Name:________________________________________________________ Date:______________________ Pd:______
A.1 Basic Biological Principles
BIO.A.1.1.1 Describe the characteristics of life shared by all prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
•Made of ___________
•Maintain a stable internal environment - ____________
•Based on _________________________________
•Adapt to the environment
•Use ___________________
•____________________
•_______________ and __________________________
•Organized
•Respond to environment/stimuli
BIO.A.1.2.1 Compare cellular structures and their functions in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotes
Both
Eukaryotes
-No ______________________
-
-_________________ (contains DNA)
- No ________________________
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Potential for cell wall
-Ex:
-Ex:
-Can carry out all life functions
___________________________
-Transport easier because smaller
surface area to volume ratio
-Transport harder because requires
more organelles and larger surface
area to volume ratio
Major Organelles and Cell Structures
Nucleus – contains ____________________ and acts as the _____________________ of ________________ cells only
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- folded membranes that are the site of chemical reactions and transport (ex: protein
synthesis in ribosomes attached to the ER)
Mitochondria- site of ________________________________________ (makes energy – ATP)
Chloroplast- site of ____________________________ (converts light energy to chemical energy)
Plasma (Cell) Membrane- semi-permeable membrane which helps the cell maintain ______________________
allowing materials to move in and out of the cell
Cell Wall- firm structure that _____________________ and _____________________ some cells
Central Vacuole- _____________________ container (water, nutrients, waste, etc)
Lysosome- ____________________________________ which break down waste, bacteria, old organelles
Golgi Apparatus- _______________________ and _______________________ proteins (after the ribosome or ER)
Plant Cell
Animal Cell
Plant Only:
Animal Only:
BIO.A.1.2.2 Describe and interpret the relationships between structure and function at various levels of biological
organization
Life is organized in ways from the simplest to the complex.
______________ are the ___________________________
All cells originally begin as the same (stem cells) and then
differentiate to specific cells with specific
purposes/functions.
At the multicellular level, specialized cells develop in such
a manner where their structure (shape) helps them better
perform a specific function (their job).
Examples:
Plant cells have a ________________ to provide ________
Muscle cells are long and stretchy to expand and contract
to move body parts.
Organelles also have specific structures to help them
perform specific functions.
Example: the mitochondria has a ____________________
_______________________ (cristae) which ____________
______________________ for ______________________
production during aerobic cellular respiration.
Organs also have structure and function related.
Example: Small intestines have small projections
(microvilli) to increase area available for nutrients
absorption.
Name:________________________________________________________ Date:_____________________ Pd:______
A.2 The Chemical Basis for Life
BIO.A.2.1.1 Describe the unique properties of water and how these properties support life on Earth
Property
Description
Polarity
__________________________________ between the oxygen and hydrogen
atoms leading to _____________________. Oxygen attracts electrons more than
hydrogen. ______________________.
Cohesion
Attraction between _________________________ (ex. water to water).
Adhesion
Attraction of _____________________________. (ex: water to not water)
High
Specific
Heat
Capacity
Freezing
Point
Picture
Can _________________________ without drastically changing its temperature.
Both of these properties benefit aquatic organisms because these properties
___________________________________________________
(temperatures). Water is slow to reach boiling or freezing point.
The temperature at which ___________________________________ state (0°C).
Surface
Tension
Water has a ________________________________. Hydrogen bonds allow
water molecules to stick together.
Capillary
Action
Capillary action- tendency of a _______________________________________.
________________ - substance ________________________ in a solution. There is less of this.
_________________- in a solution, the substance in which a solute is dissolved. There is more of this.
Solution- mixture in which at least one substance is uniformly dissolved in another substance.
Universal
Solvent
Solute (powder) +
Solvent (water) = Solution (Kool-Aid)
Water will NOT form a solution with non-polar substances!
Water forms solutions
with other ___________
substances
Measures the ____________________________________________Acids have more hydrogen (H+) ions.
Bases have more hydroxide (-OH) ions.
pH
(Aka basic)
The density (__________________________) _________________________________ (until 4°C). This
is unusual! Water in a solid state will float on water in a liquid state.
Density
BIO.A.2.2.1 Explain how carbon is uniquely suited to form biological macromolecules.
________________ molecules contain ________________________.
Carbon is uniquely suited for form biological macromolecules because it has 4 electrons in its
outermost shell so it can ________________________________________
This allows carbon atoms to form molecules as _______________________________.
_____________________ Bonds - _____________________ of a pair of _________________.
BIO.A.2.2.2 Describe how biological macromolecules form from monomers.
Polymers - A macromolecule made by joining many similar or identical molecules (monomers) through bonds.
_________________________________ (Condensation Reaction) – removal of water __________________________
Simple
Complex
____________________________ – addition of water _____________________________
Complex
Simple
Biological Macromolecule
Carbohydrate
Monomer
Polymer
Lipid
None
Does not consist of repeating subunits
Protein
Nucleic Acid
BIO.A.2.2.3 Compare the structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in organisms.
Macromolecule
Elements & Ratio
Monomer*
Function
Carbohydrate
Examples
Monosaccharide: sugar
(glucose)
Polysaccharide: starch
Lipids
*Note: The pictures
are NOT
monomers…they are
just examples of
lipids
Wax, steroid, fat, phospholipid
(big part of cell membrane)
Double bond
Protein
Enzymes, meat, hair
Nucleic Acids
DNA/RNA
Nitrogenous
base
(GCAT or U)
BIO.A.2.3.1 Describe the role of an enzyme as a catalyst in regulating a specific biochemical reaction.
Enzyme – biological __________________ (substance that
____________________________
_________________________________________
________________________________________)
Activation Energy – energy needed to ___________
____________________________ (barrier)
Enzymes and Substrates
A ________________________________________
__________________________________________
Enzymes are _________________.

