COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
PRESENTED BY:
YOUSAF KHAN
Ph.D SCHOLAR (AIOU)
ICOFE (2014)
OPEN UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
ABSTRACT
Cognitive apprenticeship is a learning theory that explains how learning related to concepts, processes, strategies and
procedures of different school related thinking and understanding skills can be learned by engaging learners in e-learning types
activities or designs in ICT-rich environment. It provides schooling through teaching methods (Pedagogy) of: modeling, coaching,
scaffodding and fading on the basis of individual’s Zone of proximal development (ZPD) or prior learning and interaction with more
knowledgeable others (MKO); to fill in the gape of knowledge and skill; and it helps the learner to develop his own cognitive and
metacognitive abilities through articulation, reflection and exploration (self-regulated learning) to become the master and trainer in
his domain of knowledge and skill (contextual learning). In this way person becomes creative.
The purpose of the study is to review literature for effective pedagogy in open and flexible learning environments at
school level and develop a model for cognitive apprenticeships.
Keywords: Cognitive apprenticeship. Open and flexible schooling. e-learning design and engagements. Creativity. Modeling..
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
1. Introduction:
According to Liu (2005): The teachers often uses instructional planning g as an essential activity to become
professional in teaching and proved experimentally that as compared to traditional instructional planning (design) cognitive
apprenticeship model is more better to improve teacher preferences and attitudes.
Liu (2005) also writes that cognitive apprenticeship is viewed as “Instructional tool” that is aimed at acquiring
thinking skills such as cognitive skills and metacognitive strategies resulting in sustained participation in the community and practice.
Collen et al (1989) proposed a model consisting of six major steps; Molding, Coaching, Scaffolding, Articulation,
Reflection and Exploration; while Le Grand et al 1993; Farmer et al 1992; proposed a model consisting of five steps for professional
education.
a) Modeling (observing)
b) Approximating (coaching and practicing)
c) Fading (reducing coaching and scaffolding)
d) Self-directed learning (Articulation and reflection)
e) Generalizing (Exploration and creativity)
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
Cognitive apprenticeship is based on Vygotsky’s research and is also related to other studies of conventional
apprenticeships. (Brone et al, 1989; Lave and Winger, 1991 as cited by Liu, 2005).
Liu (2005): Web-based cognitive apprenticeships model has three phases as shown in the Figure: 1; given below for
pre-service teacher training.
A theory of learning process in which a master of a skill teaches that skill to an apprentice (a novice) in order to give
him mastry of the skill, is known as cognitive apprenticeship.
This study is aimed at making the concept of cognitive apprenticeship understandable and applicable in e-learning
environment at school level.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
2. Methodology
The method used by the researcher is review of literature, analysis and synthesis for developing a model with
examples from school subject (geometry) to make it applicable in open and flexible learning environment.
3. What is Cognitive Apprenticeship?
According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2011):
“Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory of the process where a master of a skill teaches that skill to an apprentice.”
Awan (2009): Holmes and Gardner (2006), quoting Collins et al (1991) who mention four processes of traditional model of
apprenticeship that includes:
o Modeling (initiation)
o Scaffolding (support and guidance)
o Fading (withdrawing support gradually); and
o Coaching (Developing and guiding)
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
According to theory of cognitive apprenticeship a master of skills when demonstrating to the novices or immatures
often fails to make all the complex skills and processes explicit.
By using processes such as modeling and coaching, cognitive apprenticeships also support the three stages of skill
acquisition described in the expertise literature.
o The cognitive stage (internalization),
o The Association stage (bond formation), and
o The autonomous stage (self-regulation).
(Anderson 1983; Fitts and Pasner. 1967 as cited in Awan, 2009).
It means that cognitive apprenticeship refers to schooling and understanding of the ideas, concepts, processes,
procedures and strategies of skills (toolkits) through mediated intervention from masters or tutors or instructors (web-based or
traditional) in a school related or professional and vocational knowledge and skill.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
4. Theoretical Bases of Cognitive Apprenticeships
Now, we are going to discuss the theoretical bases of cognitive apprenticeships in order to understand the concept in
the context of theory.
4.1. Bruner’s constructivist theory
According to Patsula (1999): “Bruner’s constructivist theory is based upon the study of cognition.” A major theme in
this theory is that: “Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past
knowledge.” (Kearsely; 1994 b as cited by Patsula, 1999).
A theory of instruction should address the following aspects:
 The most effective sequence to present materials.
 The ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner (act small
and learn rapidly).
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
Hence, the practical applications of Bruner’s constructivist theory in cognitive apprenticeships are:
o Readiness of the learner (physically and psychologically)
o Spiral organization (sequence) of the learning material
o Designing the instruction to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps. (Going beyond the information given)
by using advance organizers (Ausbil’s theory) within ZPD (Vygotsky’s theory).
4.2. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Bandura’s social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes and
emotional reactions of others for learning. The processes underlying observational learning are as kearsely (1994 c) explains:
a) Attention: (including cognitive organization and motor rehearsal)
b) Retention: (including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction and accuracy of feedback).
c) Motivation: (including external or vicarious and self-reinforcement).
d) Observing Characteristics: (such as sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set and past reinforcement).
