EMBRACING GLOBALIZATION OR REINFORCING NATIONAL CULTURE?
EVIDENCE ON THE ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES PREFERENCES AND DRINKING
MOTIVES IN EUROPE.
Emilia Cubero Dudinskaya
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this research is to study and verify statistically the potential influences of
socio-demographic variables and national culture on drinking motives in various European
countries. A sample of 8 countries is selected (Italy, France, Portugal, Austria, Finland, United
Kingdom, Turkey and Estonia) from the COBEREN (COnsumer BEhaviour REsearch Network)
database. A one way ANOVA and an analysis of compare means are performed for five drinking
motives (Alcoholic/Non-alcoholic, Healthy/Fun, Intimate/Others, Stimulating/Relaxing,
Beer/Wine) in order to test the hypotheses derived from extant literature. Results show that men
and women present diverse drinking patterns by beverage and quantities. Also, there are
significant differences between age groups for some motives, as well as between countries.
INTRODUCTION
The modern world is constantly changing and with it also the preferences of the consumers. In
the last decades several theories had arisen looking to determine if with the globalization and the
new technologies, the consumer preferences are becoming more homogeneous or rather holding
stronger to their roots. Researchers do not seem to reach a common point in this matter and
therefore it becomes more difficult to understand the behavior of the consumer as well as the
similarities and differences between countries.
Most of the studies on the topic have been done in general terms and not in specific markets.
There is a lack of multidimensional studies and almost no evidence on the standardization or
divergence of the preferences and motives of the consumer in the alcoholic beverages market in
Europe. It is important to understand this market not only from the marketing point of view but
also in terms of social/health consequences. The main objective of this work is to contribute with
some evidence to the debate of whether beverage cultures across Europe are converging,
diverging or hybridizing. By this I expect to identify the preferences and motives of the
consumers in each of the different countries as well as some insights of the market situation.
The area of consumer behaviour has undergone major changes. Initially its analysis was relegated
to a psychological or anthropologic approach. In other cases, it was simply assumed that culture
was a static variable that researchers should not take into account. Fortunately, the importance of
cultural influence on consumer behaviour has been recognized. Yet, conventional literature is
insufficient to explain the motives and reasons behind the consumer’s behaviour, especially on
more specific areas such as the market of alcoholic beverages. Most of the papers related to the
topic are mainly descriptive and theoretical; if there are any statistics involved the study
corresponds to American consumers and not European ones. These factors call for new studies
with new and different variables at the European level.
To achieve this goal a distinctive body of knowledge is developed, in an extensive and critical
way. In a sample of eight selected nations (Austria, Estonia, Finland, France, Italy, Portugal,
Turkey and United Kingdom) an analysis of variance (ANOVA) is employed to spot the
predominant motives in each country by gender and age. The goal with this procedure is not to
just assemble statistics; rather it is to translate these findings about consumers into clear results
that permit the understanding and prediction of various dimensions of the consumer behaviour.
The work starts with an introduction of the actual state of research and literature on the topic.
Later, the methodology is reported followed by the results. The ANOVA and the compare means
analysis are presented together. Finally, the discussion and limitations are presented.
HYPOTHESIS
A world towards convergence?
In the modern times the rules of the international markets are changing. With all the
technological advances in communication and transportation, the increase in the spending power
of many countries, the low trade barriers and the convergence of income, media and technology;
the interaction between different cultures and regions have become easier and more accessible. It
seems as if the world is experiencing big changes, which has generated an endless discussion of
whether the consumer behaviour is converging to a standardized one or if the different cultures
still retain those characteristics that describe them and their region.
Even if it looks as if all cultures were converging, still they are not perceived as an
“homogenized” one. Indeed, “...it is quite common for cultures to modify symbols identified with
other cultures and present these to a new audience. As this occurs, these cultural products
undergo a process of co-optation, where their original meanings are transformed and often
trivialized by outsiders” (Solomon et al. 2006, p.498). A clear example is the Guinness beer. In
Ireland it can be seen as a national beer that a real Irishman drinks in the Pub, while in the rest of
the world it is associated with trendiness and certain style.