The substrate needs to fit in the active site of the enzyme (lock and key
model)
After the reaction (breaking or building a bond) the substrate forms the product
of the reaction.
Enzymes are ______________ and do not get used up or altered in the reaction.
BIO.A.2.3.2 Explain how factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration levels can affect enzyme function.
Enzymes function best within their optimal range (ideal temperature and pH
conditions).
When enzymes are out of their optimal range they change shape -___________
This can cause the protein to _______________________ because it works by
the substrate attaching to the specific shape of the active site
Enzyme function can be altered by pH, temperature and concentration levels.



pH- proteins become denatured when out of optimal pH
Temperature- proteins become denatured when out of optimal pH
ConcentrationEnzyme Concentration
o ____________________________________
Substrate Concentration
o
o
When there is a fixed amount of enzyme the reaction rate will
level off
No substrate = reaction will stop
Name:____________________________________________________________ Date:_____________________ Pd:____
A.3 Bioenergetics
BIO.A.3.1.1 Describe the fundamental roles of plastids (e.g., chloroplasts) and mitochondria in energy transformations.
Organelle
Cells Found In
Reaction
Energy Transformation
Structures
Chloroplast
Mitochondria
BIO.A.3.2.1 Compare the basic transformation of energy during photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Photosynthesis
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Occurs in ____________________ (make their own food)
Occurs in all organisms
___________________ = light trapping ______________
Net yield _____________________
Glycolysis
Location:
Light
Dark
Taylor
Swift
Kreb’s (Citric Acid) Cycle
&
Reactant:
Winston
Churchill
Electron Transport Chain
♥
Product:
Olive
Garden
Cytoplasm
Anaerobic Respiration Fast Facts:
•Occurs AFTER glycolysis in the _____________________
•Alcoholic fermentation – makes ___________________
•Net yield of ____________ (from glycolysis)
•Lactic Acid fermentation – makes __________________
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration are opposites!!
BIO.A.3.2.2 Describe the role of ATP in biochemical reactions.
ATP/ADP Cycle:
ATP stores large amounts of energy
ATP is broken in
____________________
ATP is created in
(energy exits) reactions
____________________
by _________________
(energy enters)
___________________
reactions by _________
___________________.
____________________
This releases energy
____________________
stored in the chemical
ADP stores less potential energy
bonds.
What reactions produce ATP?


