Biology Keystone
Review
MODULE A
A.1
BASIC BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
A.1
Anchor Descriptor/ Eligible Content
BIO.A.1.1 Explain the characteristics common to all organisms.
BIO.A.1.1.1 Describe the characteristics of life shared by all prokaryotic and eukaryotic
organisms.
Anchor Descriptor /Eligible Content
BIO.A.1.2 Describe relationships between structure and function at biological levels of
organization.
BIO.A.1.2.1 Compare cellular structures and their functions in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
BIO.A.1.2.2 Describe and interpret relationships between structure and function at various
levels of biological organization (i.e., organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and
multicellular organisms).
BIO.A.1.1.1 Describe the characteristics of life
shared by all prokaryotic and eukaryotic
organisms
•Made of cells
•Maintain a stable internal
environment (homeostasis)
•Based on universal genetic code
•Adapt to the environment
•Use energy
•Reproduce
•Growth and development
•Organized
•Respond to environment/stimuli
BIO.A.1.2.1 Compare cellular structures and
their functions in prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cell
Prokaryotes
-No nucleus
-No membrane-bound
organelles
-Unicellular
-Smaller and less complex
-Ex: Bacteria
-Transport easier because
smaller surface area to
volume ratio
Both
-Genetic material
-Cytoplasm
-Cell (plasma) membrane
-Ribosomes
-Potential for cell wall
-Can carry out all life
functions
Eukaryotes
-Nucleus (contains DNA)
-Membrane-bound organelles
-Multi- or unicellular
-Larger and more complex
-Ex: Plants, animals, fungi,
protists
-Transport harder because
requires more organelles and
larger surface area to volume
ratio
Major Organelles and Cell Structures
Nucleus – contains genetic material and acts as the
control center of Eukaryotic cells only
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- folded membranes that
are the site of chemical reactions and transport (ex:
protein synthesis in ribosomes attached to the ER)
Mitochondria- site of cellular respiration (makes
energy – ATP)
Major Organelles and Cell Structures
Chloroplast- site of photosynthesis (converts light energy to
chemical energy)
Plasma (Cell) Membrane- semi-permeable membrane which
helps the cell maintain homeostasis allowing materials to move
in and out of the cell
Cell Wall- firm structure that supports and protects some cells
Major Organelles and Cell Structures
Central Vacuole- storage container (water, nutrients, waste, etc)
Lysosome- contains digestive enzymes which break down waste,
bacteria, old organelles
Golgi Apparatus- packages and processes proteins (after the
ribosome or ER)
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Plant Only
Chloroplast
Central Vacuole
Cell Wall
Cell Wall
Animal Only
Lysosome
Mitochondria
Cell Membrane
BIO.A.1.2.2 Describe and interpret the
relationships between structure and function
at various levels of biological organization
•Life is organized in ways from the simplest
to the complex.
•Cells are the smallest unit of life.
•All cells originally begin as the same (stem
cells) and then differentiate to specific
cells with specific purposes/functions.
•At the multicellular level, specialized cells
develop in such a manner where their
structure (shape) helps them better
perform a specific function (their job).
• Examples:
• Plant cells have a cell wall to provide support
• Muscle cells are long and stretchy to expand
and contract to move body parts.
•Organelles also have specific structures to help them
perform specific functions.
•Example: the mitochondria has a folded inner membrane
(cristae) which increases surface area for energy production
during aerobic cellular respiration.
•Organs also have structure and function related.
Small intestines have small projections (microvilli) to
increase area available for nutrients absorption.
A.2
THE CHEMICAL BASIS FOR LIFE
A.2
ASSESSMENT ANCHOR: BIO.A.2 The Chemical Basis for Life
Anchor Descriptor/ Eligible Content
BIO.A.2.1 Describe how the unique properties of water support life on Earth.
BIO.A.2.1.1 Describe the unique properties of water and how these properties support life on Earth
(e.g., freezing point, high specific heat, cohesion).