It seems as if “...the culture scene is now witnessing two opposing, yet simultaneously occurring
and reinforcing movements: the homogenization and heterogenization of cultures” (Cleveland &
Laroche 2007, p.249). The differentiating impact of globalization strengthens the national and
ethnic identities, generating a kind of interaction between them, where rather than suppressing
those differences, they actually are promote to reach at the end a hybridization of social life.
Even if product usage and knowledge may be relatively shared among Europeans, the contexts of
acquisition, consumption and disposal are considered in the actual role and meaning of the
product in daily life that becomes coloured by the local culture. “...Variables such as personal
motivation, cultural context, family relation patterns and rhythms of everyday life, all still vary
substantially...” (Solomon et al. 2006, p.12) from one country to another. People still goes to the
Pub after work in the UK, while in Italy consumers are use to have a cappuccino only until 11
am, and in France is usual to celebrate with a bottle of champagne.
There are also some general profiles in Europe. Germany, Belgium, Austria, Denmark and
Ireland are usually identified as beer cultures; while Italy, France, Portugal and Luxembourg are
considered as wine cultures. Food and drink have in both cases an important role in social life.
Their drinking occurs in connection with social activities and traditionally is not related to excess
or to special occasions only. On the other hand, there is also an unidimensional drinking pattern
in Europe, in which mainly occasional drinking exists (weekends or holidays only) and is
characterized by drinking excessively and segregated from other social activities (Solomon et al.
2006).
Therefore, it seems that there is a macro culture that is in the way of homogenization, but there
are also micro cultures that still have an important influence on the consumer and should not be
underestimated in the effect they can have. For this reason it is important to understand how
culture affects the behaviour of the consumer and how it is changing the interaction between
these two variables. Giving the previous research, I believe that the mix between the different
national cultures in Europe and a macro tendency to homogenization is creating diverse “hybrid”
cultures in the continent.
H1: There is a presence of different “hybrid” cultures in Europe, regarding alcoholic beverages
preferences.
Drinking Motives
Motivation is the processes that cause people to behave as they do. It refers to the “...drives,
urges, wishes or desires which initiate the sequence of events known as behaviour” (Bayton 1969
in: Oddi 1986, p.3). In the field of motivation, researchers seek to explain why this behaviour
occurs; at the end motivation is the basis for all consumer activities (Wilkie 1990). This does not
imply to learn how to win consumers and influence them, but instead it does imply “...a more
thorough understanding of the basic motives of man when he behaves like a consumer”
(Henderson Britt 1950, p.666). There are many studies and reports on the alcohol market in
Europe, showing which country consumes more amounts of it and which beverages are preferred;
but the underlying motives are unknown.
Some authors base the concept of drinking motives on the assumption that “...people drink in
order to attain certain valued outcomes” (Kuntsche et al. 2005, p.842). The decision whether to
consume alcohol or not is a combination of an emotional and rational process, cultural and
national influence, and the expected effects they want to achieve. Still, the expectations are not
the best measure for drinking behaviour. Lyvers et al. (2010) conclude that drinking motives are
more proximal predictors of drinking behaviour than outcome expectancies.
The consumer behind each motive belongs to a particular nationality and it is a member of a
certain community. Each and every one of these social institutions has an "emotional pull” for
him and by it, it is possible to find out about his basic loyalties, beliefs and prejudices that will
help to obtain an adequate picture of the consumer (Henderson Britt 1950) and his motives.
In a study developed by Askegaard & Madsen (1998), the authors identify twelve general food
cultures in Europe with their own specific characteristics. The most remarkable results concern
the increasing trend of health consciousness by the Germanic cluster. In the other hand, French,
Wallonian and Italian clusters give more importance to the sensory gratification of the meals and
high consumption of red wine and aperitifs. The Portuguese and Greek food cultures have
relatively traditional eating patterns, but still they seem to be attracted by “imported foods” or
globalized tendencies in beverages.
Culture will also define the way in which people satisfy their needs. The specific path that a
person chooses is influenced by his or her own experiences and by cultural, religious and national
values. In addition the decision to consume or abstain from alcohol will be predisposed by
contextual factors such as religious affiliation, gender roles and cultural norms (World Health
Organization 2010).