Cellular Respiration
o
Aerobic Respiration: _____________
o
Anaerobic Respiration: ___________
Photosynthesis
o
___________ Reaction produces a small amount _____________________________________ to create glucose
Name:________________________________________________________ Date:_____________________ Pd:______
A.4 Homeostasis and Transport
BIO.A.4.1.1 Describe how the structure of the plasma membrane allows it to function as a regulatory structure and/or
protective barrier for a cell.

Phospholipid Bilayer is __________________
____________________– not everything can
pass through.

Keeps the cells internal and external
_______________________________ but still
_______________________________.


Proteins help with transport, receptors, and
enzymatic reactions
Cholesterol keeps the membrane firm

____________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
o
They _________________________________________ to help them pass.
BIO.A.4.1.2 Compare the mechanisms that transport materials across the plasma membrane (i.e., passive transport—
diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion; and active transport—pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis).
Type of
transport
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated
diffusion
Pumps
Endocytosis
(bulk)
Exocytosis
(bulk)
Does it require
energy?
Definition
Concentration
Gradient
Picture
Example of Active Transport Pump:
 Sodium-Potassium Pump – moves 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions into animal cells.
o Important for nerve and muscle cells
Osmosis Solutions:
HypOtonic
Description
________ solution has ________
_________ than inside solution.
___________________ the cell.
Effect on
animal cell
-Cell expands and ______
Isotonic
Hypertonic
The solutions have __________
_________ solution has _______
concentrations of solutes.
_________ than inside solution.
Water molecules move in and
__________________ of the
out of the cell at the same rate.
cell.
-Normal
Cell _______________
_______________
Effect on
plant cell
-Cell is very
turgid
-Normal
-Cell is turgid
-Cell becomes
flaccid
(plasmolysis)
BIO.A.4.1.3 Describe how membrane‐bound cellular organelles (e.g., endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus) facilitate
the transport of materials within a cell.
Organelle
Role in transport
ER
____________________________ occurs on attached ribosomes. Proteins are sent to the golgi body in
sacs called vesicles. Other _____________________________ occur on the smooth ER.
Golgi Body
_______________________________ proteins. Packs them into vesicles to move to their next location.
Vesicles
________________________ (such as completed proteins) to appropriate locations in or out of the cell.
BIO.A.4.2.1 Explain how organisms maintain homeostasis (e.g., thermoregulation, water regulation, oxygen regulation).

____________________________ – ability to keep body ________________________ within an optimal range
o Conformers (ectotherms/cold-blooded) – internal temperature does not remain stable – warm body by
absorbing heat from surroundings. Ex: reptiles, fish and amphibians
o Regulators (endotherms/warm-blooded) – internal temperature remains stable – metabolism generates
heat needed to warm body – also have insulation such as hair, feathers, and fat. Ex: mammals and birds.

Water regulation (_____________________________) – control of water concentrations/dissolved substances in
the bloodstream

Oxygen regulation – oxygen levels regulated according to activity level.
o More active = more oxygen needed.
o In humans, gas exchange occurs by diffusion in the lungs.
Name:________________________________________________________ Date:______________________ Pd:______
A.1 Basic Biological Principles
BIO.A.1.1.1 Describe the characteristics of life shared by all prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
•Made of cells
•Maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis)
•Based on universal genetic code
•Adapt to the environment
•Use energy
•Reproduce
•Growth and development
•Organized
•Respond to environment/stimuli
BIO.A.1.2.1 Compare cellular structures and their functions in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotes
-No nucleus
-No membrane-bound organelles
-Unicellular
-Smaller and less complex
-Ex: Bacteria
-Transport easier because smaller
surface area to volume ratio
Both
-Genetic material
-Cytoplasm
-Cell (plasma) membrane
-Ribosomes
-Potential for cell wall
-Can carry out all life functions
Eukaryotes
-Nucleus (contains DNA)
-Membrane-bound organelles
-Multi- or unicellular
-Larger and more complex
-Ex: Plants, animals, fungi, protists
-Transport harder because requires
more organelles and larger surface
area to volume ratio
Major Organelles and Cell Structures
Nucleus – contains genetic material and acts as the control center of Eukaryotic cells only
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- folded membranes that are the site of chemical reactions and transport (ex: protein
synthesis in ribosomes attached to the ER)
Mitochondria- site of cellular respiration (makes energy – ATP)
Chloroplast- site of photosynthesis (converts light energy to chemical energy)
Plasma (Cell) Membrane- semi-permeable membrane which helps the cell maintain homeostasis allowing materials to
move in and out of the cell
Cell Wall- firm structure that supports and protects some cells
Central Vacuole- storage container (water, nutrients, waste, etc)
Lysosome- contains digestive enzymes which break down waste, bacteria, old organelles
Golgi Apparatus- packages and processes proteins (after the ribosome or ER)
Plant Cell
Plant Only:
Cell Wall, Chloroplast, Central Vacuole
Animal Cell
Animal Only:
Lysosomes
BIO.A.1.2.2 Describe and interpret the relationships between structure and function at various levels of biological
organization

