene 0.20 0.33 0.16 0.05 Benzo[b]Fluoranthene 0.42 0.88 0.37 0.11 Benzo[k]Fluoranthene 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.04 Benzo[j]Fluoranthene 0.19 0.26 0.11 0.02 0.41 0.24 0.03 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.10 0.12 0.31 0.38 0.66 0.16 0.18 Benzo[g,h,i]Perylene 0.27 0.49 0.22 0.09 0.32 Dibenzo[a,h]Anthracene 0.13 0.24 0.13 0.05 0.16 Indeno[1,2,3‐c,d]Pyrene 0.36 0.64 0.32 0.10 0.43 % data capture 100 83 83 100 100 29
3
Annual mean limit value for benzo(a)pyrene is 1ng/m . There are no limit values for any other PAH. 64 Table A20 Summary statistics for monthly PAH deposition concentrations in 2015 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Rosemount, UCD Shannon Estuary, Co. Limerick Annual Mean (ng/m /day) Zone A Zone D Benzo(a)Pyrene 6.5 14.7 Benz[a]Anthracene 3.1 5.1 Benzo(b)Fluoranthene 5.8 8.5 Benzo(k)Fluoranthene 3.8 6.5 Dibenzo(a,h)Anthracene 6.5 6.0 Indeno(1,2,3‐c,d)Pyrene 1.0 7.5 % data capture 100 100 2
30
30
There are no limit values for metal deposition. 65 Table A 21 Summary statistics for daily ozone precursor VOCs concentrations at Portlaoise in 2015 Benzene Toluene
3
(μg/m ) 31
m‐ and p‐Xylene o‐Xylene Zone C 32
Ethylbenzene
Annual mean 0.13 0.15 0.00 0.02 0.01 Median 0.10 0.11
0.00
0.01
0.00 % data capture 93 93 93 93 93 Hourly max 0.81 1.14
0.38
1.30
0.24 31
Ethylbenzene, m‐and‐p‐xylene and o‐xylene statistics refer to data collected between 11 September 2014 and 31 December 2014 32
No limit values for toluene, ethylbenzene, m‐and‐p‐xylene and o‐xylene. 66 Table A22 Milk fat related PCDD/F and PCB‐TEQ values determined in the background samples A1 ‐ A 25 Dioxins & Sample Milk supply area Dioxins PCBs pg/g milk fat pg/g milk fat pg/g milk fat A1 Mitchelstown Area
0.18
0.08
0.26 A2 A3 Co. Waterford
Dublin South.Co./North Wicklow Area 0.24
0.22
0.01
0.14
0.26 0.36 A4 A5 North Co. Wexford
Charleville, Co Cork Area
0.16
0.19
0.06
0.08
0.22 0.27 A6 A7 A8 Ballyragget, Co Kilkenny Area
Renmore, Co Galway Area
Moate, Co Westmeath Area
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.25 0.25 0.23 A9 A10 A11 Tipperary Town/Thurles Areas
Nenagh, Co. Tipperary Area
Cavan/Longford/Leitrim
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.11
0.08
0.08
0.27 0.24 0.25 A12 A13 A14 Drinagh, Co Cork
Bandon Area
North Kerry Area
0.16
0.16
0.17
0.07
0.08
0.01
0.23 0.23 0.18 A15 A16 A18 Co Sligo
Roscommon/East Galway
Roscommon/Leitrim
0.16
0.17
0.16
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.25 0.26 0.27 A19 A20 Co Monaghan
Co Louth
0.19
0.19
0.11
0.11
0.30 0.29 A21 A22 A23 North Kildare/West Dublin
So Kerry (Cahirciveen area)
South Wexford
0.16
0.17
0.16
0.10
0.08
0.11
0.26 0.25 0.27 A24 A25 SE Co. Mayo
Co. Donegal
0.16
0.16
0.05
0.08
0.21 0.24 PCBs 67 Table A23 Milk fat related PCDD/F and PCB‐TEQ values determined in the potential impact samples B1 ‐ B 18 Sample Milk supply area Dioxins PCBs Dioxins & PCBs pg/g milk fat pg/g milk fat pg/g milk fat WHO‐TEQ incl. LOQ WHO‐TEQ incl. LOQ Total WHO‐
TEQ incl. LOQ B1 Carrigtwohill/Cobh/Great Island
0.17
0.01
0.18 B2 Aghada/East Cork Harbour
0.16
0.08
0.24 B3 Askeaton area 0.22
0.07
0.29 B4 Tarbert Co. Kerry
0.16
0.01
0.17 B5 Clarecastle, Co.Clare
0.16
0.10
0.26 B6 Cooraclare Co.Clare
0.16
0.12
0.28 B7 Ballydine, So. Tipperary
0.16
0.06
0.22 B8 Swords/Mulhuddart. Co.Dublin
0.24
0.28
0.52 B9 Grannagh, So.Kilkenny
0.16
0.06
0.22 B13 Kinsale(Dunderow) Co.Cork
0.16
0.10
0.26 B14 Ringaskiddy area. Co.Cork
0.19
0.13
0.32 B15 Crossakiel (nr Kells) Co.Meath
0.19
0.08
0.27 B17 Carranstown, Co.Meath
0.18
0.11
0.29 B18 Kinnegad, Co Westmeath
0.27
0.07
0.34 68 References