Anchor Descriptor /Eligible Content
BIO.A.2.2 Describe and interpret relationships between structure and function at various levels of
biochemical organization (i.e., atoms, molecules, and macromolecules).
BIO.A.2.2.1 Explain how carbon is uniquely suited to form biological macromolecules.
BIO.A.2.2.2 Describe how biological macromolecules form from monomers.
BIO.A.2.2.3 Compare the structure and function of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
in
organisms.
Anchor Descriptor /Eligible Content
BIO.A.2.3 Explain how enzymes regulate biochemical reactions within a cell.
BIO.A.2.3.1 Describe the role of an enzyme as a catalyst in regulating a specific biochemical reaction.
BIO.A.2.3.2 Explain how factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration levels can affect enzyme
function
BIO.A.2.1.1 Describe the unique properties of
water and how these properties support life
on Earth
Polarity
Uneven distribution of electrons between the oxygen and
hydrogen atoms leading to opposite charges. Oxygen
attracts electrons more than hydrogen. Water is polar.
Cohesion
Attraction between like molecules (ex. water to water).
Adhesion
Attraction of unlike molecules. (ex: water to not water)
High Specific Can absorb a lot of heat without drastically changing its
temperature.
Heat
Capacity Both of these properties benefit aquatic organisms because these
properties help maintain stable water conditions (temperatures).
Water is slow to reach boiling or freezing point
Freezing
The temperature at which liquid changes to a solid state
Point
(0°C).
Surface
Tension
Water has a high surface tension. Hydrogen bonds allow
water molecules to stick together
Capillary
Action
Capillary action- tendency of a liquid to rise against gravity.
Solute- substance dissolved in a solution. There is less of this.
Solvent- in a solution, the substance in which a solute is dissolved. There is more of this.
Solution- mixture in which at least one substance is uniformly dissolved in another substance.
Universal
Solvent
Water forms solutions
with other polar
solutions
Solute
Solvent
Solution
Water will NOT form a solution with non-polar substances.
Measures the concentration of hydrogen ions
Acids have more hydrogen ions (H+)
Bases have more hydroxide (-OH) ions
pH
Density
The density (mass/volume) decreases as water freezes (until 4°C). This is
unusual! Water in a solid state will float on water in a liquid state.
BIO.A.2.2.1 Explain how carbon is uniquely
suited to form biological macromolecules.
Organic molecules contain carbon.
Carbon is uniquely suited for form biological macromolecules
because it has 4 electrons in its outermost shell so it can form up to 4
covalent bonds.
This allows carbon atoms to form molecules as long chains or rings.
Covalent Bonds - sharing of a pair of electrons.
Carbon Video
1:58 – 5:00
BIO.A.2.2.2 Describe how biological
macromolecules form from monomers
Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation Reaction) –
removal of water builds polymers
Simple
Polymers - A macromolecule made by
joining many similar or identical
molecules (monomers) through bonds.
Complex
Hydrolysis – addition of water breaks polymers
Complex
Simple
Biological
Macromolecule
Monomer
Polymer
Carbohydrate
Monosaccharide
Polysaccharide
Lipid
None
Does not consist of repeating
subunits
Protein
Amino Acid
Polypeptide
Nucleic Acid
Nucleotide
Nucleic Acid
BIO.A.2.2.3 Compare the structure and
function of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids in organisms.