Life is organized in ways from the simplest to the
complex.
Cells are the smallest unit of life.
All cells originally begin as the same (stem cells) and
then differentiate to specific cells with specific
purposes/functions.
At the multicellular level, specialized cells develop in
such a manner where their structure (shape) helps
them better perform a specific function (their job).
Examples:
Plant cells have a cell wall to provide support
Muscle cells are long and stretchy to expand and
contract to move body parts.
Organelles also have specific structures to help them
perform specific functions.
Example: the mitochondria has a folded inner
membrane (cristae) which increases surface area for
energy production during aerobic cellular respiration.
Organs also have structure and function related.
Small intestines have small projections (microvilli) to
increase area available for nutrients absorption.
Name:________________________________________________________ Date:_____________________ Pd:______
A.2 The Chemical Basis for Life
BIO.A.2.1.1 Describe the unique properties of water and how these properties support life on Earth
Property
Description
Polarity
Uneven distribution of electrons between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms
leading to opposite charges. Oxygen attracts electrons more than hydrogen.
Water is polar.
Cohesion
Attraction between like molecules (ex. water to water).
Adhesion
Attraction of unlike molecules. (ex: water to not water)
High
Specific
Heat
Capacity
Can absorb a lot of heat without drastically changing its temperature.
Freezing
Point
Picture
Both of these properties benefit aquatic organisms because these properties
help maintain stable water conditions (temperatures). Water is slow to
reach boiling or freezing point.
The temperature at which liquid changes to a solid state (0°C).
Surface
Tension
Water has a high surface tension. Hydrogen bonds allow water molecules to
stick together.
Capillary
Action
Capillary action- tendency of a liquid to rise against gravity.
Solute- substance dissolved in a solution. There is less of this.
Solvent- in a solution, the substance in which a solute is dissolved. There is more of this.
Solution- mixture in which at least one substance is uniformly dissolved in another substance.
Universal
Solvent
Solute (powder) +
Solvent (water) = Solution (Kool-Aid)
Water will NOT form a solution with non-polar substances!
Measures the concentration of hydrogen ions
Acids have more hydrogen (H+) ions.
Water forms
solutions with other
polar substances
Bases have more hydroxide (-OH) ions.
pH
(Aka basic)
The density (mass/volume) decreases as water freezes (until 4°C). This is unusual! Water in a solid
state will float on water in a liquid state.
Density
BIO.A.2.2.1 Explain how carbon is uniquely suited to form biological macromolecules.
Organic molecules contain carbon.
Carbon is uniquely suited for form biological macromolecules because it has 4
electrons in its outermost shell so it can form up to 4 covalent bonds.
This allows carbon atoms to form molecules as long chains or rings.
Covalent Bonds - sharing of a pair of electrons.
BIO.A.2.2.2 Describe how biological macromolecules form from monomers.
Polymers - A macromolecule made by joining many similar or identical molecules (monomers) through bonds.
Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation Reaction) – removal of water builds polymers
Simple
Complex
Hydrolysis – addition of water breaks polymers
Complex
Simple
Biological Macromolecule
Carbohydrate
Monomer
Monosaccharide
Polymer
Polysaccharide
Lipid
None
Does not consist of repeating subunits
Protein
Amino Acid
Polypeptide
Nucleic Acid
Nucleotide
Nucleic Acid
BIO.A.2.2.3 Compare the structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in organisms.
Macromolecule
Carbohydrate
Elements & Ratio
Monomer*
Function
CHO
1:2:1
Energy stored in chemical
bonds
Quick, short term energy
Polar
Lipids
*Note: The pictures
are NOT
monomers…they are
just examples of
lipids
CHO
No exact ratio
Many more C and H
than O
Examples
Monosaccharide: sugar
(glucose)
Polysaccharide: starch
Store energy
Insulation
Wax, steroid, fat, phospholipid
(big part of cell membrane)
Double bond
Nonpolar
Protein
CHON and sometimes S
Many- structure, catalyst
(lower activation energy),
communication, growth,
repair
Enzymes, meat, hair
Nucleic Acids
CHONP
Store and transmit
hereditary/genetic
information
DNA/RNA
Polar
Nitrogenous
base
(GCAT or U)
BIO.A.2.3.1 Describe the role of an enzyme as a catalyst in regulating a specific biochemical reaction.
Enzyme – biological catalyst (substance that increases the rate of a
chemical reaction by lowering activation energy)
Activation Energy – energy needed to start all reactions (barrier)
Enzymes and Substrates
A substrate will attach to an enzyme at the active site of the
enzyme
Enzymes are specific.