Aherne et al., 2013. Influence of Transboundary Air Pollution on Acid Sensitive Ecosystems Climate Change Research Programme Report Series No. 31. Environmental Protection Agency. Bashir et al. ,2006. Long‐Term Trends In Atmospheric Pollutants At Valentia Observatory, Ireland, Environmental Research Centre – ERC Report 1, Environmental Protection Agency. Available at: http://www.epa.ie/pubs/reports/research/air/ercreport1.html CEC (Council of the European Communities), 1980. Directive 1980/779/EEC of 15 July 1980 on air quality limit values and guide values for sulphur dioxide and suspended particulates. O.J. L229, 30 August 1980. CEC (Council of the European Communities), 1999. Directive 1999/30/EC of 22 April 1999 relating to limit values for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter and lead in ambient air. O.J. L163, 29 June 1999. DECLG 2010 Persistent Organic Pollutant Regulations 2010 (Statutory Instrument No. 235 of 2010). 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Levels Of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers In Swiss And Irish Cow’s Milk, Organohalogen Compounds 68 (2006) IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) 2013, Press Release No. 221, 17 October 2013. 70 IPPC Directive (2008/1/EC) ‐ concerning integrated pollution prevention and control. Leinert. S et al. 2008. New Transboundary Air Pollution Monitoring Capacity for Ireland; Environmental Research Centre Report Series No. 10. Environmental Protection Agency. Available at: http://www.epa.ie/pubs/reports/research/air/ercreport9.html OECD (2016), The Economic Consequences of Outdoor Air Pollution, OECD Publishing, Paris http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264257474‐en Regulation (EC) No. 842/2006 on certain fluorinated greenhouse gases (the F‐Gas Regulation). S.I. No. 279 of 2001 – Fluorinated Greenhouse Gas Regulations 2011 and S.I. No. 278 of 2011 – EPA Act 1992 (Fluorinated Greenhouse Gas) Regulations 2011. S.I. No. 374 of 1997 ‐ control of Volatile Organic Compounds Emissions Resulting from Petrol Storage and Distribution Regulations (which transposes EU Directive 94/63/EC). S.I. No. 465 of 2011 ‐ Control of Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Regulations 2011 The Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds from Organic Solvents Regulations (S.I. No. 543 of 2002), known as the solvents regulations, is the transposition of the European Solvents Directive 1999/13/EC. The Limitation of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds due to the Use of Organic Solvents in Certain Paints, Varnishes and Vehicle Refinishing Product Regulations 2007 (S.I. No. 199 of 2007) transposes the requirements of the European Directive on decorative paints ‐ 2004/42/EC (Deco Paints Directive). UNECE: Handbook for the 1979 Convention on Long‐Range Transboundary Air Pollution and its Protocols, Geneva, United Nations Economic Commissions for Europe, ECE/EB.AIR/85, 2004a. Available at: http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/lrtap/ExecutiveBody/Handbbok.E.pdf WHO (World Health Organisation), 2005. Air Quality Guidelines – Global Update, WHO Geneva. WHO (World Health Organisation), 2008, 'Air Quality and Health — Fact sheet No. 313 — Updated August 2008' (http://www.who.int/ mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/) accessed 3 October 2011. WHO (World Health Organisation), 2014. Mortality from Ambient Air Pollution for 2012 – Summary of Results, WHO Geneva. 71 AN GHNÍOMHAIREACHT UM CHAOMHNÚ COMHSHAOIL
Tá an Ghníomhaireacht um Chaomhnú Comhshaoil (GCC) freagrach as an
gcomhshaol a chaomhnú agus a fheabhsú mar shócmhainn luachmhar do
mhuintir na hÉireann. Táimid tiomanta do dhaoine agus don chomhshaol a
chosaint ó éifeachtaí díobhálacha na radaíochta agus an truaillithe.