(Kearsely 1994 c, as cited by Awan, 2009).
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
4.3. Carroll’s Minimalist Theory as Applied to e-learning Delivery and Design:
Patsula (1999): The minimalist theory of Carroll focuses on the instructional design of training materials for computer
user and has been extensively applied to the design of computer documentation and it is based upon studies of people learning
to a wide range of computer applications including word processors and data bases.
The critical idea in Carroll’s Minimalist theory is to make the instructional materials minimized so that it should not
provide hindrances but, rather to facilitate learning. Course designers must minimize the extent to which instructional
materials obstruct learning and focus the design on activities that support learner’s directed activity and accomplishment.
(Kearsely 1994 d as cited in Patsula, 1999). It means that the instructional materials should be minimized to make it
incremental (Scale agile framework).
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
4.4. Vygosky’s theory of Social Cognitive Development
Bandura’s and Vygosky’s theories are both complementary to each other because both emphasize social interaction
necessary for learning.
Social interaction (MKO) plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition within ZPD. (Kearsay 1994 c as
cited Patsula, 1999). An important concept in Vygosky’s theory is that: “The potential for cognitive development is limited to
a certain time span which he calls the “Zone of proximal development” (ZPD).
ZPD
(Ability test)
=
Potential for learning –
(Aptitude test)
Actual potential
(Achievement test)
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
Conclusion of the discussion on theories of learning:
In sum, we can say that for cognitive apprenticeships in e-learning; the tutor or instructor must take help from the
theories of learning and their practical implications and applications in e-learning design, instruction, interaction, engagement,
motivation, reinforcement and feedback.
5. Designing issues in e-learning for cognitive apprenticeships
Awan (2009):
The designer of e-learning for cognitive apprenticeships has to address many issues relating to organizational
strategies and management, curriculum design and development, coordination and planning, selection of appropriate technology,
media,
development
of
instructional
design,
delivery system/strategy,
research
methods
and
approaches,
e-skills,
assessment/evaluation, interface design and ethical issues and there may be many more with the passage of time and new emerging
trends in technological world (global and virtual knowledge) in the 21st century.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
6. Learners engagement in e-learning: Incorporating Learning Styles Variety (IDs)
Awan (2009):
Several types of learning engagement can encompass an e-learning environment (VLEs) and this includes: Case
studies, Problem based learning, Gaming, Simulations and Web Quests (Holmes and Gardner, 2006 as cited in Awan, 2009).
Therefore, the elements usually considered as engagements by the e-learning designers are: Activity, Scenarios, Feedback, Delivery
(Media), Context and Influence, etc (Awan, 2009). The learner engages with their learning when the above elements are present in elearning.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
7. Support of tutor in e-learning for engagement in cognitive apprenticeships: Tutorial learning paradigm
Sulcic and Sulcic (2007):
The key elements of the tutorial learning paradigm are interactivity, individualization, adaptability, creativity and
collaboration etc. (Bork, 2000 as cited by Sulcic and Sulcic 2007).
Online tutors support e-learners through different roles. Authors and researchers have different classifications of roles tutor perform
in e-learning environment. An often cited classification made by Berge (nd) defines four basic roles of an online tutor:
 Pedagogical (scaffolding and coaching)
 Managerial (facilitation)
 Social (contextualization); and
 Technical (Mechanization) (Sulcic and Sulcic 2007)
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
8. Teaching Methods in Cognitive Apprenticeships
The first three methods (Modeling, coaching, scaffolding) are at the core of cognitive apprenticeship and help with
cognitive and metacognitive development. The next two (articulation and reflection) are designed to help novices with awareness of
problem-solving strategies and execution similar to that of an expert. The final step (exploration) intends to guide the novices towards
independence and the ability to solve and identify problems within the domain of their own. The authors note, however, that this is
not an exhaustive list of methods and that the successful execution of these methods is highly dependent on the domain (i.e. context
of knowledge and skill) and the researcher found that it can be developed to another step of creativity or new productivity in open and
flexible learning environment.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
8.1. Modeling (Observation and Demonstration):
Modeling is the first and pre-requisite step in cognitive apprenticeship when an expert usually a teacher, within the
cognitive domain or subject area demonstrates a task explicitly so that novices (usually a student), can experience and build a
conceptual model of the task at hand. e.g. a maths teacher might write out explicit steps and work through a problem aloud;
demonstrating heuristic and procedural knowledge. Modeling can include modeling of expert performance or processes in the
world (Bandura’s model).
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
8.2. Coaching (Approximation and Shaping):
Coaching involves observing novices tasks performance and offering feedback and hints to sculpt the novices
performance to that of an expert. The expert oversees the novice’s tasks and may structure the task accordingly to assist in the
novice’s development. It requires successive approximation and intermittent reinforcement (B.F.Skinner model)
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
8.3. Scaffolding and Fading (Needed support provision in formative evaluation):
“Scaffolding” is the act of putting into place strategies and methods to support the student’s learning. These supports
can be teaching manipulations, activities, group work or discussion and demonstration of task.