The substrate needs to fit in the active site of the enzyme (lock and key
model)
After the reaction (breaking or building a bond) the substrate forms the product
of the reaction.
Enzymes are recycled and do not get used up or altered in the reaction.
BIO.A.2.3.2 Explain how factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration levels can affect enzyme function.
Enzymes function best within their optimal range (ideal temperature and pH
conditions).
When enzymes are out of their optimal range they change shape (denature).
This can cause the protein to lose function because it works by the substrate
attaching to the specific shape of the active site.
Enzyme function can be altered by pH, temperature and concentration levels.



pH- proteins become denatured when out of optimal pH
Temperature- proteins become denatured when out of optimal temperature
ConcentrationEnzyme Concentration
o more enzyme = quicker reaction
Substrate Concentration
o
o
when there is a fixed amount of enzyme the reaction rate will
level off
no substrate = reaction will stop
Name:____________________________________________________________ Date:_____________________ Pd:____
A.3 Bioenergetics
BIO.A.3.1.1 Describe the fundamental roles of plastids (e.g., chloroplasts) and mitochondria in energy transformations.
Organelle
Chloroplast
Cells Found In
Plants
Reaction
Photosynthesis
Energy Transformation
Light to Chemical
(sugars ex. Glucose)
Structures
Thylakoid – flattened sac
Stroma – fluid
Mitochondria
Plants and
Animals
Cellular Respiration
Chemical (sugars) to
ATP (chemical)
Matrix- gel-like material
Cristae- inner membrane
folds
BIO.A.3.2.1 Compare the basic transformation of energy during photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Photosynthesis
6H2O + 6CO2 + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6H2O + 6CO2
Occurs in autotrophs (make their own food)
Occurs in all organisms
Chlorophyll = light trapping pigment
Net yield 36-38 ATP
Glycolysis
Light
Dark
Taylor
Swift
Location:
Thylakoid Stroma
&
Winston Churchill
Reactant:
Water
CO2
Product:
Olive
Oxygen
Garden
Glucose
Cytoplasm
Occurs in all cells – makes 2 ATP and pyruvate
Can lead to fermentation in the absence of oxygen
Kreb’s (Citric Acid) Cycle
Mitochondria Matrix
Eukaryotes only – makes 2 ATP and CO2
Electron Transport Chain
Mitochondria Cristae
Eukaryotes only – uses electron carriers (NADH and
FADH2) to ultimately create about 34 ATP. Oxygen acts
as the final electron acceptor.
Cytoplasm
Anaerobic Respiration Fast Facts:
Occurs AFTER glycolysis in the absence of oxygen
Alcoholic fermentation – makes alcohol and CO2
Net yield of 2 ATP (from glycolysis)
Lactic Acid fermentation – makes lactic acid
Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration are opposites!!
BIO.A.3.2.2 Describe the role of ATP in biochemical reactions.
ATP/ADP Cycle:
ATP stores large amounts of energy
ATP is broken in
exergonic (energy exits)
reactions by breaking
off the 3rd Phosphate.
This releases energy
stored in the chemical
bonds.
ATP is created in
endergonic (energy
enters) reactions by
adding a Phosphate to
ADP
ADP stores less potential energy
What reactions produce ATP?