Is féidir obair na Gníomhaireachta a
roinnt ina trí phríomhréimse:
Rialú: Déanaimid córais éifeachtacha rialaithe agus comhlíonta
comhshaoil a chur i bhfeidhm chun torthaí maithe comhshaoil a
sholáthar agus chun díriú orthu siúd nach gcloíonn leis na córais sin.
Eolas: Soláthraímid sonraí, faisnéis agus measúnú comhshaoil atá
ar ardchaighdeán, spriocdhírithe agus tráthúil chun bonn eolais a
chur faoin gcinnteoireacht ar gach leibhéal.
Tacaíocht: Bímid ag saothrú i gcomhar le grúpaí eile chun tacú
le comhshaol atá glan, táirgiúil agus cosanta go maith, agus le
hiompar a chuirfidh le comhshaol inbhuanaithe.
Monatóireacht, Anailís agus Tuairisciú ar
an gComhshaol
• Monatóireacht a dhéanamh ar cháilíocht an aeir agus Treoir an AE
maidir le hAer Glan don Eoraip (CAFÉ) a chur chun feidhme.
• Tuairisciú neamhspleách le cabhrú le cinnteoireacht an rialtais
náisiúnta agus na n-údarás áitiúil (m.sh. tuairisciú tréimhsiúil ar
staid Chomhshaol na hÉireann agus Tuarascálacha ar Tháscairí).
Rialú Astaíochtaí na nGás Ceaptha Teasa in Éirinn
• Fardail agus réamh-mheastacháin na hÉireann maidir le gáis
cheaptha teasa a ullmhú.
• An Treoir maidir le Trádáil Astaíochtaí a chur chun feidhme i gcomhair
breis agus 100 de na táirgeoirí dé-ocsaíde carbóin is mó in Éirinn.
Taighde agus Forbairt Comhshaoil
• Taighde comhshaoil a chistiú chun brúnna a shainaithint, bonn
eolais a chur faoi bheartais, agus réitigh a sholáthar i réimsí na
haeráide, an uisce agus na hinbhuanaitheachta.
Measúnacht Straitéiseach Timpeallachta
Ár bhFreagrachtaí
• Measúnacht a dhéanamh ar thionchar pleananna agus clár beartaithe
ar an gcomhshaol in Éirinn (m.sh. mórphleananna forbartha).
Ceadúnú
Cosaint Raideolaíoch
Déanaimid na gníomhaíochtaí seo a leanas a rialú ionas nach
ndéanann siad dochar do shláinte an phobail ná don chomhshaol:
• saoráidí dramhaíola (m.sh. láithreáin líonta talún, loisceoirí,
stáisiúin aistrithe dramhaíola);
• gníomhaíochtaí tionsclaíocha ar scála mór (m.sh. déantúsaíocht
cógaisíochta, déantúsaíocht stroighne, stáisiúin chumhachta);
• an diantalmhaíocht (m.sh. muca, éanlaith);
• úsáid shrianta agus scaoileadh rialaithe Orgánach
Géinmhodhnaithe (OGM);
• foinsí radaíochta ianúcháin (m.sh. trealamh x-gha agus
radaiteiripe, foinsí tionsclaíocha);
• áiseanna móra stórála peitril;
• scardadh dramhuisce;
• gníomhaíochtaí dumpála ar farraige.
Forfheidhmiú Náisiúnta i leith Cúrsaí Comhshaoil
• Clár náisiúnta iniúchtaí agus cigireachtaí a dhéanamh gach
bliain ar shaoráidí a bhfuil ceadúnas ón nGníomhaireacht acu.
• Maoirseacht a dhéanamh ar fhreagrachtaí cosanta comhshaoil na
n-údarás áitiúil.
• Caighdeán an uisce óil, arna sholáthar ag soláthraithe uisce
phoiblí, a mhaoirsiú.
• Obair le húdaráis áitiúla agus le gníomhaireachtaí eile chun dul
i ngleic le coireanna comhshaoil trí chomhordú a dhéanamh ar
líonra forfheidhmiúcháin náisiúnta, trí dhíriú ar chiontóirí, agus
trí mhaoirsiú a dhéanamh ar leasúchán.
• Cur i bhfeidhm rialachán ar nós na Rialachán um
Dhramhthrealamh Leictreach agus Leictreonach (DTLL), um
Shrian ar Shubstaintí Guaiseacha agus na Rialachán um rialú ar
shubstaintí a ídíonn an ciseal ózóin.
• An dlí a chur orthu siúd a bhriseann dlí an chomhshaoil agus a
dhéanann dochar don chomhshaol.
Bainistíocht Uisce
• Monatóireacht agus tuairisciú a dhéanamh ar cháilíocht
aibhneacha, lochanna, uiscí idirchriosacha agus cósta na
hÉireann, agus screamhuiscí; leibhéil uisce agus sruthanna
aibhneacha a thomhas.
