Nora Jarvis
October 31, 2011
Masters in Teaching
Interconnected Systems as a Route Toward Sustainability Education
Historically, education has been part of a mechanistic worldview.
Theorists like Skinner believed that teachers gave knowledge to students and
students processed it in the same form. This concept is very similar to Freire's
description of the banking model in which students are an empty vessel and the
teacher deposits information into the student (Ford, 2011). Sterling (2005a)
explained that there are two distinct worldviews—one is mechanistic, where
cause and effect are clearly outlined and predictable. The other, and organic
worldview, sees the world as a living system, where issues are relational and
depend upon one another. Ford (2011) explained that the prevailing pedagogy in
a mechanistic worldview is the transmission of knowledge from teacher to
student. In an organic worldview, knowledge is a transaction between teacher
and student where collaboration leads to new understandings. As Sterling
(2005a) argued, systems thinking is an important part of an organic worldview,
and an important part of sustainability. A sustainable world is one which views its
parts holistically, and views education as relational to other issues. In order to
work toward a more sustainable world, educators should incorporate
interconnected systems into concepts of school, learning, and teaching.
Schooling
The incorporation of interconnected systems can be seen in the works of
some educational theorists. Noddings, an educational theorists of the 1990s,
viewed the ideal classroom as caring and home-like. She believed that to create
more moral citizens, the school must be an environment in which students learn
to care for one another, the classroom itself, and the world outside their
classrooms (Smith, 2004). This theory is an example of systems thinking;
Noddings looked at two seemingly separate issues—home life and school life—
and connected them, seeing also how they can be incorporated to attain a more
sustainable world.
Other theorists of the time, including West and Delpit, began to examine
schools in the wider social context, stressing the importance of multi-culturalism.
Theorists began to include ethnographies as a source of research, as opposed to
quantitative tests that other theorists had used in past years (Ford, 2011).
Theorists began to view schooling as a part of social constructs, as part of a
system. The incorporation of ethnographies and other qualitative research
suggests that theorists were thinking in a systems way by moving outside of the
box for what they believed to be reputable sources of information.
In the 1950s, behaviorism was the prevailing paradigm of education. In
behaviorist theories, the learner is passive and it is through the teacher that they
receive knowledge. Skinner, a behaviorist, believed that an external stimulus
created a response within a subject. Learning is a product of responding to an
outside source (Ford, 2011). This view is very mechanistic, as it sees the
relationship between teacher and student as computational—input is equal to
output. Skinner's concepts are contrary to a systems thinking perspective
because they fail to recognize the many factors that contribute to knowledge.
Theories of cognitive development that embraced a more holistic view
began to emerge in the 1970s. Piaget was a major developer of this theory. He
believed the learner played an active role in the learning process, going through
periods of assimilation, accommodation, dis-equilibrium, cognitive conflict, and
ultimately adaptation. These concepts of cognitive development were further
explored by Vygotsky in the 1980s. He developed the theory of social learning
that viewed learning as a social process. One of these concepts is his idea of
the Zone of Proximal Development in which learners work with an adult or other
peers to gain deeper understanding. The learner is able to use others to help
him/herself along in the process of understanding. Bruner developed a similar
concept known as scaffolding. In scaffolding, the teacher assists the student by
providing him/her with resources that allow the student to learn more affectively
(Ford, 2011).
Dewey's (1938) concepts of progressive education also reflect these ideas
of education as a relationship between student and teacher. Dewey explained
that in traditional schooling, the goal is to prepare students for the future by
giving them factual information, like geography lessons or spelling words. This
knowledge is coming from the teacher and other organized information, like
books. This model does not include active participation by the learner in the
creation of an educational experience. Teachers in traditional schools do not
take into account the powers that students have to offer (Dewey, 1938).
Traditional schools are an example of the mechanistic worldview that prevails.
Much like Skinner and other behaviorist theorists, the traditional schooling model
rests on the foundation that students receive input from their teachers and then
internalize that information in the same form.