Another reason for the validity of the drinking motive concept is demonstrated by the association
between specific drinking motives and drinking situations. Every social situation is different from
others and requires a separate analysis. This means that there is no such thing as an universal set
of explanatory motives, yet there is a need to develop some basic principles that will help to
understand consumer buying. An example of motives can be for instance: positive appeals versus
negative ones or suggestive appeals versus argumentative ones (Henderson Britt 1950).
Following the same pattern of motives but appling it on alcoholic beverages, the principle can be
alcoholic drinks versus non alcoholic ones or compare stimulating enviroments with relaxing
ones.
Specific drinking motives may be influenced by the drinking culture. Motives“...vary across
countries but not among ethnic groups in the same culture” (Kuntsche et al. 2006, 1844). For this
reason, is needed to indentify how culture influence specific drinking motives and it can be
achieve only by the development of studies that compare different nations.
H2: Motives to drink alcoholic beverages diverge in different European countries.
It is important to remember that socio-demographic variables also can influence the drinking
motivations. Kuntsche et al. (2005) and Mäkelä et al. (2006) identify important differences
between genders in their drinking behaviour and preferences. They recognize that male drinkers
are heavier drinkers than females. This difference was bigger in the Eastern bloc countries and
smaller in the Northern countries, where men’s and women’s drinking habits appeared to be
closer than elsewhere.
Regarding the kind of beverage, Mäkelä et al. (2006) concludes that the present profiles by
country are based on male drinking. There are pronounced gender differences for beer and spirits.
Men drank these beverages more frequently and in larger quantities per drinking day. In contrast,
women generally drank wine, as men and in equally large quantities. The only difference was that
men usually did it in different settings, probably often with meals; while women did it outside
meals. Yet, wine was categorized as the favourite drink of women, no matter their nationality or
culture. In conclusion, gender differences are smaller for wine, whether or not it is a beverage in
the drinking culture.
H3: Men are expected to present a higher preference for beer and spirits than women.
H4: Men and women have similar preferences towards wine.
Concerning age, several studies have been done on the adolescent and young adult drinking
motives in several countries. Most of them reveal that young people drinks mainly for social
motives and are related to moderate or heavier drinking (Kuntsche et al. 2005; Labrie et al. 2007;
Lyvers et al. 2010). Young people is always described with a similar drinking behaviour no
matter the gender or culture.
Regarding older people preferences towards alcoholic beverages, there are not many studies.
Simpura & Karlsson (2001) found that in most European countries, the peak of consumption of
wine occurs in the age groups between 30 and 50 years. Clear examples are Italy and France.
This could be at least partly due to a generational effect: new generations still appreciate wine but
increasingly choose quality wines rather than table wines and drink smaller quantities than
previous generations.
In the case of beer consumption countries, the mean for highest alcohol intake is between 30 and
50 years old, except in United Kingdom where the highest intake is among the youngest age
group (from 16 to 24 years old). In the spirits consumption countries the mean is between 20 and
40 years old.
H5: Substantial differences are expected between young and older people.
METHODOLOGY
The data is taken from the Consumer Behaviour Erasmus Network (COBEREN) survey made in
2011 in 30 countries in Europe. It was collected from a convenience sample, using a common
online questionnaire. Multi-country collaboration took place in all research stages; following
Vijver & Leung (1997) decentered approach in which “...a culturally diverse perspective is taken
in the conseptualization and design of the study” (p 13). The questionnaire was developed in
English, translated in the respective country languages and then back-translated. The objective
was to achieve idiomatic, grammatical and syntactical equivalence (Sekaran 1983).
The “calibrated” sample consists of a total of 5.258 observations, but for the purpose of this
analysis, I am only using a sub-sample, based on the Gupta et al. (2002) paper on cultural clusters
and taking into account the geographic distance from Italy. The final sample consists of 1428
observations of eight countries (Italy, France, Portugal, Austria, Finland, UK, Turkey and
Estonia).