The teacher may have to execute parts of the task that the student is not yet able to do. This requires the teacher (tutor)
to have the skill to analyze and assess student’s abilities at the moment (formative evaluation), “Fading” is used to withdraw
the support gradually. Scaffolding is followed by “fading” to withdraw support gradually for mastering the skill.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
8.4. Articulation (Demonstration and Verbalization):
Articulation includes any method of getting students to articulate their knowledge, reasoning or problem-solving
processes in a domain (or context). Here the context is geometrical figures (right angled triangles).
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
8.5. Reflection (Comparison and Criticism):
The goal of reflection is for students to look back and analyze their performance with a desire for understanding and
improvement towards the behavior of an expert. (Wikipedia, 2011).
Example: To understand that right angled triangle have one angle 900 and a triangle have only one angle 90◦ at
maximum and a square have four angles of 900 at maximum.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
8.6. Exploration (Problem solving and Generalization):
Exploration allows the students to frame interesting problem within the domain for themselves and then take the
initiative to solve these problems. Here, the domain is geometrical figures (in the example).
Example: The student now can explore that a square or rectangle have two right angled triangles and can explore the
right angled triangle in other geometric figures such as pentagon, hexagon etc.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
8.7. Creativity (New Optimum production and Experimentation):
The researcher has suggested that the next stage is creativity in school subjects or professional cognitive and
metacognitive skills and strategies (toolkits using for new production).
Example: To draw a diagram of cube and show the right angled triangles in it:
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
9. Discussion: Conclusion of teaching methods in cognitive apprenticeships:
In conclusion, we can say that cognitive apprenticeship is a theory of learning processes where the master of a skill
(tutor) teaches that skill (tutoring) to an apprentice (student or novice) through different techniques and methods (toolkits) and
through different activities and interactions or engagements; utilizing different theories of learning and motivation and making
different learning designs according to e-learning modes and environment and according to different abilities, capacities, learning
styles and domains of the students; to enable them to master, articulate, reflect, explore and create in their respective domains and
achieving the objectives of e-learning to make learning open and flexible; effectively and efficiently in Virtual Learning
Environment Framework (VLEF).
It also needs the skill and utilization of ICT and online or web based techniques and technologies (toolkits) both on the
part of the learner and the tutor confronted with different issues and challenges.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
But, the most important point to be considered while designing a programme of learning through ICT for cognitive
apprenticeships is the “Zone of proximal development” (ZPD) as the starting point for optimum development; and modeling and
coaching for the required components to be mastered through scaffolding and fading i.e. gradually withdrawing the support of the
master or trainer and making the student self-regulated and skillful to articulate; reflect, explore and create the new areas and develop
the related domain of knowledge or cognition and skill through e-learning strategies and methods for effective learning environment
in distance and traditional institutions as well as in open and flexible learning environments frameworks (VLEF) by utilizing toolkits
of e-learning web-based or online education and training at school level or any practical and skill related domain of knowledge
(schooling) such as professional and vocational knowledge and skill.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
10. Findings:
The most important findings of the study when synthesized is that cognitive apprenticeships are very
effective and efficient methods of pedagogy particularly for the skill based subjects of science and mathematics to be
thought through these methodologies. It can be used in polytechnics or Vocational skills developments and schooling or
training centres such as teacher training through ICT –integration. (Yousaf Khan, 2013)
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
10. Conclusion:
The conclusion of the study is that cognitive apprenticeship is an effective and efficient pedagogy for schooling in
open and flexible ICT-rich learning environment schooling but it requires teacher training in ICT-integrated curriculum through
cognitive apprenticeship methodologies.
11. Suggestions:
The researcher suggests and propose that cognitive apprenticeships may be used at school level for open and flexible
learning to develop the cognitive and metacognitive skills (toolkits) of the students. It can also be used in technical and vocational
schooling as well as teacher training in open and flexible learning environments.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
13. Recommendations:
The researcher recommends to the stakeholders that the cognitive apprenticeships must be further explored to design
the lesson, courses and curriculum at school level and technical courses based on these pedagogies to make the schooling more open
and flexible in ICT-rich environments.
The proposed model developed in the study and framework of cognitive apprenticeship in open flexible schooling is as under:
(Figure: 2)
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
14. Significance of the study
The study is significant because it can be used as a model for instructional design and pedagogy in ICT-rich open and
flexible education and training at school level as well as a model for andragogy in OERs (Open Education Resources) and MOOCs
(Massive Online Courses) through learning management system (LMS) to be developed for virtual learning environments by
software developers and programmers.
COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
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www.patsula.com/
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COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP: AN EFFECTIVE
PEDAGOGY IN OPEN AND FLEXIBLE SCHOOLING
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M.Phil thesis (unpublished). Institute of Education and Research University of Peshawar.
Khan, Y (2013): Analysis of teacher training and education program for ICT-integration in Pakistan. A case study: 27th AAOU
Annual Conference, AIOU, Islamabad.
THANKS