Dewey also explained that in traditional schools, the lessons are learned
in isolation. Subject matter is not connected to other material. Instead,
educators should aim for experiential learning, in which subjects are connected
and the understanding of material evolves as students engage with the subjects
and the educator helps the student create educative experiences. Learning is a
continual process, where educative experiences generate more growth (Dewey,
1938). This view of education aligns with Sterling's (2005a) explanation of
sustainability is an evolving process in which people should continually
reexamine existing structures. Similarly, Eaton et al. (2011) wrote of
encouraging students to see sustainability as a path, rather than a fixed state.
Sobel's (2004) emphasis within place-based education was that students learn
skills, rather than facts, that translate to other experiences and growth.
Sustainability is not an end state, it is a consistently changing state (Sterling,
2005 and Eaton, et al. 2011), much like Dewey's (1938) concepts of experiential
education.
Dewey (1938) proposed the merit of progressive schools, which he
explained are more in line with democratic ideals and are a more humane way of
treating students. Instead of discarding the traditional model of schooling, Dewey
(1938) suggested that progressive education should build on the previous
methods. In the progressive model of schools, education is experiential.
Learning requires the active participant of the student; it is a collaboration
between teacher and student. Dewey (1938) was careful to explain that not all
experiences are educative, some are miseducative or non-educative.
Miseducative experiences stop the growth of the student, while non-educative
experiences require no reflection from the student, therefore limiting the student's
growth. Educative experiences create continuing learning for the student
(Dewey, 1938). This is an example of systems thinking as well. Sterling (2005b)
explained that in systems thinking, proposed solutions generate more solutions—
which is how education acts in Dewey's (1938) and Sobel's (2004) models.
Sobel (2004) suggested place-based education as an answer to the
problems within traditional, mechanistic schools. Place-based education bridges
the gap between classrooms and the community by applying classroom
knowledge to problems or places in the community and local environment; the
community becomes a source of learning. Students are able to engage in active,
real-world learning experiences. Sobel explained that place-based education
“increases academic achievement, helps students develop stronger ties to their
community, enhances students' appreciation for the natural world, and creates a
heightened commitment to serving as active, contributing citizens” (Sobel, 2004,
p. 7). It becomes necessary for curriculum to evolve depending on the unique
environment of the community.
This can happen in many ways and at many different developmental
stages. A key example Sobel gave was the natural environment. Instead of
studying the land formations of distant places, students use their own local
environment as an example. They go to nearby forests, parks, or ponds to
examine the wildlife, ecosystems, and other relevant subjects. Teachers help
students relate their school lessons to the environment they are observing
(Sobel, 2004).
Place-based education is applicable across all grade levels. Young
students use the schoolyard and their home, while older students examine the
neighborhood and still older students utilize the whole community. As students
get older, they may use community issues as a vehicle for their learning.
Students and teachers identify an issue within the community and structure a
project around that issue. Teachers can scaffold by connecting students to
community experts that students can interview. Students examine the issue from
many different angles, utilizing science and math skills, language arts skills, and
social studies skills. Often these projects lead to changes within the community
that are a collaboration between community members and students. Out of
these projects come new solutions that were unidentifiable previously (Sobel,
2004). This aspect of place-based education reflects Sterling's (2002) concepts
of solutions that generate more solutions.
Within place-based education, systems are very prominent. The success
of a program relies on its interdisciplinary nature. Students incorporate many
different subjects into an issue they are studying. Additionally, they connect the
classroom to the community. Sterling (2005b) explained that systems thinking
requires expanded boundaries. In place-based education, boundaries move
beyond the classroom to incorporate the community and its citizens.
Learning
The presence of systems is apparent in the brain, as well. The brain's
wiring is made up of neurons, which pass information through other neurons. An
electrical impulse enters through the the axon terminal, it then travels down the
axon to the cell body. The axon is wrapped in myelin sheath, which becomes
thicker when certain thoughts or activities have been practiced. Dendrites extend
from the cell body toward other neurons, and this electrical impulse travels
through the dendrites to other neurons, bridging a synaptic gap between the
neurons. When a person becomes overly comfortable with one way of doing
things, the myelin on their neurons becomes to strong that alternative paths to
dendrites are difficult; they close themselves off to alternatives. When a person
seeks other routes to answers or activities, they are challenging those pathways.
As those alternative routes are strengthened, the dendrites from the neurons
branch out, allowing for quicker connections between neurons. The dendrites
also reach out toward multiple neurons, mimicking the web-like structure of
systems thinking (Walton, 2011a).