• Comhordú náisiúnta agus maoirsiú a dhéanamh ar an gCreatTreoir Uisce.
• Monatóireacht agus tuairisciú a dhéanamh ar Cháilíocht an
Uisce Snámha.
• Monatóireacht a dhéanamh ar leibhéil radaíochta, measúnacht a
dhéanamh ar nochtadh mhuintir na hÉireann don radaíocht ianúcháin.
• Cabhrú le pleananna náisiúnta a fhorbairt le haghaidh éigeandálaí
ag eascairt as taismí núicléacha.
• Monatóireacht a dhéanamh ar fhorbairtí thar lear a bhaineann le
saoráidí núicléacha agus leis an tsábháilteacht raideolaíochta.
• Sainseirbhísí cosanta ar an radaíocht a sholáthar, nó maoirsiú a
dhéanamh ar sholáthar na seirbhísí sin.
Treoir, Faisnéis Inrochtana agus Oideachas
• Comhairle agus treoir a chur ar fáil d’earnáil na tionsclaíochta
agus don phobal maidir le hábhair a bhaineann le caomhnú an
chomhshaoil agus leis an gcosaint raideolaíoch.
• Faisnéis thráthúil ar an gcomhshaol ar a bhfuil fáil éasca a
chur ar fáil chun rannpháirtíocht an phobail a spreagadh sa
chinnteoireacht i ndáil leis an gcomhshaol (m.sh. Timpeall an Tí,
léarscáileanna radóin).
• Comhairle a chur ar fáil don Rialtas maidir le hábhair a
bhaineann leis an tsábháilteacht raideolaíoch agus le cúrsaí
práinnfhreagartha.
• Plean Náisiúnta Bainistíochta Dramhaíola Guaisí a fhorbairt chun
dramhaíl ghuaiseach a chosc agus a bhainistiú.
Múscailt Feasachta agus Athrú Iompraíochta
• Feasacht chomhshaoil níos fearr a ghiniúint agus dul i bhfeidhm
ar athrú iompraíochta dearfach trí thacú le gnóthais, le pobail
agus le teaghlaigh a bheith níos éifeachtúla ar acmhainní.
• Tástáil le haghaidh radóin a chur chun cinn i dtithe agus in ionaid
oibre, agus gníomhartha leasúcháin a spreagadh nuair is gá.
Bainistíocht agus struchtúr na Gníomhaireachta um
Chaomhnú Comhshaoil
Tá an ghníomhaíocht á bainistiú ag Bord lánaimseartha, ar a bhfuil
Ard-Stiúrthóir agus cúigear Stiúrthóirí. Déantar an obair ar fud cúig
cinn d’Oifigí:
• An Oifig um Inmharthanacht Comhshaoil
• An Oifig Forfheidhmithe i leith cúrsaí Comhshaoil
• An Oifig um Fianaise is Measúnú
• An Oifig um Cosaint Raideolaíoch
• An Oifig Cumarsáide agus Seirbhísí Corparáideacha
Tá Coiste Comhairleach ag an nGníomhaireacht le cabhrú léi. Tá
dáréag comhaltaí air agus tagann siad le chéile go rialta le plé a
dhéanamh ar ábhair imní agus le comhairle a chur ar an mBord.
Headquarters
PO Box 3000, Johnstown Castle Estate
County Wexford, Y35 W821, Ireland
Bosca Poist 3000, Eastát Chaisleán Bhaile Sheáin
Contae Loch Garman, Y35 W821, Éire
T: +353 53 9160600
F: +353 53 9160699
E: [email protected]
W: www.epa.ie
Lo Call: 1890 33 55 99
EPA Regional Inspectorate Dublin
McCumiskey House
Richview
Clonskeagh Road
Dublin 14
D14 YR62
Tel: 01-268 0100
Fax: 01-268 0199
EPA Regional Inspectorate Cork
Inniscarra
Co. Cork
P31 VX59
Tel: 021-4875540
Fax: 021-4875545
EPA Regional Inspectorate Castlebar
John Moore Road
Castlebar
Co. Mayo
F23 KT91
Tel: 094-9048400
Fax: 094-9021934
EPA Regional Inspectorate Kilkenny
Seville Lodge
Callan Road
Kilkenny
R95 ED28
Tel: 056-7796700
Fax: 056-7796798
EPA Regional Inspectorate Monaghan
The Glen
Monaghan
H18 YT02
Tel: 047-77600
Fax: 047-84987
E: [email protected]
W: www.epa.ie
LoCall: 1890 33 55 99
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