Faculty of Education, Arts
and Social Sciences
Trends and Issues in
Educational Technology
HMEF 5083
Chapter 7
Instructional Design for Effective
Learning
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Faculty of Education, Arts
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Course Map
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Chapter Overview
•
Introduction
•
Overview on Instructional Design
•
Instructional Design Theories
•
R. M. Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory
C. M. Reigeluth’s Instructional Design Theory
M. D. Merrill’s Instructional Design Theory
D. H. Jonassen’s Instructional Design Theory
Instructional Design Models
•
History of Instructional Design
Understanding Instructional Design
Selecting Models
Generic Instructional Design Model
Specific Instructional Design Model
Summary
-
Key Terms
Discussion Question
Readings
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“The best design doesn’t compensate for the lack of skills needed to develop quality
instruction.”
- Montague, Wulfrek, Ellis (1980)
Inadequate designers, despite the quality of the design models will produce inferior quality
instruction.
Remember that starting with the end in mind limits any room for creativity and
emergence
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Figure 7.1: Steps that could be undertaken to plan instruction systematically
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Figure 7.2: Effective learning objectives
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Activity 7.1
Select any two of the philosophers mentioned above and do a further
analysis of their contributions.
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Table 7.1: Terminologies Used in Instructional Design
Terminology
Description
Instruction
A planned process that facilitates learning.
ISD/ID
Instructional Systems Design (or alternatively called Instructional Systems Development) - a process provides a means for sound
decision making to determine the who, what, when, where, why, and how of training. ISD is often called SAT (System Approach to
Training) or ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate).
IST
Instructional Systems Technology. A survey of websites shows that IST is normally related to a program, a department or a faculty
which offers courses related to ISD. Check the following website: http://education. indiana.edu/~ist/
Instructional context
The physical and psychological environment in which instruction is delivered or in which transfer occurs. Related Term: Learning
environment.
Individualised instruction
The use, by students, of systematically designed learning activities and materials specifically chosen to suit their individual interests,
abilities, and experience. Such instruction is usually self-paced.
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Table 7.2: Definitions of Educational Design
Definition
Source
The process of deciding which methods of instruction are best for bringing about desired changes in student
knowledge and skills for a specific student population.
Reigeluth, C.M. (1983:7)
The science of creating detailed specifications for the development, evaluation and maintenance of situations
which facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter.
Ritchey, R. (186, p. 9)
Instructional design simply defined means using a systematic process to understand a human performance
problem, figuring out what to do about it and then doing something about it.
McArdle, G. (1991)
The systematic process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials
and activities.
Smith & Ragan (1993, p. 2)
Newby, J.T., 1996, p. 17)
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Activity 7.2
Reflect on all the definitions above and construct one that is based on your
teaching experiences.
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Activity 7.3
What do you think will be the skills and knowledge of future Instructional
Designers?
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Figure 7.3: Three elements of Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory
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Figure 7.4: Three elements of Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory
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Table 7.3: Five kinds of capabilities in the human learner
No
Capabilities
Description
1.
Intellectual skills
Permits the learner to carry out symbol-based procedures.
2.
Cognitive strategies
Inventing or selecting a particular mental process to solve a problem or accomplish a task.
3.
Verbal Information
The facts and organised “knowledge of the world” stored in the learner’s memory.
4.
Attitudes
Internal states that influences the personal action choices a learner makes.
5.
Motor Skills
Performing a physical task to some specified standard.
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Figure 7.5: External and internal factors affecting the learning event
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Figure 7.6: Nine events of instruction
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Figure 7.7: Eight basic strategies of elaboration theory
Source: http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/
strategies/cognitivism ElaborationTheory.htm.
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Remember
Use
Find
Fact
Concept
Process
Procedure
Principle
Content/performance matrix (Clark, 1999 in White, 2001)
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Table 7.4: D.H. Jonassen’s ID Theory
Theory
Description and Implications for ID
Hermeneutics
Emphasises the importance of socio-historical context in mediating the meanings of individuals creating and decoding texts. This means that ID
must strive to introduce gaps of understanding which allow the learner to create his/her own meanings. Another implication is that learners need
to become aware of their own and others' biases. Exercises must problematise the world of ideas and values, rather than simplifying and codifying
it. As Jonassen et al. (1997) express it, "Good learners are naturally sceptical learners" (p.30). A third implication is that other factors outside of the
immediate learning situation play a role in the learner's creation of meaning. Designers need to work in a manner that allows the flexibility and
openness that will enable these "external" factors a place in the instruction. Finally, the learning programme should facilitate understanding of
different time periods, and other cultures, so that learners' understanding is not mediated only by their own unconscious biases.