Socio-demographic and country variables are assumed to have an influence on consumption
motives. The motives are developed based on Graham et al. (1998) and Tomlinson (1998) works,
and operationalize in a scale using dichotomies extremes between the following: Beer/Wine,
Intimate/Others, Stimulating/Relaxing, Alcoholic/Non Alcoholic and Healthy/Fun. The scales
can be observed in the Chart 1.
Chart 1: Motives scales
Alcohol
1
2
3
4
5
Non Alcohol
Beer
1
2
3
4
5
Wine
Stimulating
1
2
3
4
5
Relaxing
Intimate
1
2
3
4
5
Friends
Healthy
1
2
3
4
5
Fun
The evaluation of the data is done by an analysis of variance (ANOVA) and compare means. The
objective is to establish statically significant differences between motives in each country by age
and gender. Five One Way ANOVA analyses are run, one by motive. Then a compare mean
analysis is made using “country” and “gender/age” as the independent variables and the motives
as the dependent ones.
RESULTS
Statistically significant differences are founded between countries regarding the different
motives. Austria, France, Italy and Turkey show a statistically significant higher preference for
non alcohol beverages than Estonia and United Kingdom. Portugal only demonstrates statistically
significant higher predilection for non alcohol in comparison with United Kingdom, while
Finland do not verify statistically significant differences with any country.
There is also a gender effect. Males show a greater inclination towards alcohol, while women
demonstrate a higher preference for non alcoholic drinks. Only younger Estonian and United
Kingdom (under 37 years old) females record a predilection for alcohol. Between males, the
younger group of Italians register the higher preference for alcohol followed by the United
Kingdom male youth.
Regarding the motive of beer/wine, Estonia and Portugal demonstrate the highest predilection for
beer while France and Italy show an inclination towards wine. There are also gender differences
in the preference between the beverages. Men are more incline towards beer while women prefer
wine, except in three cases. The first one corresponded to young women (under 37 years old) in
Portugal who record a clear predilection for beer. The other two exceptions are French and Italian
males over 38 years old who express a preference towards wine. In Italy, Finland, Portugal and
Turkey young men prefer to drink beer, but as age increases also the preferences change towards
wine. Only France shows a clear preference for wine in all ages.
Estonia has a statistically significant higher preference for stimulating environments than Austria,
Finland, Italy, Turkey and United Kingdom. In contrast, United Kingdom evidences a statistically
significant higher preference for relaxing environments than Estonia, France and Portugal. It is
not possible to identify a gender effect, but it is possible to find different preferences among
diverse group ages. Generally younger women and men (under 37 years old) are more incline
towards stimulating environments while older people prefer relaxing circumstances.
Finland demonstrates a clear preference for intimate environments while Turkey shows a
predilection for more friendly situations. There are no significant gender effects identified.
Moreover, young women and men have a statistically significant higher predilection towards
friendly environments than their older counterparts (except Finnish ones in both cases).
Portugal and France have a preference for health, while United Kingdom and Estonia have a
predilection for fun. Regarding gender, there is not enough evidence to identify a gender
difference. It seems as if men are more toward fun than women, but as age raises in both cases,
the preference for health increases. It is clear that there is an age effect in which younger
generations incline themselves towards more fun environments while older people prefers being
healthier.
Turkey is a particular case. It is the country with highest preference for non alcoholic beverages,
but also presents important percentages of predilection towards wine and beer. Here it comes to
light an interesting generation effect. The oldest people in this nation have the highest preference
for non alcoholic drinks, while the people between 38 and 57 years old are more inclined towards
wine. The younger group prefers beer, but also is present among the other beverages. These
results are based on simple statistics; there is no significance in the ANOVA when it was done in
comparison with other nations. It would be interesting to develop a deeper study to identify better
this generational effect.
DISCUSSION
Significant differences across motives were found between countries. It is not possible to classify
all the nations according to a homogeneous pattern, but an important trend arise between
European Latin Countries (Italy, Portugal and France). This result was expectable giving that
already before Gupta et al. (2002) classified them in the same cluster. They showed clear
preferences towards wine, less alcoholic and healthier environments. Yet, there were some
differences. Portugal and Italy (only young men) also show a tendency towards beer. Meanwhile,
France evidenced a higher preference for stimulating environments than Italy.