Referencing Zull, Walton (2011a) discussed the implications of these
functions of the brain. If the activity between neurons can change as we
challenge ourselves to solve problems in different ways, then we have power in
the reconstruction of pathways in our brains. Through this act, we are changing
the way we perceive the interrelation of subjects. If brains are open to alternate
routes for solutions and can make connections between multiple different
neurons, educators can translate that skill to the classroom through systems
thinking, which uses the same non-linear connection of ideas.
Zull's (2002) concepts of how the brain learns through experiences offers
a biological lens through which to view Dewey's (1938) ideas of progressive
education and the importance of experience. Zull explained that long-term
learning occurs when there is an exchange of information between the integrative
front cortex and the back cortex. The back cortex receives sensory information
and then sends that information to the front cortex for processing. Additionally,
information may first enter the front cortex and then cross the tranformational line
to the back cortex in what Zull (2002) refers to as internal experience. The
systems within the brain play an important part in the learning process. If
information does not interact between the different parts of the brain, it will not
process efficiently.
Social control is also a part of Dewey's model of progressive education.
Dewey explained that social control requires all individuals have a role in the
learning process, that each has an opportunity to contribute (1938). Taken with
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development, Dewey's (1938) concept of social
control becomes more powerful. According to Vygotsky, students have the
opportunity to learn more and deeper by utilizing knowledge from their peers
(Ford, 2011). As each student contributes through Dewey's (1938) concept of
social control, students have greater opportunity to learn from each other through
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development. In this, students act as a system
within a classroom. Each student's knowledge generates more knowledge within
other students. The whole is greater than the sum of their individual parts.
Eaton et al. (2011) examined another aspect of learning which
emphasizes the whole experience of the student. They described this as
somatic, affective, and moral learning. A somatic approach incorporates the
knowing of the body; an affective approach involves the feelings surrounding an
issue; and a moral approach is knowing the right choice, even if that choice is
complex and unclear. They explained that these approaches can “...allow
students to integrate these multiple ways of learning and knowing, to understand
the problems we face more deeply, to hold them in our hearts as well as our
minds, and to imagine different ways of being and acting in the world” (Eaton et
al, 2011, p. 7). This is a clear example of systems thinking. The student gains
deeper knowledge through the interaction of several different modes of learning.
Dewey (1938) also examined how repeating experiences can affect
learning. Using the example of a burglar, Dewey explained that repeating
experiences can make the burglar more efficient. He posed the question, “Does
this form of growth create conditions for further growth, or does it set up
conditions that shut off the person who has grown in this particular direction from
the occasions, stimuli, and opportunities for continuing growth in new directions?”
(Dewey, 1938, p. 36) Zull's (2002) research and Walton's (2011) workshop
certainly point to the answer that mylenating neuron pathways in only one
direction, or repeating experiences, makes it difficult to learn in other ways. This
does not qualify as learning from Dewey's (1938) perspective. Dewey's
qualifications for education is that experiences create further, continuing growth
(1938).
Teaching
Plato (Jowett, 1995) examined how learning and teaching interact. He
used Socrates to guide Meno's slave toward an understanding of the area of a
box and its double. Socrates explained that the slave had the correct notions in
his head, along with incorrect ones, and that he needed Socrates to ask the right
questions to guide him toward the answer. Plato (Jowett, 1995) explained
through Socrates, “...there have been always true thoughts in him ...which only
needed to be awakened into knowledge by putting questions to him.” (p. 16) This
is a systems example of the teacher's role in a classroom, it is not necessarily
about telling students the correct answer, but rather allowing them to see the
answer after approaching it from different viewpoints.
Parks (2005) approached teaching differently from Plato (Jowett, 1995).
Instead of the teacher asking questions to guide knowledge out of the student,
the teacher uses the students' experiences to underscore classroom lessons.
One of her examples is case-in-point teaching. Dewey's (1938) concepts of
experience in education reflect the success of this strategy in the classroom. In
this model, teachers use real instances in a classroom and connect them to a
subject. Students have a greater ability to understand and remember a concept
when they learn it through experiences. The teacher helps the students use both
their surface knowledge of the 'case' and the underlying issues to piece together
a conclusion that also correlates with the classroom material (Parks, 2005). This
is a wonderful example of the world's complexity and the systems within it—an
issue that might be thought of as unrelated to the class becomes related when
teachers skillfully use these 'cases' as part of their curriculum.