Fuzzy Logic
Based on the idea that reality can rarely be represented accurately in a bivalent manner. Rather, it is multivalent, having many varieties and shades
which do not have to belong to mutually exclusive sets. In terms of needs assessment and design, the implication of this is that behaviour can only
be understood probabilistically, using continua, rather than binary measures. Also, it means that problem areas, such as student perceptions of the
efficacy of the educational programme, can be incorporated into the design.
Chaos
Useful for non-linear, dynamic situations. Chaos theory is also necessary where there is sensitive dependence on initial conditions (i.e. where a
very small change in the initial situation leads to great changes later). Chaos theory finds order in the chaos of natural structures through looking
for self-similarity and self-organisation, patterns that are repeated at different levels of complexity through a structure. Since the linear,
deterministic approach is inapplicable to educational settings, Chaos theory can offer ID some useful alternatives. Firstly, designers need to include
metacognitive skills in their designs, to enable learners to deal with the complexity flexibly, rather than hushing it up through simplification, and
thereby crippling the learner who will all too soon be faced by aspects of reality that do not fit the simplified scheme. Secondly, ID needs to take
account of learners' emotions, and promote self-awareness on this level, not just the cognitive.
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Activity 7.4
If you were to design an instructional product (print module, multimedia
courseware, learning object, web-based course, audio-tape, etc), which
instructional theory/theories will inform your decision?
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Table 7.5: List of Sample Tasks And Output According to the 5 Elements in ADDIE
Source: San Jose State University, Instructional Technology Programme
Sample Tasks
Sample Output
Analysis
the process of defining what is to be learned
Needs assessment
Problem identification
Task analysis
Learner profile
Description of constraints
Needs, Problem Statement
Task Analysis
Design
the process of specifying how it is to be learned
Write objectives
Develop test items
Plan instruction
Identify resources
Measurable objectives
Instructional strategy
Prototype specifications
Development
the process of authoring and producing the materials
Work with producers
Develop workbook, flowchart, program
Storyboard
Script
Exercises
Computer assisted instruction
Implementation
the process of installing the project in the real world context
Teacher training
Tryout
Student comments, data
Evaluation
the process of determining the adequacy of the instruction
Record time data
Interpret test results
Survey graduates
Revise activities
Recommendations
Project report
Revised prototype
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Figure 7.8: Dick & Carey Model
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Figure 7.9: Kemp’s Model
Source: Reprinted from Designing effective instruction by Kemp,
J.E., Morrison, G.R., & Ross, S. (1994)
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Figure 7.10: Leshin, Pollock and Reigeluth Model(1992)
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Figure 7.11: Smith & Ragan Model
Source: Reprinted from Instructional design by Smith, P.L. & Ragan,
T.J. (1992)
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Summary
• Instructional products support the learning process.
• Design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which
learning occurs.
• The systems approach is used to ascertain the planning of instruction in a systematic manner
with attention to the consistency and compatibility of technical knowledge.
• Robert Glaser and Robert Gagne are two pioneers of Instructional Design movement.
• Instructional design is an intellectual process requiring higher-level thinking skills.
• The role of instructional designers may evolve into what is known as knowledge architects.
• R. M. Gagne, C. M. Reigeluth, M. D. Merrill and D. H. Jonassen can be regarded as some of the
greater contributors to instructional design theory.
• The generic instructional design model ADDIE can be used to guide an instructional designer to
create any instructional material.
• The ARCS Model of Motivational Design is well-known and widely applied model in instructional
design.
• Almost all models share 3 major activities: analysis, strategy development and evaluation.
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• Instructional Design
• Conditions of Learning
• Learning Strategies
• Instructional Designer
• Knowledge Architects
• Taxanomy of Learning Outcomes
• Elaboration Theory
• Component Display Theory
• Hermeneutics
• Fuzzy Logic
• Chaos Theory
• ADDIE
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Based on the course materials provided to you for Trends and
Issues in Educational Technology, do you think that the
instructional design model used is based on any particular model
and if yes, which model can you relate this module to? Give
reasons when you discuss this online.
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