Cellular Respiration
o Aerobic Respiration: 36-38 ATP
o Anaerobic Respiration: 2 ATP
Photosynthesis
o Light Reaction produces a small amount to be used in the dark reaction to create glucose
Name:________________________________________________________ Date:_____________________ Pd:______
A.4 Homeostasis and Transport
BIO.A.4.1.1 Describe how the structure of the plasma membrane allows it to function as a regulatory structure and/or
protective barrier for a cell.






Phospholipid Bilayer is selectively permeable
– not everything can pass through.
Keeps the cells internal and external
environments separate but still allows them to
interact.
Proteins help with transport, receptors, and
enzymatic reactions
Cholesterol keeps the membrane firm
Water and small, non-charged molecules can
easily pass through
Ions, charged, and large molecules cannot easily pass through
o They require energy and/or carrier proteins to help them pass.
BIO.A.4.1.2 Compare the mechanisms that transport materials across the plasma membrane (i.e., passive transport—
diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion; and active transport—pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis).
Type of
transport
Diffusion
Does it require
energy?
No – Passive
Definition
Osmosis
No – Passive
Diffusion of water
High → Low
(With)
Facilitated
diffusion
No – Passive
Uses transport proteins to
move molecules that may be
big/insoluble
High → Low
(With)
Pumps
Yes – Active
Small molecules move against
the concentration gradient
Low → High
(Against)
Endocytosis
(bulk)
Yes - Active
Large or many molecules move
in by a vesicle. Example:
Nutrients
Low → High
(Against)
Exocytosis
(bulk)
Yes - Active
Large or many molecules
move out by a vesicle.
Example: Waste
Low → High
(Against)
Movement of small molecules
pass directly through cell
membrane
Concentration
Gradient
High → Low
(With)
Picture
Example of Active Transport Pump:
 Sodium-Potassium Pump – moves 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions into animal cells.
o Important for nerve and muscle cells
Osmosis Solutions:
HypOtonic
Description
Outside solution has lOwer
solutes than inside solution.
Water enters the cell.
Isotonic
The solutions have equal
concentrations of solutes.
Water molecules move in and
out of the cell at the same rate
Hypertonic
Outside solution has higher
solutes than inside solution.
Water moves out of the cell
Effect on
animal cell
-Cell expands and may
burst
-Normal
-Cell shrinks/shrivels
Effect on
plant cell
-Cell is very
turgid
-Normal
-Cell is turgid
-Cell becomes
flaccid
(plasmolysis)
BIO.A.4.1.3 Describe how membrane‐bound cellular organelles (e.g., endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus) facilitate
the transport of materials within a cell.
Organelle
Role in transport
ER
Protein synthesis occurs on attached ribosomes. Proteins are sent to the golgi body in sacs called
vesicles. Other chemical reactions occur on the smooth ER
Golgi Body
Modify, packages and processes proteins. Packs them into vesicles to move to their next location.
Vesicles
Delivers molecules (such as completed proteins) to appropriate locations in or out of the cell.
BIO.A.4.2.1 Explain how organisms maintain homeostasis (e.g., thermoregulation, water regulation, oxygen regulation).
 Thermoregulation – ability to keep body temperature within an optimal range
o Conformers (ectotherms/cold-blooded) – internal temperature does not remain stable – warm body by
absorbing heat from surroundings. Ex: reptiles, fish and amphibians
o Regulators (endotherms/warm-blooded) – internal temperature remains stable – metabolism generates
heat needed to warm body – also have insulation such as hair, feathers, and fat. Ex: mammals and birds.

Water regulation (Osmoregulation) – control of water concentrations/dissolved substances in the bloodstream

Oxygen regulation – oxygen levels regulated according to activity level.
o More active = more oxygen needed.
o In humans, gas exchange occurs by diffusion in the lungs.