Macromolecule
Carbohydrate
Elements & Ratio
Monomer*
Function
CHO
1:2:1
Energy stored in
Monosaccharide: sugar
chemical bonds
(glucose)
Quick, short term energy
Polysaccharide: starch
Polar
CHO
No exact ratio
*Note: The
Many more C and H
pictures are NOT than O
monomers…they
are just examples Nonpolar
of lipids
Protein
CHON and
sometimes S
Lipids
Nucleic Acids
CHONP
Polar
Examples
Store energy
Insulation
Wax, steroid, fat,
phospholipid (big part of
cell membrane)
Double bond
Many- structure, catalyst Enzymes, meat, hair
(lower activation
energy), communication,
growth, repair
Nitrogenous Store and transmit
base hereditary/genetic
(GCAT or U) information
DNA/RNA
BIO.A.2.3.1 Describe the role of an enzyme as
a catalyst in regulating a specific biochemical
reaction
Enzyme – biological catalyst (substance that increases
the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering activation
energy)
Activation Energy – energy needed to start all reactions
(barrier)
Enzymes and Substrates
oA substrate will attach to an enzyme at the active site of
the enzyme
oEnzymes are specific
o The substrate needs to fit in the active site of the enzyme (lock
and key model)
oAfter the reaction (breaking or building a bond) the
substrate forms the product of the reaction.
oEnzymes are recycled and do not get used up or altered
in the reaction.
BIO.A.2.3.2 Explain how factors such as pH,
temperature, and concentration levels can
affect enzyme function
Enzymes function best within their optimal range (ideal temperature and
pH conditions).
When enzymes are out of their optimal range they change shape
(denature). This can cause the protein to lose function because it works by
the substrate attaching to the specific shape of the active site.
Enzyme function can be altered by pH, temperature and concentration
levels.
pH- proteins become denatured when out of optimal pH
Temperature- proteins become denatured when out of optimal
temperature
 Concentration Enzyme Concentration
 more enzyme = quicker reaction
 Substrate Concentration
 when there is a fixed amount of
enzyme the reaction rate will level off
 no substrate = reaction will stop
A.3
BIOENERGETICS
BIO.A.3.1.1 Describe the fundamental roles of
plastids (e.g., chloroplasts) and mitochondria
in energy transformations
Organelle
Chloroplast
Cells
Reaction
Found In
Plants
Plants
Mitochondria
and
Animals
Photosynthesis
Cellular
Respiration
Energy
Transformation
Structures
Light to Chemical Thylakoid – flattened sac
(sugars ex. Glucose)
Stroma – fluid
Chemical (sugars)
to ATP (chemical)
Matrix- gel-like material
Cristae- inner membrane
folds
BIO.A.3.2.1 Compare the basic transformation
of energy during photosynthesis and cellular
respiration
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION
6H2O + 6CO2 + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6H2O + 6CO2
Occurs in autotrophs (make their own food)
Occurs in all organisms
Chlorophyll = light trapping pigment
Net yield 36-38 ATP
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Photosynthesis
Light
Location:
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Dark
Taylor
Thylakoid
Swift
Stroma
Winston
Water
Product:
Occurs in all cells – makes 2 ATP and pyruvate
Can lead to fermentation in the absence of oxygen
Eukaryotes only – makes 2 ATP and CO2
Churchill
CO2
Electron Transport Chain Mitochondria Cristae
♥
Olive
Oxygen
Cytoplasm
Kreb’s (Citric Acid) Cycle Mitochondria Matrix
&
Reactant:
Glycolysis
Garden
Glucose
Eukaryotes only – uses electron carriers (NADH and
FADH2) to ultimately create about 34 ATP. Oxygen
acts as the final electron acceptor.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Anaerobic Respiration Fast Facts
Occurs AFTER glycolysis in the
absence of oxygen
Alcoholic fermentation – makes
alcohol and CO2
Net yield of 2 ATP (from
glycolysis)
Lactic Acid fermentation – makes
lactic acid
PS and CR are OPPOSITES!
PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
6H2O + 6CO2 + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6H2O + 6CO2
BIO.A.3.2.2 Describe the role of ATP in
biochemical reactions
ATP/ADP CYCLE:
ATP stores large amounts of energy
ATP is broken in
exergonic (energy
exits) reactions by
breaking off the 3rd
Phosphate. This
releases energy stored
in the chemical bonds.
ATP is created in
endergonic (energy
enters) reactions by
adding a Phosphate to
ADP
ADP stores less potential energy
What reactions produce ATP?