Walton (2011c) continued to examine how brain systems can be applied
to the classroom. She explained that attention is related to levels of serotonin,
dopamine, and nor-epinephrine in the brain. Serotonin creates calmness, while
dopamine activates and nor-epinephrine excites the student. The zone in which
students are most prepared to focus is when serotonin and dopamine are
pumping evenly and when there is minimal nor-epinephrine. This focus zone is
characterized by a relaxed, attentive state without the fear and hyperactivity that
result from excessive nor-epinephrine. Educators can encourage their students
to ready their brains for learning by becoming aware of their emotional state and
recognize whether they should attempt to calm down or increase alertness
(Walton, 2011c). The relationship between chemicals in the brain and students'
readiness to learn is an example of the importance of systems. Without
addressing the underlying issues affecting attention in class, teachers cannot
hope to help their students learn to the best of their ability.
Arends (1997) relied on the ecological systems metaphor that Sterling
(2005a) examined. Arends referred to the multiple aspects that make-up a
classroom. He explored multidimensionality, simultaneity, immediacy,
unpredictability, publicness, and history to highlight the interconnecting issues
that exist in a classroom. Multidimensionality acknowledges the different
backgrounds of students and teachers. Simultaneity recognizes that the teacher
is often juggling multiple students and tasks within the classroom, while
immediacy is the urgency with which those students and tasks are dealt.
Unpredictability highlights events the teacher has little control over—for example
student illnesses and classroom visitors. Publicness recognizes that everything
that happens in the classroom is witnessed by students. History is the shared
experiences of the class. He explained the importance of these issues, stating
“These properties directly affect the overall classroom environment and shape
the behavior of participants” (Arends, 1997, p.19). It is necessary to
acknowledge the interconnected systems within the classroom.
Systems thinking is a web-like thinking model, where issues are
connected to multiple other issues and the relationships between issues are not
linear (Cole, 2011b). Sterling (2005a) explained that the complexity of world
problems are so interconnected, they cannot be addressed without the
consideration of other problems. Case-in-point teaching, the chemicals of the
brain, and the complexity of the classroom are all examples of places where
systems are necessary to understand the forces involved.
Sustainability
Eaton, Davies, Williams and MacGregor (2011) grappled with how to
approach sustainability education. They suggested that issues of sustainability,
like environmental, economic, and social sustainability, are separated. These
issues need to be seen as parts of a whole system, so that it becomes necessary
to look at all the other issues surrounding an issue in order to fully understand
that issue. These sorts of situations, that are so complex and far reaching, are
referred to as adaptive challenges. Adaptive challenges require a deep
restructuring of the system in which these issues operate—a whole paradigm
shift that affects and is affected by other issues (Eaton, et al., 2011).
When something changes in one subject, that change affects many other
subjects (Cole, 2011c). This aligns with Eaton et al.'s (2011) concepts of
sustainability education. All these aspects of the world and the subjects within a
classroom are connected to each other.
The Washington State Integrated Environmental and Sustainability
Standards (year 2011) aimed to incorporate many different topics of sustainability
into Washington State teaching practices. Cole (2011d) explained these topics
included human rights, intergenerational equity, environmental justice,
biomimicry, and resilience and adaptive cycles. These topics are an example of
the web-like thinking that can exist. A group of topics that could be taught
individually are grouped under a single topic of “Environmental Sustainability,”
suggesting that the relationship between these issues are a component of
sustainability.
Systems run through multiple different aspects of schooling, learning,
teaching, and sustainability. It is apparent that viewing education as part of an
interconnected whole has influenced theorists in the 1980s and 1990s, allowing
for a more organic worldview. The neurons in the brain also show the systems
that existing in the biological process of learning. It is apparent as well how
systems work in teaching through examining the case-in-point teaching method
and systems thinking. The complex issues of adaptive challenges also echo the
interconnected systems. Through examining the systems that exist in schooling,
learning, and teaching educators should see how those systems help create an
organic worldview that contributes to the achievement of sustainability.
References
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