Estonia and the United Kingdom, both were highly significant on alcohol and fun environments.
Nonetheless, Estonia was more related to beer and stimulating environments while United
Kingdom was inclined more towards wine and relaxing environments. The explanation can be
that United Kingdom younger groups have a high tendency towards fun, while older habitants
prefer relaxing motives to drink. Regarding the arising tendency of United Kingdom preference
towards wine, there have been already several studies and articles analyzing this fact. By 2011
the UK was the largest importer of wine and the fifth consumer market for wine in EU (CBI
2011).
Austria and Turkey are interesting cases. Turkey is a culture which is not generally related to
alcohol, but younger people show to have some higher preference than older people. While older
Austrians relate more to beer and abstinence, younger enjoy more wine. These differences among
generations can relate to Solomon et al. (2006) theory, in which countries that use to have a beer
or wine tendency in the past now are changing and transiting to the other beverage. In this sense,
Austria could be one of these transiting nations. It is important to clarify that this result is base on
some simple descriptive statistics, so it should be analyzed further to get more certainty.
Chart 2: Countries similarities and differences in the different motives
In terms of socio-demographic characteristics the general results were clear. Women have a
tendency towards non alcoholic beverages and prefer wine, while men are more related to
alcohol, drink significant bigger amounts and are associated with beer, except in France and Italy.
These results are completely congruent with the previous literature (Mäkelä et al. 2006; Kuntsche
et al. 2005) that recognizes male drinkers as heavier drinkers and more focus towards beer and
spirits than females.
Regarding age, younger people presented more similar behaviour than other age ranges. This
would be matching with the previous studies (Kuntsche et al. 2005; Labrie et al. 2007; Lyvers et
al. 2010) in which younger people are always identified as presenting a common behaviour no
matter the gender or nationality. Young people are more towards alcohol, stimulating, friendly
and fun environments.
An important trend have aroused regarding significant differences between age groups. While
older people in most countries presented a trend towards the traditional and stay closer to their
roots, young people exhibit more varied preferences and an inclination for beverages that were
not the classical ones of their nation. Also, young people seem to share the same motives across
countries and consequently seem to be part of a trend towards standardization. These results can
be seen in the Chart 3.
Chart 3: Summary of socio-demographic characteristics and some motives
In general terms it can be said that there are some common patterns between countries, especially
those who share close geographical distance. However, even in countries from the same cluster,
some differences arise that probably are linked to more particular characteristics of their culture.
For this reason is not possible to say that all European countries are standardized. It is more as a
“hybrid” culture in each country that is the result of the classical European deep roots and the
exposition to a globalization effect that is slowly affecting also food and beverages preferences,
starting by the younger groups. This result is congruent with Cleveland & Laroche (2007) previus
study, in which they affirm that the world is witnessing two opposing and simultaneous effects:
homogenization and heterogenization, producing a hybridization of social life.
It was also clear that neither of the countries presented exactly the same motives or behaviour in
the consumption of alcoholic beverages. This is matching the literature on the subject. As
Henderson Britt (1950) pointed in his work, the consumer behind each motive belongs to a
particular nationality, in which many unique factors have shaped his decisions and beliefs.
Europe has many different nationalities that have really strong cultures with their own food
cultures and characteristics (Askegaard & Madsen 1998). For this reason, is safe to say that even
if there are some similarities among culturally close nations, generally the motives to drink
alcoholic beverages in Europe differ from one country to another.
A pattern that seems strongly arising and that probably is the most interesting result of the whole
research is the generational effect. Younger generations seem to start differing from the older
ones and from their national classical patterns. But, is this a static that always will be obtained
from younger people or is it the first insight of a globalization trend? Further research should be
developed to answer this point.
LIMITATIONS
Concerning the survey, there were two important limitations. First, it was collected by an online
questionnaire. However, the demographics of the Internet are changing rapidly so maybe the
effects on the representation of the sample will not be so strong (The University of Texas at
Austin 2008). The second limitation is the fact that the sampling was not made randomly, since
the lack of resources as lists to reach people from different nations. To improve the comparability
between nations the data base was “calibrated” according to the procedure for international
samples recommended by Green and White (1976).
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