Cellular Respiration
◦ Aerobic Respiration: 36-38 ATP
◦ Anaerobic Respiration: 2 ATP
Photosynthesis
◦ Light Reaction produces a small amount to be used in the dark
reaction to create glucose
A.4
HOMEOSTASIS AND TRANSPORT
BIO.A.4.1.1 Describe how the structure of the plasma
membrane allows it to function as a regulatory structure
and/or protective barrier for a cell.
Water Loving
Water Fearing
Phospholipid Bilayer is selectively permeable – not everything can pass through.
Keeps the cells internal and external environments separate but still allows them to interact.
Proteins help with transport, receptors, and enzymatic reactions
Cholesterol keeps the membrane firm
Water and small, non-charged molecules can
easily pass through
Ions, charged, and large molecules cannot
easily pass through
They require energy and/or carrier proteins
to help them pass
BIO.A.4.1.2 Compare the mechanisms that
transport materials across the plasma
membrane (i.e., passive transport—diffusion,
osmosis, facilitated diffusion; and active
transport—pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis).
Type of
transport
Diffusion
Does it require
energy?
No – Passive
Definition
Osmosis
No – Passive
Diffusion of water
High → Low
(With)
Facilitated
diffusion
No – Passive
Uses transport proteins to
move molecules that may be
big/insoluble
High → Low
(With)
Pumps
Yes – Active
Small molecules move against
the concentration gradient
Low → High
(Against)
Endocytosis
(bulk)
Yes - Active
Large or many molecules move Low → High
in by a vesicle. Example:
(Against)
Nutrients
Exocytosis
(bulk)
Yes - Active
Large or many molecules move Low → High
out by a vesicle. Example:
(Against)
Waste
Movement of small molecules
pass directly through cell
membrane
Concentration
Gradient
High → Low
(With)
Picture
Example of Active Transport Pump
Sodium-Potassium Pump – moves 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions into
animal cells.
◦ Important for nerve and muscle cells
Osmosis Solutions
HypOtonic
Description
Outside solution has lOwer
solutes than inside solution.
Water enters the cell.
Isotonic
The solutions have equal
concentrations of solutes. Water
molecules move in and out of
the cell at the same rate
Hypertonic
Outside solution has higher
solutes than inside solution.
Water moves out of the cell
Effect on
animal cell
-Cell expands and
may burst
-Normal
-Cell shrinks/shrivels
Effect on
plant cell
-Cell is very turgid
-Normal
-Cell is turgid
-Cell becomes flaccid
(plasmolysis)
BIO.A.4.1.3 Describe how membrane‐bound cellular
organelles (e.g., endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus) facilitate the transport of materials within a
cell Organelle Role in transport
ER
Protein synthesis occurs on attached ribosomes. Proteins are sent to the
golgi body in sacs called vesicles. Other chemical reactions occur on the
smooth ER
Modify, packages and processes proteins. Packs them into vesicles to move
Golgi Body
to their next location.
Vesicles
Delivers molecules (such as completed proteins) to appropriate locations in
or out of the cell.
BIO.A.4.2.1 Explain how organisms maintain
homeostasis (e.g., thermoregulation, water regulation,
oxygen regulation)
Thermoregulation – ability to keep body temperature within an optimal range
◦ Conformers (ectotherms/cold-blooded) – internal temperature does not remain stable – warm body by absorbing
heat from surroundings. Ex: reptiles, fish and amphibians
◦ Regulators (endotherms/warm-blooded) – internal temperature remains stable – metabolism generates heat
needed to warm body – also have insulation such as hair, feathers, and fat. Ex: mammals and birds.
Water regulation (Osmoregulation) – control of water concentrations/dissolved substances in the
bloodstream
Oxygen regulation – oxygen levels regulated according to activity level.
◦ More active = more oxygen needed.
◦ In humans, gas exchange occurs by diffusion in the lungs.